Microbial Load in Meat and Meat Products in Retail Markets of Jimma Town, Ethiopia: Implications for Food Safety and Public Health

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This research aimed to investigate the microbial quality and safety of meat and meat products sold in retail markets in Jimma Town, Southwestern Ethiopia, with a particular focus on Listeria species. A total of 175 samples were gathered, including raw minced meat, mildly fried minced meat, chicken, dulet (a traditional Ethiopian dish), refrigerated fish, mildly fried fish, and burger products. These samples underwent thorough microbiological evaluations, examining total aerobic mesophilic counts (TAMC), total anaerobic mesophilic bacteria, spore formers, and various bacterial groups like Staphylococcus, Enterobacteriaceae, coliforms, yeasts, and molds. The analysis revealed that dulet had the highest TAMC at 1.36 x 10^10 CFU/g, followed closely by raw minced meat at 7.61 x 10^9 CFU/g. This suggests significant microbial contamination, likely due to inadequate hygiene during processing and storage. A total of 1,750 bacterial isolates were identified, with 75.43% being gram-positive, primarily Staphylococcus (33.71%), Bacillus spp. (27.9%), and Micrococcus spp. (11.37%). Among the gram-negative bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae accounted for 10.97%, and Pseudomonas made up 8.57%. Listeria species were found in 52 samples (29.7%), with Listeria innocua being the most common. These findings highlight the urgent need for enhanced food safety practices and public health measures in the region to safeguard consumer health. Microbial load Listeria species Meat safety Jimma Town Ethiopia Antimicrobial resistance Foodborne pathogens Public health risk Figures Figure 1 1. Introduction Animal-derived food products are essential for human nutrition, offering nutrient-rich options that often surpass plant-based sources in both concentration and bioavailability of micronutrients [ 1 ][ 2 ]. These foods provide high-quality protein and vital micronutrients critical for human growth and well-being, despite their relatively higher costs [ 3 ]. Moreover, livestock production systems play a significant role in generating household income and creating job opportunities across various stages of the food supply chain [ 4 ]. In recent years, the global demand for meat, milk, and dairy products has dramatically increased [ 5 ], resulting in intensified animal production practices and longer processing chains. Unfortunately, this rise in production often leads to lapses in hygiene standards at different stages, including production, transportation, and retail. Such shortcomings can expose these products to microbial contamination and the growth of foodborne pathogens [ 6 ]. The presence of microbiological hazards, such as bacteria, yeasts, and molds, poses a serious threat to consumer health [ 7 ]. Therefore, ensuring food safety requires continuous monitoring and diligence across the entire farm-to-fork continuum to prevent contamination and protect public health [ 8 ]. Contamination in animal-derived foods can originate from a variety of sources, including environmental conditions, unsanitary practices, and inadequate handling [ 9 ]. Numerous studies have highlighted the presence of various bacterial species in both raw and processed meat and dairy products. For example, research by Atlabachew and Mamo [ 10 ] found that beef and contact surfaces were primarily contaminated with Enterobacteriaceae (36%), Staphylococcus spp. (24%), Bacillus spp. (19%), Streptococcus spp. (10%), and Pseudomonas spp. (7%). Similarly, raw milk was reported to contain Staphylococcus spp. (10%), Enterobacteriaceae (7%), Pseudomonas spp. (5%), Micrococcus spp. (5%), and Bacillus spp. (4%) [ 11 ]. Foodborne pathogens, such as Bacillus cereus [ 12 ], Staphylococcus aureus [ 13 ], Escherichia coli [ 14 ], and Salmonella spp. [ 15 ], have been identified in meat and dairy products worldwide. In Ethiopia, various studies have confirmed the presence of these pathogens, including Salmonella spp. [ 16 ][ 17 ][ 18 ], E. coli [ 19 ][ 20 ][ 21 ], S. aureus [ 22 ][ 23 ], B. cereus [ 24 ], and Shigella spp. [ 25 ]. In Jimma, previous studies have highlighted the presence of Listeria spp. in milk [ 26 ], Salmonella spp. [ 27 ], and S. aureus in cream cakes [ 28 ], indicating the need for ongoing microbial surveillance in the area. Additionally, the extensive use of antibiotics in livestock farming has led to the emergence of resistant strains [ 29 ]. For instance, Salmonella spp. isolated from foods like minced meat, raw milk, and cream cakes exhibited high resistance rates to streptomycin (100%) and kanamycin (77.8%) [ 30 ]. Furthermore, B. cereus isolates showed resistance to erythromycin (27.2%) and chloramphenicol (11.3%), while remaining sensitive to gentamicin (68.1%) and streptomycin (79.5%) [ 31 ]. Despite these alarming findings, there is a notable lack of comprehensive studies addressing both the microbial quality and safety aspects of raw meat and selected dairy products in Jimma Town. This study was intended to bridge this gap by assessing the microbial safety and quality of meat and its products being sold in Jimma. In doing so, it intended to offer important insights into the state of food safety in the city, highlighting the critical need for enhanced practices and policies to protect consumer health. 2. Materials and methods 2.1 Description of study area This study was carried out in Jimma Town, positioned approximately 353 kilometers southwest of Addis Ababa, at geographic coordinates 7°41′N and 36°50′E(Fig. 1 ). The town sits at an average elevation of 1,780 meters above sea level and is situated within the Woyna Dega agro-climatic zone, which spans altitudes from 1,500 to 2,400 meters. This zone is known for its mild temperatures and relatively high humidity levels, with average annual temperatures ranging between 14°C and 30°C [32]. These environmental conditions are favorable not only for agriculture but also for the proliferation of microorganisms in perishable, animal-based food items.The sampling process involved random selection of various active food establishments and retail outlets that handle or sell meat and meat products. As a key urban and commercial center in southwestern Ethiopia, Jimma hosts numerous formal and informal meat vendors and is a focal point for food trade. The town was selected because of its distinct features, including a dense population, bustling trade networks, and a range of food handling practices. These aspects increase the likelihood of microbial contamination, making it a vital area for researching food safety and quality. The findings from this study can help enhance food safety practices in similar communities. [33][34]. 2.2 Sample size determination The study originally estimated a sample size of 323 using the formula (35), where Z = 1.96,Z = 1.96,Z = 1.96, p = 0.30p = 0.30p = 0.30, and E = 0.05E = 0.05E = 0.05. However, it was opted to gather 175 samples instead, mainly due to limitations in resources and difficulties in accessing food sources. Despite the smaller size, this sample is still expected to provide meaningful insights into microbial contamination and contribute to discussions on food safety in the area. 2.3 Study design and sample collection In this study, a cross-sectional design was utilized to evaluate the microbial quality and safety of common raw and processed animal-derived foods available in Jimma Town. A total of 175 samples were collected, which included raw minced meat, lightly fried minced meat, chicken, dulet (a traditional meat dish), refrigerated fish, lightly fried fish, and burgers. These samples were aseptically gathered from various retail outlets and street vendors to reflect typical consumer exposure. The collection process adhered to established international protocols to minimize contamination during handling and transport [36]. Each sample was placed in sterile, labeled containers and transported in insulated cool boxes, kept at around 4°C, to ensure they reached the laboratory for microbiological analysis within 24 hours [37]. 2.4 Microbiological analysis This research was conducted to assess the microbiological quality of meat and meat products by examining a range of microbial groups. These included total aerobic mesophilic bacteria, anaerobic mesophilic bacteria, aerobic and anaerobic spore-formers, species of Staphylococcus , members of the Enterobacteriaceae family, coliforms, as well as yeasts and molds. The quantification of these microorganisms was carried out using standard plate count techniques under strictly maintained laboratory conditions. Analytical procedures adhered to globally recognized microbiological standards to guarantee precision and repeatability. For instance, aerobic mesophilic counts were conducted following ISO 4833-1:2013 guidelines, while the enumeration of Enterobacteriaceae was based on ISO 21528-2:2017. Methods recommended by the FDA's Bacteriological Analytical Manual (2023 edition) were used to detect and count yeasts and molds. For the identification of Listeria species, particularly Listeria monocytogenes , a selective enrichment method was employed. This involved culturing on Oxford agar, as outlined in ISO 11290-1:2017, allowing effective differentiation of L. monocytogenes from other related species. Initial identification relied on morphological characteristics of the colonies grown on selective media, followed by confirmatory classical biochemical analyses described in Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology [38]. 2.5 Bacterial isolation and identification The process of identifying bacterial species followed a systematic, multi-step approach. Initially, colonies were evaluated based on their morphological attributes such as pigmentation, form, elevation, and margins observed on both general and selective media. Gram staining was then employed to distinguish between gram-positive and gram-negative organisms. To specifically isolate Listeria species, a two-step enrichment protocol was applied. The first phase involved culturing samples in Listeria Enrichment Broth, followed by a secondary enrichment in Fraser broth. This method promoted the selective growth of Listeria by suppressing competing bacteria. After incubation, the cultures were plated onto Oxford agar, where Listeria colonies could be tentatively identified by their unique appearance. Presumptive Listeria isolates were subjected to confirmatory testing using simple biochemical assays—such as the catalase reaction, assessment of motility at ambient temperature, and carbohydrate fermentation profiling. To ensure robust and reproducible identification, a commercially available identification kit (API Listeria, bioMérieux) was used, aligned with the standards set by ISO 11290-1:2017 and the FDA BAM (2021). This thorough identification process provided reliable classification of Listeria monocytogenes and related strains, contributing to the overall understanding of microbial risks present in the meat products analyzed. 2.6 Data analysis In analyzing the microbiological data, descriptive statistics were employed to provide a clear overview of the results. This process involved calculating means, standard deviations, and coefficients of variation, which helped to highlight both the variability and central tendencies of microbial counts across various sample types. To determine the prevalence of Listeria spp. and other critical foodborne pathogens, the proportion of samples testing positive was carefully calculated. Statistical analyses were carried out using SPSS software version 25.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). This tool proved invaluable for effectively summarizing the data and uncovering distribution patterns within the dataset. The analytical techniques used adhered to recognized standards in food microbiology research, as detailed by ISO (2017) and supported by the World Health Organization's Foodborne Disease Burden Epidemiology Reference Group [39]. This thorough approach ensured that the data was analyzed in a comprehensive and precise manner, contributing to the reliability of the findings. 3. Results 3.1 Microbial load of the food items The analysis of meat and meat products from retail markets in Jimma Town revealed consistently high levels of microbial contamination across all samples (Table 1 ). Dulet showed the highest total aerobic mesophilic count (1.36 × 10¹⁰ CFU/g), followed by raw minced meat, mildly fried minced meat, and burgers, suggesting lapses in hygiene during processing or handling. The minimal cooking of dulet makes it especially risky from a food safety standpoint. Significant levels of anaerobic mesophilic and spore-forming bacteria were detected in all items, along with common indicator organisms such as Staphylococci, Enterobacteriaceae, coliforms, yeasts, and molds, reflecting poor sanitation and insufficient heat treatment. Table 1 Mean microbial counts (log cfu/g) in meat and meat products collected from Jimma Town Food Item TAMC (Mean ± SD) CV (%) Anaerobic MC (Mean ± SD) CV (%) Aerobic Spore Formers (Mean ± SD) CV (%) Anaerobic Spore Formers (Mean ± SD) CV (%) Raw Minced Meat 8.67 ± 1.30 14.99 7.42 ± 0.98 13.22 6.95 ± 0.78 11.22 5.71 ± 0.46 8.05 Mildly Fried Minced 7.81 ± 0.62 7.94 7.31 ± 0.62 8.48 7.41 ± 0.65 8.77 6.99 ± 0.29 4.15 Chicken 7.32 ± 0.57 7.79 6.70 ± 0.15 2.24 6.63 ± 0.27 4.07 6.52 ± 0.60 9.20 Dulet 8.61 ± 1.32 15.33 6.97 ± 0.86 12.34 6.71 ± 1.04 15.50 6.41 ± 0.68 10.61 Refrigerated Fish 7.34 ± 0.53 7.22 7.08 ± 0.51 7.20 7.67 ± 1.04 13.56 7.18 ± 0.52 7.24 Mildly Fried Fish 7.05 ± 0.62 8.79 6.27 ± 0.61 9.73 6.92 ± 0.46 6.65 5.59 ± 1.03 18.42 Burger 7.26 ± 0.78 10.74 6.18 ± 0.52 8.41 7.15 ± 0.52 7.27 5.15 ± 0.48 9.32 TAMC: Total Aerobic Mesophilic Count; CFU/g: Colony Forming Units per gram; SD: Standard Deviation; CV (%): Coefficient of Variation (percentage). 3.2 Bacterial Isolate Profiling From the Total Aerobic Mesophilic Count (TAMC) analysis, a total of 1,750 bacterial isolates were identified across the collected meat and meat product samples. The majority—approximately 75.43%—were Gram-positive bacteria, with Staphylococcus (33.71%) emerging as the most frequent genus, followed by Bacillus spp. (27.9%) and Micrococcus spp. (11.37%). The remaining 24.57% of the isolates were Gram-negative, with dominant genera including Enterobacteriaceae (10.97%), Pseudomonas spp. (8.57%), and Aeromonas spp. (4.62%). The presence of these microbial groups points to a concerning level of contamination involving both spoilage organisms and potentially harmful pathogens. Particularly, the high detection rates of Staphylococcus and members of the Enterobacteriaceae family may indicate poor hygiene, cross-contamination, and possibly fecal exposure during meat processing, handling, or storage. These findings highlight the urgent need for stricter sanitation and food safety measures throughout the meat value chain to protect public health. 3.3 Prevalence of Listeria species in meat and meat products A total of 175 meat samples were examined to assess contamination by Listeria species (Table 2 ). Of these, 52 samples (29.7%) tested positive. The highest prevalence was recorded in dulet—a popular Ethiopian ready-to-eat meat dish—where 34.62% of samples showed contamination. This was followed by raw minced meat at 23.08%, and chicken at 19.23%. When the positive isolates were further characterized, Listeria innocua emerged as the most commonly detected species, making up 53.9% of all Listeria isolates. Meanwhile, Listeria monocytogenes , a pathogen of major public health concern, was found in 23.1% of the positive samples. The detection of L. monocytogenes in both raw and ready-to-eat meat products, particularly in dulet, suggests a possible post-processing contamination or insufficient hygiene practices during handling and preparation. This presents a serious food safety threat, especially to vulnerable populations such as the elderly, pregnant women, newborns, and those with weakened immune systems. These findings call for immediate improvements in hygiene standards, safe meat handling practices, and regular microbiological surveillance in meat retail settings to reduce consumer risk. Table 2 Prevalence of Listeria spp. in different meat types collected from Jimma Town. Meat Type No. of Samples Tested No. Positive for Listeria spp. (%) Prevalence of L. innocua (%) Prevalence of L. monocytogenes (%) Dulet 52 18 (34.62) 10 (55.6) 5 (27.8) Raw Minced Meat 39 9 (23.08) 5 (55.6) 2 (22.2) Chicken 26 5 (19.23) 3 (60.0) 1 (20.0) Other Meat Products 58 20 (34.48) 10 (50.0) 2 (10.0) Total 175 52 (29.7) 28 (53.9) 12 (23.1) 4. Discussion The detection of elevated microbial loads, particularly in ready-to-eat and minimally processed meat products such as dulet and raw minced meat, raises significant public health and hygiene concerns within the meat value chain in Jimma Town. These findings reflect potential lapses in sanitary handling practices, poor temperature control, and contamination introduced during processing or retail stages. Out of 175 meat samples analyzed, Listeria species were detected in 29.7%, a figure that is particularly troubling given the inclusion of Listeria monocytogenes —a pathogen capable of causing life-threatening illnesses such as listeriosis, meningitis, and septicemia, especially among vulnerable groups such as pregnant women, newborns, the elderly, and immunocompromised individuals [40]. The contamination rate was highest in dulet (34.62%), a traditional Ethiopian dish that is commonly served warm or partially cooked, often bypassing thorough heat treatments that could otherwise eliminate bacterial pathogens. This heightens the risk of infection, aligning with previous Ethiopian studies—for instance, Tadesse and Dabassa (2012) and Abebe et al. (2019)—which documented the presence of L. monocytogenes in raw and processed meats sold in local markets. Similarly, Similarly, Ayalew et al. (2020) reported Listeria species in 31% of meat samples from Addis Ababa, reinforcing concerns that contamination is not isolated but rather a widespread and under-recognized issue across Ethiopian meat markets. Notably, the dominance of Listeria innocua (53.9%) among the isolates mirrors global findings where this non-pathogenic species is frequently associated with hygiene breakdowns and can act as a sentinel indicator for the potential presence of more virulent strains [41]. Its frequent co-occurrence with L. monocytogenes suggests that both species may originate from similar ecological reservoirs, most likely linked to cross-contamination in slaughterhouses, butcher shops, or meat processing environments where cleaning and disinfection protocols are insufficient or inconsistently applied. The detection of other bacterial genera, particularly members of the Enterobacteriaceae family and Staphylococcus spp., further underscores the likelihood of fecal contamination, improper hand hygiene, and temperature abuse during transportation and retail display. Studies from other parts of Ethiopia, including Gebretsadik et al. (2021) and Mohammed et al. (2023), also reported similar microbial profiles in beef and poultry products, highlighting a persistent public health hazard. The situation in Ethiopia reflects a broader pattern observed in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), where limitations in infrastructure, lack of functional cold chains, and weak regulatory enforcement create an enabling environment for the spread of foodborne pathogens [42]. For comparison, in many developed countries, the prevalence of L. monocytogenes in retail meat products typically remains below 5%, largely due to the consistent implementation of Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) systems and temperature-controlled supply chains [43]. In contrast, Ethiopia's meat inspection system remains fragmented, and many retail outlets lack the necessary infrastructure to ensure safe meat handling. Inadequate regulatory oversight, coupled with limited awareness among vendors and consumers, contributes to the unchecked circulation of pathogenic microorganisms in the food supply. The presence of L. monocytogenes in meat products that require minimal or no further cooking presents a particularly critical food safety challenge. Furthermore, findings from this study support ongoing national efforts to improve food safety governance. The Ethiopian Food and Drug Authority (EFDA, 2022) has emphasized the importance of establishing risk-based meat inspection frameworks, improving hygienic slaughterhouse infrastructure, and introducing routine microbial surveillance to better protect consumers. 5. Conclusion This study reveals a troubling level of microbial contamination in meat and meat products available in the retail markets of Jimma Town, raising significant concerns for public health and food safety. A total of 1,750 bacterial isolates were identified from the aerobic mesophilic count, indicating widespread contamination across the sampled meat items. The bacterial profile predominantly featured Gram-positive species, with Staphylococcus spp. making up the largest share (33.71%), followed by Bacillus spp. (27.9%) and Micrococcus spp. (11.37%). These bacteria are typically linked to inadequate sanitation and poor handling practices during meat processing and storage. In contrast, Gram-negative bacteria comprised 24.57% of the isolates, with the Enterobacteriaceae family (10.97%), Pseudomonas spp. (8.57%), and Aeromonas spp. (4.62%) being the most frequently found. Their presence raises concerns about possible fecal contamination and unsanitary conditions throughout the meat handling process, from slaughter to retail display. One particularly concerning finding was the detection of Listeria species in 29.7% of the tested meat samples. Among these, Listeria monocytogenes , which can cause severe illnesses such as meningitis and septicemia, was found in 23.1% of the Listeria -positive isolates. The remaining isolates were primarily Listeria innocua , a species generally not harmful to humans but often used as an indicator of environmental hygiene. The presence of L. monocytogenes in raw and lightly cooked dishes—like dulet and minced meat—is especially alarming, as these products are frequently consumed with little or no further cooking, allowing dangerous pathogens to survive. These findings highlight significant weaknesses in hygiene and cold chain management within the meat value chain in Jimma. Compared to international standards, where L. monocytogenes contamination in retail meat rarely exceeds 5%, the high prevalence observed here points to a serious public health issue that requires urgent action. To tackle these challenges, several measures should be prioritized. Routine microbiological testing of meat products should be implemented to monitor contamination levels and identify high-risk pathogens. Training programs for meat handlers and vendors are essential to improve awareness and adherence to safe hygiene practices. Public education campaigns about the risks of consuming undercooked or raw meat should be expanded. Additionally, investment in modern slaughterhouses, cold storage, and transport infrastructure will be crucial for reducing bacterial contamination. Finally, stronger regulatory oversight and enforcement of food safety standards are necessary to align local practices with international benchmarks and safeguard consumer health. Declarations Ethics approval Before starting the study, we obtained formal permission from the Jimma Town Trade and Industry Office, which officially approved our data collection in selected retail markets selling meat and related products. We took care to clearly explain the study’s purpose, procedures, and expected benefits to market authorities, vendors, and other involved parties. Their participation was completely voluntary, and all interactions were conducted openly and respectfully. Since no direct experiments involving humans or animals were carried out, and no personal or identifying data were collected, ethical approval from an institutional review board was not required. Consent for publication This manuscript does not include any personal or identifiable information about individuals. Funding This research was carried out without any external financial support from public, private, or non-governmental organizations. Availability of data and materials The data collected during this study are confidential due to agreements with participating markets and vendors. However, these datasets can be provided by the corresponding author if requested for legitimate purposes. Acknowledgements We express our sincere gratitude to the Jimma Town Trade and Industry Office for granting permission and supporting our work. 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Prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility of Listeria monocytogenes isolated from raw meat and milk in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. J Food Prot. 2012;75(11):1943–8. FAO/WHO. (2021). Multistakeholder partnerships to strengthen food safety in the food supply chain . WHO. Foodborne diseases. Retrieved from [WHO Website]; 2023. EFSA. The European Union summary report on trends and sources of zoonoses and zoonotic agents in food and feed in 2020. EFSA J. 2022;19(12):e07382. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7313446","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":498564058,"identity":"ac41f9be-637e-445f-9387-b5435bf3d77f","order_by":0,"name":"Juhar Abas¹","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAv0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACxgYGxgMJBnJyDAw8xGthAGoxNiZeCwgcYGAwTmwgWgtzA/ODAw8KDNI3HD978MEHBjs53QaCDmMzADrMIHfDmbxkwxkMycZmBwhqYQBp+ZO74UCOmTQPw4HEbYS1sH8A2ZJucP4N0Vp4wA5LMLhBvC08BSAthjNvvDE2nGFAhF8MG9g3Pvzxx0Ce73yO4YMPFXZyhLXMfwBhKIBVGhBQDgLycEYDEapHwSgYBaNgZAIAaDZDzrW4VUEAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Haramaya University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Juhar","middleName":"","lastName":"Abas¹","suffix":""},{"id":498564059,"identity":"58b4ae63-634c-4129-ad32-8d5ffdb72aab","order_by":1,"name":"Zelalem Bekeko¹","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Haramaya University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zelalem","middleName":"","lastName":"Bekeko¹","suffix":""},{"id":498564060,"identity":"40f65423-20ff-4f4f-a9ec-4269be0bf230","order_by":2,"name":"Abdisha Abrahim²","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Haramaya University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Abdisha","middleName":"","lastName":"Abrahim²","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-08-07 00:23:10","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7313446/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7313446/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":88872868,"identity":"78118981-fe29-44eb-8e96-be9e6ce596d1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-12 09:34:57","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":164644,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGeographical positioning of the study area, Jemma town, South Western Ethiopia.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7313446/v1/d55fb2b5cee3f5bc9cf1479b.png"},{"id":93489652,"identity":"614d539c-13cc-4283-84e1-2efdbec34597","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-14 11:55:00","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":882879,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7313446/v1/6590f7d2-a870-407d-b6c6-5caf9b3c8b3e.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eMicrobial Load in Meat and Meat Products in Retail Markets of Jimma Town, Ethiopia: Implications for Food Safety and Public Health\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAnimal-derived food products are essential for human nutrition, offering nutrient-rich options that often surpass plant-based sources in both concentration and bioavailability of micronutrients [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e][\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. These foods provide high-quality protein and vital micronutrients critical for human growth and well-being, despite their relatively higher costs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, livestock production systems play a significant role in generating household income and creating job opportunities across various stages of the food supply chain [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn recent years, the global demand for meat, milk, and dairy products has dramatically increased [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e], resulting in intensified animal production practices and longer processing chains. Unfortunately, this rise in production often leads to lapses in hygiene standards at different stages, including production, transportation, and retail. Such shortcomings can expose these products to microbial contamination and the growth of foodborne pathogens [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. The presence of microbiological hazards, such as bacteria, yeasts, and molds, poses a serious threat to consumer health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, ensuring food safety requires continuous monitoring and diligence across the entire farm-to-fork continuum to prevent contamination and protect public health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eContamination in animal-derived foods can originate from a variety of sources, including environmental conditions, unsanitary practices, and inadequate handling [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Numerous studies have highlighted the presence of various bacterial species in both raw and processed meat and dairy products. For example, research by Atlabachew and Mamo [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e] found that beef and contact surfaces were primarily contaminated with \u003cem\u003eEnterobacteriaceae\u003c/em\u003e (36%), \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus\u003c/em\u003e spp. (24%), \u003cem\u003eBacillus\u003c/em\u003e spp. (19%), \u003cem\u003eStreptococcus\u003c/em\u003e spp. (10%), and \u003cem\u003ePseudomonas\u003c/em\u003e spp. (7%). Similarly, raw milk was reported to contain \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus\u003c/em\u003e spp. (10%), \u003cem\u003eEnterobacteriaceae\u003c/em\u003e (7%), \u003cem\u003ePseudomonas\u003c/em\u003e spp. (5%), \u003cem\u003eMicrococcus\u003c/em\u003e spp. (5%), and \u003cem\u003eBacillus\u003c/em\u003e spp. (4%) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFoodborne pathogens, such as \u003cem\u003eBacillus cereus\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e], \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e], \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e], and \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e spp. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e], have been identified in meat and dairy products worldwide. In Ethiopia, various studies have confirmed the presence of these pathogens, including \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e spp. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e][\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e][\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e], \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e][\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e][\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e], \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e][\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e], \u003cem\u003eB. cereus\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e], and \u003cem\u003eShigella\u003c/em\u003e spp. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Jimma, previous studies have highlighted the presence of \u003cem\u003eListeria\u003c/em\u003e spp. in milk [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e], \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e spp. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e], and \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e in cream cakes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e], indicating the need for ongoing microbial surveillance in the area. Additionally, the extensive use of antibiotics in livestock farming has led to the emergence of resistant strains [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. For instance, \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e spp. isolated from foods like minced meat, raw milk, and cream cakes exhibited high resistance rates to streptomycin (100%) and kanamycin (77.8%) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, \u003cem\u003eB. cereus\u003c/em\u003e isolates showed resistance to erythromycin (27.2%) and chloramphenicol (11.3%), while remaining sensitive to gentamicin (68.1%) and streptomycin (79.5%) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite these alarming findings, there is a notable lack of comprehensive studies addressing both the microbial quality and safety aspects of raw meat and selected dairy products in Jimma Town. This study was intended to bridge this gap by assessing the microbial safety and quality of meat and its products being sold in Jimma. In doing so, it intended to offer important insights into the state of food safety in the city, highlighting the critical need for enhanced practices and policies to protect consumer health.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Description of study area\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis study was carried out in Jimma Town, positioned approximately 353 kilometers southwest of Addis Ababa, at geographic coordinates 7\u0026deg;41\u0026prime;N and 36\u0026deg;50\u0026prime;E(Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The town sits at an average elevation of 1,780 meters above sea level and is situated within the Woyna Dega agro-climatic zone, which spans altitudes from 1,500 to 2,400 meters. This zone is known for its mild temperatures and relatively high humidity levels, with average annual temperatures ranging between 14\u0026deg;C and 30\u0026deg;C [32]. These environmental conditions are favorable not only for agriculture but also for the proliferation of microorganisms in perishable, animal-based food items.The sampling process involved random selection of various active food establishments and retail outlets that handle or sell meat and meat products. As a key urban and commercial center in southwestern Ethiopia, Jimma hosts numerous formal and informal meat vendors and is a focal point for food trade. The town was selected because of its distinct features, including a dense population, bustling trade networks, and a range of food handling practices. These aspects increase the likelihood of microbial contamination, making it a vital area for researching food safety and quality. The findings from this study can help enhance food safety practices in similar communities. [33][34].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Sample size determination\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe study originally estimated a sample size of 323 using the formula \u003cimg src=\"data:image/png;base64,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\" width=\"134\" height=\"57\"\u003e(35), where Z\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.96,Z\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.96,Z\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.96, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.30p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.30p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.30, and E\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05E\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05E\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05. However, it was opted to gather 175 samples instead, mainly due to limitations in resources and difficulties in accessing food sources. Despite the smaller size, this sample is still expected to provide meaningful insights into microbial contamination and contribute to discussions on food safety in the area.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Study design and sample collection\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn this study, a cross-sectional design was utilized to evaluate the microbial quality and safety of common raw and processed animal-derived foods available in Jimma Town. A total of 175 samples were collected, which included raw minced meat, lightly fried minced meat, chicken, dulet (a traditional meat dish), refrigerated fish, lightly fried fish, and burgers. These samples were aseptically gathered from various retail outlets and street vendors to reflect typical consumer exposure. The collection process adhered to established international protocols to minimize contamination during handling and transport [36]. Each sample was placed in sterile, labeled containers and transported in insulated cool boxes, kept at around 4\u0026deg;C, to ensure they reached the laboratory for microbiological analysis within 24 hours [37].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Microbiological analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis research was conducted to assess the microbiological quality of meat and meat products by examining a range of microbial groups. These included total aerobic mesophilic bacteria, anaerobic mesophilic bacteria, aerobic and anaerobic spore-formers, species of \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus\u003c/em\u003e, members of the \u003cem\u003eEnterobacteriaceae\u003c/em\u003e family, coliforms, as well as yeasts and molds. The quantification of these microorganisms was carried out using standard plate count techniques under strictly maintained laboratory conditions. Analytical procedures adhered to globally recognized microbiological standards to guarantee precision and repeatability. For instance, aerobic mesophilic counts were conducted following ISO 4833-1:2013 guidelines, while the enumeration of \u003cem\u003eEnterobacteriaceae\u003c/em\u003e was based on ISO 21528-2:2017. Methods recommended by the FDA\u0026apos;s Bacteriological Analytical Manual (2023 edition) were used to detect and count yeasts and molds.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFor the identification of \u003cem\u003eListeria\u003c/em\u003e species, particularly \u003cem\u003eListeria monocytogenes\u003c/em\u003e, a selective enrichment method was employed. This involved culturing on Oxford agar, as outlined in ISO 11290-1:2017, allowing effective differentiation of \u003cem\u003eL. monocytogenes\u003c/em\u003e from other related species. Initial identification relied on morphological characteristics of the colonies grown on selective media, followed by confirmatory classical biochemical analyses described in Bergey\u0026rsquo;s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology [38].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.5 Bacterial isolation and identification\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe process of identifying bacterial species followed a systematic, multi-step approach. Initially, colonies were evaluated based on their morphological attributes such as pigmentation, form, elevation, and margins observed on both general and selective media. Gram staining was then employed to distinguish between gram-positive and gram-negative organisms.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo specifically isolate \u003cem\u003eListeria\u003c/em\u003e species, a two-step enrichment protocol was applied. The first phase involved culturing samples in Listeria Enrichment Broth, followed by a secondary enrichment in Fraser broth. This method promoted the selective growth of \u003cem\u003eListeria\u003c/em\u003e by suppressing competing bacteria. After incubation, the cultures were plated onto Oxford agar, where \u003cem\u003eListeria\u003c/em\u003e colonies could be tentatively identified by their unique appearance.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePresumptive \u003cem\u003eListeria\u003c/em\u003e isolates were subjected to confirmatory testing using simple biochemical assays\u0026mdash;such as the catalase reaction, assessment of motility at ambient temperature, and carbohydrate fermentation profiling. To ensure robust and reproducible identification, a commercially available identification kit (API Listeria, bioM\u0026eacute;rieux) was used, aligned with the standards set by ISO 11290-1:2017 and the FDA BAM (2021). This thorough identification process provided reliable classification of \u003cem\u003eListeria monocytogenes\u003c/em\u003e and related strains, contributing to the overall understanding of microbial risks present in the meat products analyzed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.6 Data analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn analyzing the microbiological data, descriptive statistics were employed to provide a clear overview of the results. This process involved calculating means, standard deviations, and coefficients of variation, which helped to highlight both the variability and central tendencies of microbial counts across various sample types. To determine the prevalence of \u003cem\u003eListeria\u003c/em\u003e spp. and other critical foodborne pathogens, the proportion of samples testing positive was carefully calculated. Statistical analyses were carried out using SPSS software version 25.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). This tool proved invaluable for effectively summarizing the data and uncovering distribution patterns within the dataset. The analytical techniques used adhered to recognized standards in food microbiology research, as detailed by ISO (2017) and supported by the World Health Organization\u0026apos;s Foodborne Disease Burden Epidemiology Reference Group [39]. This thorough approach ensured that the data was analyzed in a comprehensive and precise manner, contributing to the reliability of the findings.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Microbial load of the food items\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of meat and meat products from retail markets in Jimma Town revealed consistently high levels of microbial contamination across all samples (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Dulet showed the highest total aerobic mesophilic count (1.36 \u0026times; 10\u0026sup1;⁰ CFU/g), followed by raw minced meat, mildly fried minced meat, and burgers, suggesting lapses in hygiene during processing or handling. The minimal cooking of dulet makes it especially risky from a food safety standpoint. Significant levels of anaerobic mesophilic and spore-forming bacteria were detected in all items, along with common indicator organisms such as Staphylococci, Enterobacteriaceae, coliforms, yeasts, and molds, reflecting poor sanitation and insufficient heat treatment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean microbial counts (log cfu/g) in meat and meat products collected from Jimma Town\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFood Item\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTAMC (Mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCV (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnaerobic MC (Mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCV (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAerobic Spore Formers (Mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCV (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnaerobic Spore Formers (Mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCV (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRaw Minced Meat\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMildly Fried Minced\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChicken\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.79\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDulet\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.61\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRefrigerated Fish\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.18\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMildly Fried Fish\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.79\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBurger\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.26\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.74\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.18\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTAMC: Total Aerobic Mesophilic Count; CFU/g: Colony Forming Units per gram; SD: Standard Deviation; CV (%): Coefficient of Variation (percentage).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Bacterial Isolate Profiling\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrom the Total Aerobic Mesophilic Count (TAMC) analysis, a total of 1,750 bacterial isolates were identified across the collected meat and meat product samples. The majority\u0026mdash;approximately 75.43%\u0026mdash;were Gram-positive bacteria, with \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus\u003c/em\u003e (33.71%) emerging as the most frequent genus, followed by \u003cem\u003eBacillus\u003c/em\u003e spp. (27.9%) and \u003cem\u003eMicrococcus\u003c/em\u003e spp. (11.37%). The remaining 24.57% of the isolates were Gram-negative, with dominant genera including \u003cem\u003eEnterobacteriaceae\u003c/em\u003e (10.97%), \u003cem\u003ePseudomonas\u003c/em\u003e spp. (8.57%), and \u003cem\u003eAeromonas\u003c/em\u003e spp. (4.62%).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe presence of these microbial groups points to a concerning level of contamination involving both spoilage organisms and potentially harmful pathogens. Particularly, the high detection rates of \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus\u003c/em\u003e and members of the \u003cem\u003eEnterobacteriaceae\u003c/em\u003e family may indicate poor hygiene, cross-contamination, and possibly fecal exposure during meat processing, handling, or storage. These findings highlight the urgent need for stricter sanitation and food safety measures throughout the meat value chain to protect public health.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3 Prevalence of \u003cem\u003eListeria\u003c/em\u003e species in meat and meat products\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA total of 175 meat samples were examined to assess contamination by \u003cem\u003eListeria\u003c/em\u003e species (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Of these, 52 samples (29.7%) tested positive. The highest prevalence was recorded in dulet\u0026mdash;a popular Ethiopian ready-to-eat meat dish\u0026mdash;where 34.62% of samples showed contamination. This was followed by raw minced meat at 23.08%, and chicken at 19.23%. When the positive isolates were further characterized, \u003cem\u003eListeria innocua\u003c/em\u003e emerged as the most commonly detected species, making up 53.9% of all \u003cem\u003eListeria\u003c/em\u003e isolates. Meanwhile, \u003cem\u003eListeria monocytogenes\u003c/em\u003e, a pathogen of major public health concern, was found in 23.1% of the positive samples.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe detection of \u003cem\u003eL. monocytogenes\u003c/em\u003e in both raw and ready-to-eat meat products, particularly in dulet, suggests a possible post-processing contamination or insufficient hygiene practices during handling and preparation. This presents a serious food safety threat, especially to vulnerable populations such as the elderly, pregnant women, newborns, and those with weakened immune systems. These findings call for immediate improvements in hygiene standards, safe meat handling practices, and regular microbiological surveillance in meat retail settings to reduce consumer risk.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrevalence of \u003cem\u003eListeria\u003c/em\u003e spp. in different meat types collected from Jimma Town.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeat Type\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo. of Samples Tested\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo. Positive for \u003cem\u003eListeria\u003c/em\u003e spp. (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrevalence of \u003cem\u003eL. innocua\u003c/em\u003e (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrevalence of \u003cem\u003eL. monocytogenes\u003c/em\u003e (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDulet\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18 (34.62)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10 (55.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5 (27.8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRaw Minced Meat\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9 (23.08)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5 (55.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2 (22.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChicken\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5 (19.23)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3 (60.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 (20.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOther Meat Products\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20 (34.48)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10 (50.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2 (10.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e175\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52 (29.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28 (53.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12 (23.1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe detection of elevated microbial loads, particularly in ready-to-eat and minimally processed meat products such as dulet and raw minced meat, raises significant public health and hygiene concerns within the meat value chain in Jimma Town. These findings reflect potential lapses in sanitary handling practices, poor temperature control, and contamination introduced during processing or retail stages. Out of 175 meat samples analyzed, \u003cem\u003eListeria\u003c/em\u003e species were detected in 29.7%, a figure that is particularly troubling given the inclusion of \u003cem\u003eListeria monocytogenes\u003c/em\u003e\u0026mdash;a pathogen capable of causing life-threatening illnesses such as listeriosis, meningitis, and septicemia, especially among vulnerable groups such as pregnant women, newborns, the elderly, and immunocompromised individuals [40].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe contamination rate was highest in dulet (34.62%), a traditional Ethiopian dish that is commonly served warm or partially cooked, often bypassing thorough heat treatments that could otherwise eliminate bacterial pathogens. This heightens the risk of infection, aligning with previous Ethiopian studies\u0026mdash;for instance, Tadesse and Dabassa (2012) and Abebe et al. (2019)\u0026mdash;which documented the presence of \u003cem\u003eL. monocytogenes\u003c/em\u003e in raw and processed meats sold in local markets. Similarly, Similarly, Ayalew et al. (2020) reported \u003cem\u003eListeria\u003c/em\u003e species in 31% of meat samples from Addis Ababa, reinforcing concerns that contamination is not isolated but rather a widespread and under-recognized issue across Ethiopian meat markets.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNotably, the dominance of \u003cem\u003eListeria innocua\u003c/em\u003e (53.9%) among the isolates mirrors global findings where this non-pathogenic species is frequently associated with hygiene breakdowns and can act as a sentinel indicator for the potential presence of more virulent strains [41]. Its frequent co-occurrence with \u003cem\u003eL. monocytogenes\u003c/em\u003e suggests that both species may originate from similar ecological reservoirs, most likely linked to cross-contamination in slaughterhouses, butcher shops, or meat processing environments where cleaning and disinfection protocols are insufficient or inconsistently applied.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe detection of other bacterial genera, particularly members of the \u003cem\u003eEnterobacteriaceae\u003c/em\u003e family and \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus\u003c/em\u003e spp., further underscores the likelihood of fecal contamination, improper hand hygiene, and temperature abuse during transportation and retail display. Studies from other parts of Ethiopia, including Gebretsadik et al. (2021) and Mohammed et al. (2023), also reported similar microbial profiles in beef and poultry products, highlighting a persistent public health hazard.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe situation in Ethiopia reflects a broader pattern observed in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), where limitations in infrastructure, lack of functional cold chains, and weak regulatory enforcement create an enabling environment for the spread of foodborne pathogens [42]. For comparison, in many developed countries, the prevalence of \u003cem\u003eL. monocytogenes\u003c/em\u003e in retail meat products typically remains below 5%, largely due to the consistent implementation of Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) systems and temperature-controlled supply chains [43].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn contrast, Ethiopia's meat inspection system remains fragmented, and many retail outlets lack the necessary infrastructure to ensure safe meat handling. Inadequate regulatory oversight, coupled with limited awareness among vendors and consumers, contributes to the unchecked circulation of pathogenic microorganisms in the food supply. The presence of \u003cem\u003eL. monocytogenes\u003c/em\u003e in meat products that require minimal or no further cooking presents a particularly critical food safety challenge. Furthermore, findings from this study support ongoing national efforts to improve food safety governance. The Ethiopian Food and Drug Authority (EFDA, 2022) has emphasized the importance of establishing risk-based meat inspection frameworks, improving hygienic slaughterhouse infrastructure, and introducing routine microbial surveillance to better protect consumers.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study reveals a troubling level of microbial contamination in meat and meat products available in the retail markets of Jimma Town, raising significant concerns for public health and food safety. A total of 1,750 bacterial isolates were identified from the aerobic mesophilic count, indicating widespread contamination across the sampled meat items.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe bacterial profile predominantly featured Gram-positive species, with \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus\u003c/em\u003e spp. making up the largest share (33.71%), followed by \u003cem\u003eBacillus\u003c/em\u003e spp. (27.9%) and \u003cem\u003eMicrococcus\u003c/em\u003e spp. (11.37%). These bacteria are typically linked to inadequate sanitation and poor handling practices during meat processing and storage. In contrast, Gram-negative bacteria comprised 24.57% of the isolates, with the \u003cem\u003eEnterobacteriaceae\u003c/em\u003e family (10.97%), \u003cem\u003ePseudomonas\u003c/em\u003e spp. (8.57%), and \u003cem\u003eAeromonas\u003c/em\u003e spp. (4.62%) being the most frequently found. Their presence raises concerns about possible fecal contamination and unsanitary conditions throughout the meat handling process, from slaughter to retail display.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne particularly concerning finding was the detection of \u003cem\u003eListeria\u003c/em\u003e species in 29.7% of the tested meat samples. Among these, \u003cem\u003eListeria monocytogenes\u003c/em\u003e, which can cause severe illnesses such as meningitis and septicemia, was found in 23.1% of the \u003cem\u003eListeria\u003c/em\u003e-positive isolates. The remaining isolates were primarily \u003cem\u003eListeria innocua\u003c/em\u003e, a species generally not harmful to humans but often used as an indicator of environmental hygiene. The presence of \u003cem\u003eL. monocytogenes\u003c/em\u003e in raw and lightly cooked dishes\u0026mdash;like dulet and minced meat\u0026mdash;is especially alarming, as these products are frequently consumed with little or no further cooking, allowing dangerous pathogens to survive.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese findings highlight significant weaknesses in hygiene and cold chain management within the meat value chain in Jimma. Compared to international standards, where \u003cem\u003eL. monocytogenes\u003c/em\u003e contamination in retail meat rarely exceeds 5%, the high prevalence observed here points to a serious public health issue that requires urgent action. To tackle these challenges, several measures should be prioritized. Routine microbiological testing of meat products should be implemented to monitor contamination levels and identify high-risk pathogens. Training programs for meat handlers and vendors are essential to improve awareness and adherence to safe hygiene practices. Public education campaigns about the risks of consuming undercooked or raw meat should be expanded. Additionally, investment in modern slaughterhouses, cold storage, and transport infrastructure will be crucial for reducing bacterial contamination. Finally, stronger regulatory oversight and enforcement of food safety standards are necessary to align local practices with international benchmarks and safeguard consumer health.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eEthics approval\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBefore starting the study, we obtained formal permission from the Jimma Town Trade and Industry Office, which officially approved our data collection in selected retail markets selling meat and related products. We took care to clearly explain the study\u0026rsquo;s purpose, procedures, and expected benefits to market authorities, vendors, and other involved parties. Their participation was completely voluntary, and all interactions were conducted openly and respectfully. Since no direct experiments involving humans or animals were carried out, and no personal or identifying data were collected, ethical approval from an institutional review board was not required.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis manuscript does not include any personal or identifiable information about individuals.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was carried out without any external financial support from public, private, or non-governmental organizations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data collected during this study are confidential due to agreements with participating markets and vendors. However, these datasets can be provided by the corresponding author if requested for legitimate purposes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe express our sincere gratitude to the Jimma Town Trade and Industry Office for granting permission and supporting our work. We also thank the market managers, meat sellers, food handlers, and laboratory staff whose cooperation and assistance were vital for the successful completion of this research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest, financial or otherwise, related to this study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHilborn R, Arsenault R, Beeskow J, Chaplin-Kramer R, Chiutsi S, Clark M, Smukler S. The environmental cost of animal source foods. 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EFSA J. 2022;19(12):e07382.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Microbial load, Listeria species, Meat safety, Jimma Town, Ethiopia, Antimicrobial resistance, Foodborne pathogens, Public health risk","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7313446/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7313446/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eFood safety remains a crucial issue worldwide, affecting both affluent and developing nations, especially concerning products derived from animals. This research aimed to investigate the microbial quality and safety of meat and meat products sold in retail markets in Jimma Town, Southwestern Ethiopia, with a particular focus on Listeria species. A total of 175 samples were gathered, including raw minced meat, mildly fried minced meat, chicken, dulet (a traditional Ethiopian dish), refrigerated fish, mildly fried fish, and burger products. These samples underwent thorough microbiological evaluations, examining total aerobic mesophilic counts (TAMC), total anaerobic mesophilic bacteria, spore formers, and various bacterial groups like Staphylococcus, Enterobacteriaceae, coliforms, yeasts, and molds. The analysis revealed that dulet had the highest TAMC at 1.36 x 10^10 CFU/g, followed closely by raw minced meat at 7.61 x 10^9 CFU/g. This suggests significant microbial contamination, likely due to inadequate hygiene during processing and storage. A total of 1,750 bacterial isolates were identified, with 75.43% being gram-positive, primarily Staphylococcus (33.71%), Bacillus spp. (27.9%), and Micrococcus spp. (11.37%). Among the gram-negative bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae accounted for 10.97%, and Pseudomonas made up 8.57%. Listeria species were found in 52 samples (29.7%), with Listeria innocua being the most common. These findings highlight the urgent need for enhanced food safety practices and public health measures in the region to safeguard consumer health.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Microbial Load in Meat and Meat Products in Retail Markets of Jimma Town, Ethiopia: Implications for Food Safety and Public Health","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-12 09:34:52","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7313446/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"32e61ba5-9491-41c7-9cdf-1806ca07b68b","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 12th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-14T11:54:36+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-12 09:34:52","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7313446","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7313446","identity":"rs-7313446","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}