Genetic influences on educational outcomes during and after the Soviet era: Revisiting evidence from Estonia

Abstract The origins of individual differences in socioeconomic outcomes, including educational attainment and occupational status, reflect a combination of genetic and environmental factors whose relative contributions may shift across historical and societal contexts. Previous research suggested a doubling of genetic influence on these traits in independent Estonia compared to the Soviet era. Using the Estonian Biobank, now tenfold larger compared to the original study, we aimed to replicate and extend these findings. We found only limited evidence for the increase in genetic influence on social outcomes in independent Estonia with results differing between analytical setups. Most importantly, we show that genetic contribution to socioeconomic outcomes, as well as to height and body mass index, varies within each historical cohort depending on birth year and recruitment strategy. This highlights the limitations of generalising from the study cohort due to various participation biases and potential heterogeneity of social environment in both historical periods. Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.