Prepaid Billing System and Customer Satisfaction in Water Service Delivery in Uganda: Evidence from Bushenyi Ishaka Municipality

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Understanding its impact on customer satisfaction is crucial. This study investigates this impact at Uganda’s National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC), grounded in the behavioral beliefs construct of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). Methods A quantitative, cross-sectional design was employed. Data were collected from 261 prepaid water customers in Bushenyi-Ishaka Municipality using a structured questionnaire. The collected data were analyzed using SPSS software, with descriptive statistics and linear regression applied to examine the relationship between the prepaid system’s attributes and customer satisfaction. Results The linear regression analysis revealed a statistically significant positive relationship between the prepaid system’s attributes and customer satisfaction (B = 0.592, p < 0.05). This confirms that the behavioral beliefs associated with the prepaid system, as per the TPB, are significant predictors of customer satisfaction. The regression model explains 15.3% of the variance in satisfaction, indicating that other factors not measured in the study also play an influential role. Conclusions The prepaid water billing system significantly enhances customer satisfaction at NWSC by leveraging the principles of transparency and consumer control, as predicted by the TPB. Utility managers should emphasize these benefits and support system implementation with targeted customer education and investment in robust technical infrastructure. This study provides original empirical evidence on the drivers of prepaid water satisfaction in a developing economy and validates the application of the TPB framework in this context. 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F1000Research 2025, 14 :1125 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.170967.1 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. Close Copy Citation Details Export Export Citation Sciwheel EndNote Ref. Manager Bibtex ProCite Sente EXPORT Select a format first Track Share ▬ ✚ Research Article Prepaid Billing System and Customer Satisfaction in Water Service Delivery in Uganda: Evidence from Bushenyi Ishaka Municipality [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations] Joannes Tumusiime https://orcid.org/0009-0009-4402-0226 1 , Michael Manyange 2 , Nyakundi Andrew 3 Joannes Tumusiime https://orcid.org/0009-0009-4402-0226 1 , Michael Manyange 2 , Nyakundi Andrew 3 PUBLISHED 16 Oct 2025 Author details Author details 1 Business Administration, Kampala International University - Western Campus, Bushenyi, Western Region, Uganda 2 Business Administration, Kampala International University - Western Campus, Bushenyi, Western Region, Uganda 3 Business Administration, Kampala International University - Western Campus, Bushenyi, Western Region, Uganda Joannes Tumusiime Roles: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Methodology, Resources, Software, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Michael Manyange Roles: Project Administration, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – Review & Editing Nyakundi Andrew Roles: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Project Administration, Supervision, Visualization, Writing – Review & Editing OPEN PEER REVIEW DETAILS REVIEWER STATUS Abstract Background The adoption of prepaid billing systems by water utilities in developing economies is a significant management initiative. Understanding its impact on customer satisfaction is crucial. This study investigates this impact at Uganda’s National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC), grounded in the behavioral beliefs construct of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). Methods A quantitative, cross-sectional design was employed. Data were collected from 261 prepaid water customers in Bushenyi-Ishaka Municipality using a structured questionnaire. The collected data were analyzed using SPSS software, with descriptive statistics and linear regression applied to examine the relationship between the prepaid system’s attributes and customer satisfaction. Results The linear regression analysis revealed a statistically significant positive relationship between the prepaid system’s attributes and customer satisfaction (B = 0.592, p < 0.05). This confirms that the behavioral beliefs associated with the prepaid system, as per the TPB, are significant predictors of customer satisfaction. The regression model explains 15.3% of the variance in satisfaction, indicating that other factors not measured in the study also play an influential role. Conclusions The prepaid water billing system significantly enhances customer satisfaction at NWSC by leveraging the principles of transparency and consumer control, as predicted by the TPB. Utility managers should emphasize these benefits and support system implementation with targeted customer education and investment in robust technical infrastructure. This study provides original empirical evidence on the drivers of prepaid water satisfaction in a developing economy and validates the application of the TPB framework in this context. READ ALL READ LESS Keywords : Prepaid Billing, Customer Satisfaction, Theory of Planned Behavior, Water Utility, Uganda, NWSC Corresponding Author(s) Joannes Tumusiime ( [email protected] ) Close Corresponding author: Joannes Tumusiime Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information: The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work. Copyright: © 2025 Tumusiime J et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. How to cite: Tumusiime J, Manyange M and Andrew N. Prepaid Billing System and Customer Satisfaction in Water Service Delivery in Uganda: Evidence from Bushenyi Ishaka Municipality [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :1125 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.170967.1 ) First published: 16 Oct 2025, 14 :1125 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.170967.1 ) Latest published: 16 Oct 2025, 14 :1125 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.170967.1 ) Introduction The provision of essential utility services, particularly water, is a critical component of public health and economic development. In developing economies, utility providers face the persistent challenge of achieving financial sustainability while maintaining high levels of customer satisfaction and expanding service coverage ( Tortajada, 2020 ). Traditional post-paid billing systems, often characterized by estimated readings, billing inaccuracies, and revenue collection inefficiencies, have frequently been a source of customer discontent and operational strain ( Kingdom, Liemberger, & Marin, 2006 ). In response, prepaid billing metering systems have emerged as a transformative innovation, promising enhanced revenue assurance for providers and purportedly granting customers greater autonomy and control over their consumption and expenditure ( Marin, 2009 ). Globally, empirical studies, particularly in the telecommunications and energy sectors, have indicated a positive correlation between prepaid systems and customer satisfaction, attributing this to factors like transparency, predictability, and perceived financial control ( Sharma & Gupta, 2023 ; Johnson & Lee, 2022 ). However, the transposition of these findings to the water sector in specific Sub-Saharan African contexts remains underexplored and cannot be assumed. Existing literature reveals significant gaps: while studies confirm general satisfaction drivers, they often fail to account for the profound influence of local infrastructural challenges, socioeconomic disparities, and digital literacy levels on the customer experience ( Garcia & Thomas, 2021 ; Kamau & Wanjiru, 2023 ). Furthermore, there is a scarcity of research that theoretically grounds the psychological mechanisms underpinning customer adoption and satisfaction with these systems. This study, therefore, seeks to address these gaps by investigating the impact of prepaid billing systems on customer satisfaction within the unique operational context of the National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC) in Uganda. The research is theoretically anchored in the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) ( Ajzen, 1991 ), which provides a robust framework for examining how customers’ behavioral beliefs (attitudes towards control and transparency), normative beliefs (social influences), and control beliefs (perceived ease of use) shape their satisfaction intentions and outcomes. By employing a quantitative methodology, this study aims to not only quantify the relationship between prepaid system adoption and customer satisfaction but also to contribute a nuanced, theoretically-informed understanding of the determinants of this relationship. The findings are expected to provide actionable insights for NWSC and similar utilities in the Global South, guiding the strategic, customer-centric implementation of prepaid technologies to achieve dual goals of operational efficiency and enhanced consumer welfare. Theoretical review The study was guided by Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) developed by Icek Ajzen (1991) , posits that individual behavior is guided by three kinds of considerations: behavioral beliefs, normative beliefs, and control beliefs. In the context of prepaid billing, this theory can be applied to understand how customers’ attitudes towards prepaid systems, the influence of social norms, and their perceived control over their payment options impact their satisfaction. According to TPB, if customers believe that prepaid billing systems offer greater control and financial management, and if such beliefs are supported by social norms and practical ease, their satisfaction is likely to increase. Ajzen’s TPB has been extensively used to understand consumer behavior and decision-making. For instance, Taylor and Todd (1995) applied TPB to technology adoption, demonstrating that perceived ease of use and perceived control significantly impact user satisfaction. Applying this to prepaid billing, the theory helped in understanding how customers’ perceptions of control and convenience influence their overall satisfaction with the billing system. Furthermore, TPB emphasizes the predictive power of intention as a determinant of actual behavior. In billing systems, customers who have the intention to adopt prepaid services are influenced by their attitudes (such as seeing the system as convenient), social pressures (such as recommendations from peers or community norms), and their perceived ability to use the system effectively (such as mobile payment literacy). Scholars such as Armitage and Conner (2001) have confirmed the robustness of TPB in predicting customer behaviors across health, education, and technology sectors. This suggests that TPB remains highly relevant in utility service contexts like water billing, where customer satisfaction is shaped by both personal control and social environments. In the context of Uganda’s NWSC, TPB can guide understanding of how customers form attitudes towards new billing technologies, how peer influence shapes adoption, and how barriers such as lack of awareness or digital illiteracy can affect satisfaction outcomes. Thus, TPB offers both a theoretical and practical framework for predicting and improving customer behavior in prepaid billing systems. Empirical literature review Prepaid billing systems have become increasingly popular due to their ability to offer customers enhanced control over their expenses and improve satisfaction across various sectors. Globally, Sharma and Gupta (2023) explored the impact of prepaid billing systems on customer satisfaction within the telecommunications industry. Their study revealed that prepaid billing systems provide customers with greater control over their spending and reduce the risk of unexpected charges. This control leads to higher satisfaction levels as customers appreciate the predictability and transparency of their expenses. Sharma and Gupta emphasize that the alignment of prepaid systems with modern consumer preferences for financial management is a significant factor contributing to increased customer satisfaction. However, their study did not investigate the long-term effects of prepaid billing systems on customer loyalty, which remains a key area for further research. In the US, Johnson and Lee (2022) examined prepaid billing systems in the utility sector, including electricity and water services. They found that prepaid meters enhance customer satisfaction by eliminating monthly bills and allowing customers to manage their usage proactively. The real-time data provided by these systems helps customers avoid late payments and engage more actively with their service usage. Johnson and Lee’s research underscores how prepaid systems can reduce payment issues and improve overall customer experiences in the utility sector. However, their study lacks a comparison of customer satisfaction between prepaid and traditional postpaid billing systems, leaving a gap in understanding the relative benefits. Patel and Kumar (2023) investigated the use of prepaid billing systems in India’s energy sector, focusing on customer satisfaction. Their findings indicated that prepaid meters contribute to higher satisfaction levels by offering a transparent billing process and reducing billing disputes. Customers appreciate the ability to pay in advance and avoid unexpected charges, which enhances their overall satisfaction with the service. Patel and Kumar highlight that the flexibility and transparency of prepaid systems are key drivers of customer contentment in the Indian energy sector. Despite their valuable findings, the study did not explore the impact of socioeconomic factors, such as income level or education, on the effectiveness of prepaid billing systems, which could provide deeper insights into customer preferences. In China, Liu and Wang (2023) studied the impact of prepaid billing systems on customer satisfaction in the telecommunications sector. Their research showed that prepaid systems significantly improve customer satisfaction by providing users with better control over their expenditures and reducing billing errors. Liu and Wang found that customers value the predictability and accuracy of prepaid billing, which contributes to a more satisfactory service experience. The study highlights how prepaid systems address common billing issues and align with customer preferences for financial management. However, the research did not consider the challenges faced by older or less tech-savvy customers in adapting to these systems, which remains an underexplored aspect in the literature. In East Africa, Garcia and Thomas (2021) explored the implementation of prepaid billing systems in Kenya’s water sector. Their research found that prepaid systems enhance customer satisfaction by offering transparency and control over water usage and costs. Customers valued the ability to monitor their consumption and manage their budgets effectively. Garcia and Thomas argue that the increased visibility and predictability provided by prepaid systems lead to higher satisfaction levels among customers in the East African context. However, their study does not address the impact of these systems on rural customers or those in informal settlements, who might face unique barriers to accessing or using prepaid services. Similarly, Karanja and Njeri (2022) examined prepaid billing systems in Uganda’s telecommunications sector and found that these systems positively affect customer satisfaction. The simplicity and predictability of prepaid billing contribute to a more favorable customer experience. Customers reported higher satisfaction due to the avoidance of overage charges and greater control over their spending. Karanja and Njeri’s study underscores the importance of prepaid systems in enhancing satisfaction by providing clear and manageable billing options. However, their research does not delve into customer concerns about privacy and data security, which could affect the adoption and long-term satisfaction with these systems. In South Africa, Mokoena and van der Merwe (2023) investigated the impact of prepaid billing on customer satisfaction in the energy sector. Their study revealed that prepaid billing systems improve satisfaction by delivering clear and predictable billing information. Customers appreciated the ease of use and transparency associated with prepaid systems, which helped to alleviate common billing frustrations. Mokoena and van der Merwe highlight that prepaid systems offer significant benefits in terms of customer satisfaction and service reliability. However, the study overlooks the potential for technological issues, such as network disruptions, which may undermine the effectiveness of prepaid systems and customer satisfaction. In Nigeria, Adebayo and Olaniyi (2023) explored the effects of prepaid billing on customer satisfaction within the electricity sector. Their research indicated that prepaid billing systems lead to enhanced satisfaction by reducing billing disputes and providing more accurate billing information. Customers found that the ability to manage their energy consumption effectively and avoid unexpected charges contributed to a more positive service experience. Adebayo and Olaniyi’s study emphasizes the role of prepaid systems in improving satisfaction through accurate and transparent billing. However, the study does not address the financial literacy levels of customers, which may influence their ability to manage their prepaid billing effectively. In Tanzania, Kerosi and McCord (2022) examined customer satisfaction with prepaid billing systems in the telecommunications sector. Their research showed that prepaid billing systems were associated with increased customer satisfaction due to their transparency and ease of management. Kerosi and McCord found that customers appreciated the ability to top-up their accounts in advance and avoid unexpected charges, which led to greater overall satisfaction. However, their research does not explore the potential impact of prepaid systems on customer retention and loyalty, which remains an important area for future studies. More so, Kamau and Wanjiru (2023) assessed the adoption of prepaid billing systems in Kenya’s water sector and its impact on customer satisfaction. Their findings revealed that prepaid billing enhances satisfaction by providing better visibility into water usage and costs. Customers valued the flexibility and control offered by prepaid systems, which resulted in a more favorable service experience. Kamau and Wanjiru argue that the predictability and transparency of prepaid billing systems are key factors in increasing customer satisfaction in the East African region. However, they did not explore how local infrastructure challenges, such as unreliable electricity or internet connectivity, might impact the efficiency and customer satisfaction associated with prepaid billing systems. Methodology Research design This study employed a quantitative, cross-sectional research design to examine the relationship between prepaid billing systems and customer satisfaction at the National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC) in Uganda. A cross-sectional design was selected as it allows for the efficient collection of data from a sample of the population at a single point in time, facilitating the analysis of variables and their relationships ( Creswell & Creswell, 2018 ). This approach is appropriate for measuring the current state of customer perceptions and testing the hypothesized model derived from the Theory of Planned Behavior. Population and sampling The target population for this study consisted of all domestic water customers enrolled in the prepaid billing system under NWSC’s Bushenyi-Ishaka Municipality operational area. A purposive sampling technique was used to ensure that all participants had direct experience with the prepaid system. The sample size was determined using the Krejcie and Morgan (1970) table, which recommends a minimum sample of 261 for a population size of 1,200. To account for potential non-response, 300 questionnaires were distributed. Data collection Primary data was collected using a structured, self-administered questionnaire. The instrument was divided into three sections: Section A captured demographic information, Section B measured customer satisfaction (the dependent variable) using a 5-point Likert scale adapted from previous studies (e.g., Johnson & Lee, 2022 ), and Section C measured the independent variables (attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control) based on constructs from the Theory of Planned Behavior, also using 5-point Likert scales. The questionnaire was pre-tested with 30 customers to ensure clarity, validity, and reliability. Cronbach’s alpha scores for all constructs were above the acceptable threshold of 0.7, confirming internal consistency. Data analysis Collected data was cleaned, coded, and analyzed using SPSS version 28. Descriptive statistics (frequencies, means, and standard deviations) were used to summarize the demographic characteristics and the main variables. Inferential statistics, specifically a simple linear regression analysis, was conducted to test the hypothesis and determine the predictive power of the independent variable (customer satisfaction as a behavioral belief ) on the dependent variable (prepaid billing adoption intention). The significance level was set at p < 0.05. Results The first objective of the study was to determin the effect of the prepaid billing system on customer satisfaction in the National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC) in Bushenyi-Ishaka Municipality. A total of 6 items scored on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from (1) for strongly disagree, (2) for disagree, (3) for not sure, (4) for agree, and (5) for strongly agree were used to collect data from NWSC customers. The responses focused on how the prepaid billing system influences aspects such as accuracy, transparency, convenience, service reliability, and overall satisfaction. The results are presented in Table 1 below. Table 1. Prepaid billing system on customer satisfaction. Responses N/% SA A NS D DS Total Mean S.D Prepaid system allows customers to use water only when they have credited their water accounts N % 105 40.1 125 47.7 24 9.2 5 1.9 3 1.1 262 4.24 .786 Prepaid system has enabled customers of NWSC to self-manage their water accounts N % 72 27.5 37 14.1 34 13.0 27 10.3 92 35.1 262 2.89 1.657 Prepaid billing system has empowered customers to control the cost of water they use N % 111 42.4 51 19.5 29 11.1 35 13.4 36 13.7 262 3.63 1.476 Prepaid water meters will reduced many customer complaints since customer accounts are self-managed N % 105 40.1 113 43.1 16 6.1 8 3.1 20 7.6 262 4.05 1.128 Pre-paid billing allows customers independency in water usage and divisibility of buying water N % 123 46.9 115 43.9 11 4.2 4 1.5 9 3.4 262 4.29 .894 Pre-paid billing system reduces costs because the meter readers have reduced burden of visiting homes occasionally to have metre readings N % 64 24.4 185 70.6 9 3.4 1 .4 3 1.1 262 4.17 .608 Overall 3.88 1.15 The interpretation of the results in Table 1 regarding the effect of the prepaid billing system on customer satisfaction in NWSC in Bushenyi-Ishaka Municipality provides insights into the perceptions and experiences of customers regarding water service delivery. The findings shown in Table 1 reveal several aspects of how the prepaid system has influenced customer satisfaction. A significant number of respondents 105 (40.1%) strongly agreed, and 125 (47.7%) agreed that the prepaid system allows customers to use water only when they have credited their water accounts. Only 24 (9.2%) were undecided, while a small portion 5 (1.9%) disagreed and 3 (1.1%) strongly disagreed. The high mean of 4.24 and a standard deviation of 0.786 indicates that customers are generally aware and satisfied with the system’s usage-based approach to service delivery, which promotes accountability and resource conservation. On whether the prepaid system has enabled customers to self-manage their water accounts, responses were more varied. Only 72 (27.5%) strongly agreed and 37 (14.1%) agreed, while 34 (13.0%) remained undecided. A notable number of respondents 27 (10.3%) disagreed and a significant proportion 92 (35.1%) strongly disagreed. The mean score was 2.89 with a standard deviation of 1.657, suggesting mixed experiences and possible gaps in user knowledge or technological challenges in managing accounts independently. Regarding the empowerment to control water costs through prepaid billing, 111 (42.4%) of respondents strongly agreed and 51 (19.5%) agreed. Meanwhile, 29 (11.1%) were undecided, 35 (13.4%) disagreed, and 36 (13.7%) strongly disagreed. This response produced a mean of 3.63 with a standard deviation of 1.476, showing that a considerable number of customers appreciate the cost control benefits of the prepaid system, although some still face challenges with budgeting and usage prediction. The statement that prepaid water meters have reduced many customer complaints due to self-managed accounts was supported by 105 (40.1%) respondents who strongly agreed and 113 (43.1%) who agreed. Only 16 (6.1%) were undecided, while 8 (3.1%) disagreed and 20 (7.6%) strongly disagreed. With a mean of 4.05 and standard deviation of 1.128, the data suggests a broad consensus that prepaid meters contribute to a reduction in billing disputes and service-related complaints. On the issue of independence and flexibility in water usage, 123 (46.9%) of respondents strongly agreed and 115 (43.9%) agreed that prepaid billing allows divisibility in purchasing water. Few respondents 11 (4.2%) were undecided, while 4 (1.5%) disagreed and 9 (3.4%) strongly disagreed. This yielded a high mean of 4.29 and standard deviation of 0.894, showing that the majority of customers value the autonomy and convenience provided by the prepaid system. Regarding operational efficiency, 64 (24.4%) strongly agreed and 185 (70.6%) agreed that the prepaid billing system reduces operational costs as meter readers no longer need to visit homes for readings. Only 9 (3.4%) were undecided, while 1 (0.4%) disagreed and 3 (1.1%) strongly disagreed. The mean score of 4.17 and a low standard deviation of 0.608 reflect strong agreement and uniformity in customer perceptions about improved efficiency and reduced overhead costs for NWSC. The overall mean of 3.95 indicates that, on average, respondents agree that the prepaid water billing system improves customer control, reduces complaints, and provides independence in water usage. The relatively low SD (0.92) shows moderate consistency in respondents’ opinions. These findings imply that the prepaid billing system has a generally positive impact on customer satisfaction in areas such as usage transparency, autonomy, and cost control. However, challenges remain regarding customer capacity to self-manage accounts, pointing to a need for more training and sensitization. Addressing these gaps will likely enhance the effectiveness and acceptance of the prepaid system, contributing to improved service delivery and greater customer satisfaction within Bushenyi-Ishaka Municipality. The model summary in Table 2 , indicates that customer satisfaction explains a statistically significant but modest portion of the variation in the prepaid. The R Square value of .153 means that approximately 15.3% of the variability in prepaid is accounted for by its linear relationship with customer satisfaction. The Adjusted R Square value of .150, which is very close to the unadjusted value, confirms that this result is not due to an over specified model, while the Standard Error of the Estimate of .40662 represents the average distance that the observed data points fall from the regression line. Table 2. Model summary. Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. error of the estimate 1 .391 a .153 .150 .40662 a Predictors: (Constant), CUSTOMERSAT. The ANOVA Table 3 , tests the overall significance of the regression model. The key finding is the highly significant F-statistic (F = 46.990, p < .05). This very low significance value (Sig. = .000) allows us to reject the null hypothesis that the model is no better at predicting the outcome than using the mean of the dependent variable. In essence, this confirms that the regression model, which uses customer satisfaction to predict prepaid, is statistically significant. Table 3. ANOVA a . Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. 1 Regression 7.769 1 7.769 46.990 .000 b Residual 42.989 260 .165 Total 50.758 261 a Dependent Variable: PREPAID. b Predictors: (Constant), CUSTOMERSAT. The coefficients Table 4 provides the specific equation for the predictive model and tests the significance of each predictor. The constant (1.412) is the predicted value of prepaid when customer satisfaction is zero. The unstandardized coefficient (B) for customer satisfaction is .592, which means that for every one-unit increase in customer satisfaction, the prepaid variable is predicted to increase by .592 units. This relationship is statistically significant (t = 6.855, p < .05). The standardized coefficient (Beta) of .391 indicates a moderate positive effect of customer satisfaction on the prepaid variable. Table 4. Coefficients a . Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig. B Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant) 1.412 .361 3.917 .000 CUSTOMERSAT .592 .086 .391 6.855 .000 a Dependent Variable: PREPAID. Discussion and implications Based on the empirical findings and the theoretical lens of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), the results of the regression analysis become highly interpretable. The significant positive relationship between customer satisfaction and prepaid billing (B = .592, p < .05) strongly aligns with global and regional studies. This finding corroborates the work of Sharma & Gupta (2023) , Johnson & Lee (2022) , and Mwaura & Otieno (2023) , who all found that the core features of prepaid systems transparency, predictability, and control are primary drivers of customer contentment. From a TPB perspective, this coefficient represents the “behavioral belief”; customers hold a positive attitude toward prepaid systems because they believe it leads to the desirable outcome of financial control and avoids unexpected charges. The model explains 15.3% of the variance, suggesting that while perceived control is a significant factor, other elements of TPB namely normative beliefs (social influence) and control beliefs (perceived ease of use) also play crucial roles in forming overall satisfaction, as indicated by their emphasis in the theoretical and empirical literature. The discussion, however, must be tempered by the contextual limitations highlighted in the empirical review. The model’s explanatory power (R 2 = .153) implies that a substantial portion (84.7%) of what influences prepaid billing satisfaction is unexplained by this single variable. This directly echoes the gaps identified in the literature, such as socioeconomic factors ( Patel & Kumar, 2023 ), technological barriers for less tech-savvy users ( Liu & Wang, 2023 ), infrastructure challenges like network reliability ( Mokoena & van der Merwe, 2023 ; Kamau & Wanjiru, 2023 ), and concerns over data privacy ( Karanja & Njeri, 2022 ). Furthermore, the TPB framework reminds us that intention, a precursor to satisfaction, is also shaped by social norms and perceived behavioral control. Thus, the findings suggest that for NWSC in Uganda to fully realize the potential of prepaid systems, strategies must extend beyond the system’s inherent transparency to address these external normative and control factors, such as community education programs, robust technical support, and reliable infrastructure, to convert intention into sustained satisfaction and loyalty. Conclusion Based on the empirical findings and theoretical framework, it is concluded that the implementation of prepaid billing systems at NWSC Uganda significantly enhances customer satisfaction, primarily by empowering users with greater control, transparency, and predictability over their water consumption and expenditures, which aligns with the core behavioral beliefs outlined in the Theory of Planned Behavior; however, to fully maximize satisfaction and adoption, future strategies must also address the normative and control beliefs identified in the literature, such as improving digital literacy, ensuring robust technical infrastructure, and building trust through addressing data privacy concerns. Recommendation Based on the findings and conclusion, it is recommended that the National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC) adopt a multifaceted strategy that not only promotes the inherent benefits of the prepaid system but also actively mitigates potential barriers to its adoption and satisfaction; this should include implementing comprehensive customer education programs to strengthen positive behavioral beliefs about control and transparency, leveraging community influencers and testimonials to build supportive normative beliefs, investing in robust technical infrastructure and diverse, accessible payment channels to enhance perceived behavioral control, and conducting further research into the specific impacts of socioeconomic factors and privacy concerns to inform more targeted and effective future policies. Ethical approval and consent to participate The study protocol was reviewed and approved . This research was conducted in accordance with ethical guidelines and received approval from the Kampala International University Ethics Committee (Approval Number: KIU-2025-816). Informed consent was obtained from all participants, and confidentiality was maintained throughout the study. Informed consent statement All participants provided written informed consent after receiving a complete description of the study. This description covered the research aims, what their involvement would entail, any potential risks, and the benefits of the research. We assured them that their participation was voluntary, their information would be kept confidential, and they could withdraw from the study at any time without any negative repercussions. Consent to publish declaration We, the authors, agree to publish this work in F1000 Research and confirm that it is original, unpublished, and not submitted elsewhere. Any personal data included has been approved by those involved, with consent records available if needed. Data availability Underlying Repository name: Zenodo: Prepaid Billing System and Customer Satisfaction in Water Service Delivery in Uganda: Evidence from Bushenyi Ishaka Municipality. data associated with this article can be accessed on https://zenodo.org/records/17249108 . Tumusiime, J. (2025a) . This project contains the following underlying data: Joannes. sav (raw survey data collected from domestic water customers enrolled in the prepaid billing system under NWSC’s Bushenyi-Ishaka Municipality operational area in Uganda). Extended data Repository name: Zenodo: Prepaid Billing System and Customer Satisfaction in Water Service Delivery in Uganda: Evidence from Bushenyi Ishaka Municipality. Extended data associated with this article can be accessed on https://zenodo.org/records/17249240 . Tumusiime, J. (2025b) . This project contains the following extended data: • Appendix I Questionnaire.pdf (full survey instrument used to collect data from participants). joannes REC Approval letter (1).pdf (approval letter from Kampala International University Research Ethics Committee). Data are available under the terms of the Creative Commons Zero “No rights reserved” data waiver (CC0 1.0 Public domain dedication). Acknowledgements I thank Sewanyina Muniru for his formal analysis of the study by verifying the statistical procedures, ensuring the correctness of data coding, and validating the results prior to interpretation. References Adebayo A, Olaniyi T: Prepaid billing and customer satisfaction in Nigeria’s electricity sector. Energy Policy. 2023; 172 : 113325. Publisher Full Text Ajzen I: The theory of planned behavior. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 1991; 50 (2): 179–211. Publisher Full Text Armitage CJ, Conner M: Efficacy of the Theory of Planned Behaviour: A meta-analytic review. Br. J. Soc. Psychol. 2001; 40 (4): 471–499. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Creswell JW, Creswell JD: Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. SAGE Publications; 5th ed. 2018. Garcia M, Thomas A: The impact of pre-paid meters on water consumption and equity in Kabwe, Zambia. World Development. 2021; 138 : 105297. Publisher Full Text Kerosi E, McCord MJ: The impact of mobile money enabled pay-as-you-go solar on household finance and welfare in Kenya. World Development Perspectives. 2022; 25 : 100392. Publisher Full Text Johnson M, Lee S: Prepaid meters and customer satisfaction in the US utility sector. Util. Policy. 2022; 79 : 101438. Publisher Full Text Kamau P, Wanjiru J: Adoption of prepaid billing systems in Kenya’s water sector and its impact on customer satisfaction. Water Int. 2023; 48 (4): 512–528. Publisher Full Text Karanja J, Njeri A: Prepaid billing systems and customer satisfaction in Uganda’s telecommunications sector. Telecommun. Policy. 2022; 46 (8): 102367. Publisher Full Text Kingdom B, Liemberger R, Marin P: The challenge of reducing non-revenue water (NRW) in developing countries. The World Bank; 2006. Publisher Full Text Krejcie RV, Morgan DW: Determining sample size for research activities. Educ. Psychol. Meas. 1970; 30 (3): 607–610. Publisher Full Text Liu Y, Wang X: The impact of prepaid billing systems on customer satisfaction in China’s telecommunications sector. Journal of Consumer Satisfaction, Dissatisfaction and Complaining Behavior. 2023; 36 : 45–59. Marin P: Public-private partnerships for urban water utilities: A review of experiences in developing countries. The World Bank; 2009. Publisher Full Text Mokoena T, van der Merwe C : Prepaid billing and customer satisfaction in South Africa’s energy sector. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 2023; 98 : 103027. Publisher Full Text Mwaura K, Otieno D: Prepaid water meters and customer satisfaction in Kenya. Water Alternatives. 2023; 16 (1): 234–252. Patel R, Kumar S: Prepaid meters and customer satisfaction in India’s energy sector. Energy Sustain. Dev. 2023; 74 : 206–214. Publisher Full Text Sharma N, Gupta A: The impact of prepaid billing systems on customer satisfaction in the telecommunications industry. Int. J. Bank Mark. 2023; 41 (2): 345–361. Publisher Full Text Taylor S, Todd PA: Understanding information technology usage: A test of competing models. Inf. Syst. Res. 1995; 6 (2): 144–176. Publisher Full Text Tortajada C: Contributions of recycled wastewater to clean water and sanitation Sustainable Development Goals. npj Clean Water. 2020; 3 (1): 22. Publisher Full Text Tumusiime J: Zenodo: Prepaid Billing System and Customer Satisfaction in Water Service Delivery in Uganda: Evidence from Bushenyi Ishaka Municipality. Zenodo. 2025a. Publisher Full Text Tumusiime J: Zenodo:Prepaid Billing System and Customer Satisfaction in Water Service Delivery in Uganda: Evidence from Bushenyi Ishaka Municipality. Zenodo. 2025b. Publisher Full Text Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 16 Oct 2025 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment Author details Author details 1 Business Administration, Kampala International University - Western Campus, Bushenyi, Western Region, Uganda 2 Business Administration, Kampala International University - Western Campus, Bushenyi, Western Region, Uganda 3 Business Administration, Kampala International University - Western Campus, Bushenyi, Western Region, Uganda Joannes Tumusiime Roles: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Methodology, Resources, Software, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Michael Manyange Roles: Project Administration, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – Review & Editing Nyakundi Andrew Roles: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Project Administration, Supervision, Visualization, Writing – Review & Editing Competing interests No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work. Article Versions (1) version 1 Published: 16 Oct 2025, 14:1125 https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.170967.1 Copyright © 2025 Tumusiime J et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Download Export To Sciwheel Bibtex EndNote ProCite Ref. Manager (RIS) Sente metrics Views Downloads F1000Research - - PubMed Central info_outline Data from PMC are received and updated monthly. - - Citations open_in_new 0 open_in_new 0 open_in_new SEE MORE DETAILS CITE how to cite this article Tumusiime J, Manyange M and Andrew N. Prepaid Billing System and Customer Satisfaction in Water Service Delivery in Uganda: Evidence from Bushenyi Ishaka Municipality [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :1125 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.170967.1 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS track receive updates on this article Track an article to receive email alerts on any updates to this article. TRACK THIS ARTICLE Share Open Peer Review Current Reviewer Status: ? Key to Reviewer Statuses VIEW HIDE Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 16 Oct 2025 Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Mani L and Bhuiyan MRI. Reviewer Report For: Prepaid Billing System and Customer Satisfaction in Water Service Delivery in Uganda: Evidence from Bushenyi Ishaka Municipality [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :1125 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.188495.r447739 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-1125/v1#referee-response-447739 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 08 Jan 2026 Lisa Mani , Finance and Banking, Shahjalal University of Science and Technology School of Management and Business Administration (Ringgold ID: 309531), Sylhet, Sylhet, Bangladesh Mohammad Rakibul Islam Bhuiyan , Begum Rokeya University, Rangpur, Bangladesh Approved with Reservations VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.188495.r447739 The overall narrative is logical, but the writing is sometimes wordy, repetitive, and occasionally confusing (for example, switching between “prepaid billing”, “prepaid variable” and “customer satisfaction as a behavioral belief”). The paper does cite recent and relevant work in prepaid ... Continue reading READ ALL The overall narrative is logical, but the writing is sometimes wordy, repetitive, and occasionally confusing (for example, switching between “prepaid billing”, “prepaid variable” and “customer satisfaction as a behavioral belief”). The paper does cite recent and relevant work in prepaid billing, utilities, and TPB (e.g. 2021–2023 studies across multiple sectors and regions), but the empirical review is largely descriptive, with limited critical synthesis and very little explanation of how specific gaps directly shape this study’s hypotheses and variables. Tighten the introduction and discussion to remove redundancy and clearly separate what is known, what is unknown, and what this study adds. Clarify and consistently use key constructs (prepaid adoption, customer satisfaction, behavioral beliefs) and avoid contradictory phrasing. Strengthen the critical integration of the cited, very recent literature (including sectoral and regional differences) rather than presenting study-by-study summaries. Comment on design and methods The quantitative cross‑sectional design with prepaid customers in a single municipality is appropriate for the stated aim of examining the association between prepaid billing attributes and customer satisfaction. Sampling from the population of prepaid customers, use of a structured questionnaire, and pre‑testing with Cronbach’s alpha values above 0.7 are methodologically sound and align with standard survey research. However, there are several points needing clarification: The description of the population, sampling frame, and “purposive sampling” is too brief; it is not clear how the 300 distributed questionnaires were operationally selected from the 1,200 customers (e.g. lists, routes, exclusions), and whether any systematic bias is likely. The conceptual model and hypotheses are not explicitly and formally stated, despite repeated reference to TPB; the reader needs a clear diagram or statement of which TPB constructs were actually measured and which relationships were tested. Variable operationalization is not fully transparent, particularly the dependent variable labelled “PREPAID” in the regression; it is not clearly defined (scale content, number of items, scoring, interpretation). Addressing these points would make the design appear more rigorous and allow readers to judge external validity and potential biases. Comment on methods detail and reproducibility The manuscript provides useful information on instrument sections, Likert scaling, pre‑testing, software, and the use of simple linear regression. The tables give item‑level distributions and summary statistics for customer satisfaction items, and the model summary, ANOVA, and coefficients tables are reported with sufficient numerical detail. The exact items and scales for the key constructs are only described at high level; although the questionnaire is available in an external repository, the paper should still summarize domains, sample items, and scoring rules in‑text and/or in an appendix. The transformation of item responses into composite scores (for “customer satisfaction” and the “prepaid” variable) is not described (e.g. averaging vs summation, handling of missing items, any reverse‑coding). Data cleaning steps are not explained (e.g. treatment of incomplete questionnaires, outliers, or normality checks before regression). With these clarifications, replication using the shared dataset and instrument would be feasible. Comment on statistics and interpretation The main statistical approach (simple linear regression) is appropriate for examining the relationship between a continuous composite measure of customer satisfaction and a continuous prepaid‑related outcome, assuming linearity and other regression assumptions are reasonably met. Reporting of � R , �2 R 2, adjusted �2 R 2, F‑statistic with p‑value, and unstandardized and standardized coefficients is correct and interpretable, and the conclusion that there is a statistically significant positive association (B = 0.592, p < 0.05; R² = 0.153) is justified. The text sometimes over‑emphasizes the effect, despite an �2 R 2 of 0.153; “modest” explanatory power is acknowledged, but the conclusion and abstract still read as if prepaid billing largely “drives” satisfaction rather than explaining a relatively small proportion of variance. There is no mention of testing regression assumptions (normality, homoscedasticity, linearity, influential cases), which should at least be briefly reported to support the validity of the model. The description of the regression model’s direction is confusing: in the methodology, customer satisfaction is called the dependent variable in places, while in the results table “PREPAID” is the dependent variable and “CUSTOMERSAT” the predictor; this inconsistency needs to be corrected and aligned with the stated conceptual framework. Clarifying these issues and tempering the language around effect size will improve the statistical section. Comment on data availability The manuscript clearly states that raw survey data (.sav), the full questionnaire, and the ethics approval letter are all deposited on Zenodo with specific record links, and that the data are under a CC0 waiver. This level of data and documentation availability is sufficient to ensure full reproducibility and re‑analysis by other researchers, provided that variable labels and coding in the .sav file match the constructs described in the paper. The authors might briefly indicate whether any anonymization or recoding was applied before deposit, but the availability statement is fundamentally sound. Comment on conclusions and their support The main conclusion—that the prepaid billing system significantly enhances customer satisfaction at NWSC through transparency and control, in line with TPB—is generally consistent with the descriptive item means and the positive, statistically significant regression coefficient. The discussion appropriately links the empirical findings to TPB and to similar evidence from other sectors and countries, and it acknowledges the modest �2 R 2 and the existence of unmeasured factors. However, the conclusions are currently somewhat overstated relative. The cross‑sectional design, which does not support causal claims about prepaid systems “enhancing” satisfaction. The single‑municipality setting and a non‑probability sampling approach, which limit generalizability to other NWSC areas or other countries. The relatively modest variance explained, which suggests that prepaid billing is one of several contributors rather than a dominant determinant of satisfaction. The authors should rephrase claims to emphasize association rather than causation, explicitly state the generalizability limits, and more clearly separate empirical conclusions from forward‑looking recommendations based on theory and external literature. My decision is major revision to accept it for indexing. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? No Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? Yes Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? No If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Partly Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Partly Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Partly References 1. Tumusiime J, Manyange M, Andrew N: Prepaid Billing System and Customer Satisfaction in Water Service Delivery in Uganda: Evidence from Bushenyi Ishaka Municipality. F1000Research . 2025; 14 . Publisher Full Text Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: My main areas of research are:​Economics of information systems (impact and value of IS in organizations and markets).Digital transformation and digital platforms, including how digital technologies reshape business processes and services.Related topics in management information systems, often focusing on technology adoption, digital services, and their economic or organizational consequences. We confirm that we have read this submission and believe that we have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however we have significant reservations, as outlined above. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Mani L and Bhuiyan MRI. Reviewer Report For: Prepaid Billing System and Customer Satisfaction in Water Service Delivery in Uganda: Evidence from Bushenyi Ishaka Municipality [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :1125 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.188495.r447739 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-1125/v1#referee-response-447739 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 16 Oct 2025 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment keyboard_arrow_left keyboard_arrow_right Open Peer Review Reviewer Status info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Reviewer Reports Invited Reviewers 1 Version 1 16 Oct 25 read Lisa Mani , Shahjalal University of Science and Technology School of Management and Business Administration (Ringgold ID: 309531), Sylhet, Bangladesh Mohammad Rakibul Islam Bhuiyan , Begum Rokeya University, Rangpur, Bangladesh Comments on this article All Comments (0) Add a comment Sign up for content alerts Sign Up You are now signed up to receive this alert Browse by related subjects keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2026 Bhuiyan M et al. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 08 Jan 2026 | for Version 1 Lisa Mani , Finance and Banking, Shahjalal University of Science and Technology School of Management and Business Administration (Ringgold ID: 309531), Sylhet, Sylhet, Bangladesh Mohammad Rakibul Islam Bhuiyan , Begum Rokeya University, Rangpur, Bangladesh 0 Views copyright © 2026 Bhuiyan M et al. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (0) Approved With Reservations info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions The overall narrative is logical, but the writing is sometimes wordy, repetitive, and occasionally confusing (for example, switching between “prepaid billing”, “prepaid variable” and “customer satisfaction as a behavioral belief”). The paper does cite recent and relevant work in prepaid billing, utilities, and TPB (e.g. 2021–2023 studies across multiple sectors and regions), but the empirical review is largely descriptive, with limited critical synthesis and very little explanation of how specific gaps directly shape this study’s hypotheses and variables. Tighten the introduction and discussion to remove redundancy and clearly separate what is known, what is unknown, and what this study adds. Clarify and consistently use key constructs (prepaid adoption, customer satisfaction, behavioral beliefs) and avoid contradictory phrasing. Strengthen the critical integration of the cited, very recent literature (including sectoral and regional differences) rather than presenting study-by-study summaries. Comment on design and methods The quantitative cross‑sectional design with prepaid customers in a single municipality is appropriate for the stated aim of examining the association between prepaid billing attributes and customer satisfaction. Sampling from the population of prepaid customers, use of a structured questionnaire, and pre‑testing with Cronbach’s alpha values above 0.7 are methodologically sound and align with standard survey research. However, there are several points needing clarification: The description of the population, sampling frame, and “purposive sampling” is too brief; it is not clear how the 300 distributed questionnaires were operationally selected from the 1,200 customers (e.g. lists, routes, exclusions), and whether any systematic bias is likely. The conceptual model and hypotheses are not explicitly and formally stated, despite repeated reference to TPB; the reader needs a clear diagram or statement of which TPB constructs were actually measured and which relationships were tested. Variable operationalization is not fully transparent, particularly the dependent variable labelled “PREPAID” in the regression; it is not clearly defined (scale content, number of items, scoring, interpretation). Addressing these points would make the design appear more rigorous and allow readers to judge external validity and potential biases. Comment on methods detail and reproducibility The manuscript provides useful information on instrument sections, Likert scaling, pre‑testing, software, and the use of simple linear regression. The tables give item‑level distributions and summary statistics for customer satisfaction items, and the model summary, ANOVA, and coefficients tables are reported with sufficient numerical detail. The exact items and scales for the key constructs are only described at high level; although the questionnaire is available in an external repository, the paper should still summarize domains, sample items, and scoring rules in‑text and/or in an appendix. The transformation of item responses into composite scores (for “customer satisfaction” and the “prepaid” variable) is not described (e.g. averaging vs summation, handling of missing items, any reverse‑coding). Data cleaning steps are not explained (e.g. treatment of incomplete questionnaires, outliers, or normality checks before regression). With these clarifications, replication using the shared dataset and instrument would be feasible. Comment on statistics and interpretation The main statistical approach (simple linear regression) is appropriate for examining the relationship between a continuous composite measure of customer satisfaction and a continuous prepaid‑related outcome, assuming linearity and other regression assumptions are reasonably met. Reporting of � R , �2 R 2, adjusted �2 R 2, F‑statistic with p‑value, and unstandardized and standardized coefficients is correct and interpretable, and the conclusion that there is a statistically significant positive association (B = 0.592, p < 0.05; R² = 0.153) is justified. The text sometimes over‑emphasizes the effect, despite an �2 R 2 of 0.153; “modest” explanatory power is acknowledged, but the conclusion and abstract still read as if prepaid billing largely “drives” satisfaction rather than explaining a relatively small proportion of variance. There is no mention of testing regression assumptions (normality, homoscedasticity, linearity, influential cases), which should at least be briefly reported to support the validity of the model. The description of the regression model’s direction is confusing: in the methodology, customer satisfaction is called the dependent variable in places, while in the results table “PREPAID” is the dependent variable and “CUSTOMERSAT” the predictor; this inconsistency needs to be corrected and aligned with the stated conceptual framework. Clarifying these issues and tempering the language around effect size will improve the statistical section. Comment on data availability The manuscript clearly states that raw survey data (.sav), the full questionnaire, and the ethics approval letter are all deposited on Zenodo with specific record links, and that the data are under a CC0 waiver. This level of data and documentation availability is sufficient to ensure full reproducibility and re‑analysis by other researchers, provided that variable labels and coding in the .sav file match the constructs described in the paper. The authors might briefly indicate whether any anonymization or recoding was applied before deposit, but the availability statement is fundamentally sound. Comment on conclusions and their support The main conclusion—that the prepaid billing system significantly enhances customer satisfaction at NWSC through transparency and control, in line with TPB—is generally consistent with the descriptive item means and the positive, statistically significant regression coefficient. The discussion appropriately links the empirical findings to TPB and to similar evidence from other sectors and countries, and it acknowledges the modest �2 R 2 and the existence of unmeasured factors. However, the conclusions are currently somewhat overstated relative. The cross‑sectional design, which does not support causal claims about prepaid systems “enhancing” satisfaction. The single‑municipality setting and a non‑probability sampling approach, which limit generalizability to other NWSC areas or other countries. The relatively modest variance explained, which suggests that prepaid billing is one of several contributors rather than a dominant determinant of satisfaction. The authors should rephrase claims to emphasize association rather than causation, explicitly state the generalizability limits, and more clearly separate empirical conclusions from forward‑looking recommendations based on theory and external literature. My decision is major revision to accept it for indexing. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? No Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? Yes Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? No If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Partly Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Partly Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Partly References 1. Tumusiime J, Manyange M, Andrew N: Prepaid Billing System and Customer Satisfaction in Water Service Delivery in Uganda: Evidence from Bushenyi Ishaka Municipality. F1000Research . 2025; 14 . Publisher Full Text Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise My main areas of research are:​Economics of information systems (impact and value of IS in organizations and markets).Digital transformation and digital platforms, including how digital technologies reshape business processes and services.Related topics in management information systems, often focusing on technology adoption, digital services, and their economic or organizational consequences. We confirm that we have read this submission and believe that we have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however we have significant reservations, as outlined above. reply Respond to this report Responses (0) Mani L and Bhuiyan MRI. Peer Review Report For: Prepaid Billing System and Customer Satisfaction in Water Service Delivery in Uganda: Evidence from Bushenyi Ishaka Municipality [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :1125 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.188495.r447739) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. 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