Labor market reintegration strategies of Albanian return migrants from Greece: The role of human and social capital

Labor market reintegration strategies of Albanian return migrants from Greece: The role of human and social capital | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Labor market reintegration strategies of Albanian return migrants from Greece: The role of human and social capital Armela Xhaho, Ajay Bailey, Erka Caro This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4901254/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract For many migrants, returning to their country of origin is an important turning point in their migration trajectory. However, whether reverse migration proves successful depends largely on whether returnees are again able to participate in the social, economic, cultural, and political life of their country of origin. This paper draws on 37 biographical interviews conducted with Albanian returnees in three different geographical areas of Albania: Fier, Tirana, and Voskopoja. It aims to capture the diverse strategies the return migrants employed in navigating the labor market upon their return. We examine how the social and human capital the returnees accumulated while abroad shaped their patterns of reintegration into the labor market. We find that the returnees’ social capital in the form of social relationships and their human capital in the form of work experience influenced their entrepreneurial activities in their home country. Moreover, we observe that some of the returnees who were able to capitalize on their migration experiences in their host country introduced a new work culture and new products to their home country and offered better quality work than their local competitors. Our findings further indicate that while the returnees’ social networks improved their economic prospects, the levels of trust and social responsibility in these networks enabled them to develop and expand their business activities. return labor market reintegration entrepreneurship social network human capital 1. Introduction For many migrants, returning to their country of origin is an important turning point in their migration trajectory. However, whether reverse migration proves successful depends largely on whether returnees can reintegrate into their community [1] and on the extent to which they can resume participation in the social, economic, cultural, and political life of their country of origin [2]. Effective reintegration is crucial for returnees seeking to contribute to their country of origin by making investments, introducing new ideas, or building trade and business networks [3]. Against this backdrop, this study extends the ongoing theoretical and empirical analysis of return trajectories by capturing the diverse strategies Albanian migrants returning to their home country from Greece have used in navigating the labor market upon their return. Specifically, we examine how the social and human capital the returnees accumulated while abroad shaped their patterns of reintegration into the labor market. Many studies have analyzed the impact of migration and remittances on investment potential in the origin country [4,5,6,7,8). Other studies largely focused on the profile of returnees and on their reasons for returning (9;10; 11;12), identity construction after return migration (11; 13, 14), circular and transnational patterns of migration (15; 3;16); family influences upon return decisions and transfer of social, human and financial capital ( 17 ) and as well as on reintegration and structural challenges upon return (18;19;20). While this literature has shed further light on the link between return migration and entrepreneurship/investment potential in the country of origin (21; 11, 2008; 1,8, 22), there is limited empirical evidence on the strategies return migrants use to adapt to the labor market of their home country upon their return. The question of how returnees’ social capital and human capital affect their labor market reintegration process has been generally overlooked. Indeed, the role that return migrants’ social networks play in their entrepreneurial activities back in Albania has also attracted very little attention (23;24). This study adds to the existing literature by exploring the mechanisms and strategies returnees use to reintegrate into the labor market of Albania. Through an analysis of 37 biographical interviews, this article sheds light on the importance of the social and human capital migrants brings back to their home country. While return migration can be either voluntary or forced, the focus of this paper is on individuals who voluntarily returned to Albania after living in Greece. This study draws upon social network and human capital theoretical frameworks to explore in more detail the returnees’ patterns of reintegration into the labor market of their country of origin. The main research questions we want to explore in this study are as follows: What are the motives and patterns of return migration among Albanians returning to their home country after living in Greece? And how do the social networks and human capital of return migrants facilitate their reintegration into the labor market of their home country upon their return? 2. Return migration from Greece Greece has been one of the leading destination countries for Albanian migrants. At the beginning of the 1990s, most Albanian migration outflows to Greece followed a spontaneous and irregular path (24;9). In the early 2000s, these migratory trends were characterized by a low-intensity pattern and since then they were matured into more permanent family settlements (9). Various social, economic, and political factors triggered a wave of return migration from Greece that has been underway since 2001 (26). According to INSTAT (2020), a total of 95,064 Albanian citizens returned to Albania after living abroad in the 2011–2019 period, with the vast majority returning from Greece. Albanians returning from Greece have been found to be especially likely to invest their financial capital in a small, family-owned business in their home country ( 27 ). The decision to invest upon their return was sudden in some cases and was based on a well-organized and planned strategy in others. Studies have shown that most Albanians living in Greece maintained strong ties with their home country. There is also evidence that these returnees are inclined to seek work in the sectors in which they were employed in their host country (28), and that they tend to start businesses like those they have been exposed to while abroad (8;22; 33). Return migration is not necessarily the endpoint of the migration cycle; rather, it is one of several paths in the wider mobility process, as migrants may engage in multiple emigration and return migration episodes, and remigration [3]. It has been shown that the lack of reintegration policies in Albania is a push factor that leads many returnees to emigrate to another country ( 34 ). Regardless of whether returnees are planning to remain indefinitely in Albania, most have maintained strong ties with their home country by, for example, sending remittances, making regular visits, establishing transnational businesses, or building houses (34; 35). Such practices have led to the establishment of transnational communities ( 25 ) made up of individuals who move back and forth between the two countries (14). These transnational spaces enabled migrants to send financial and social remittances in the form of ideas, values, behaviors, and identities ( 29 ). 3. Theoretical framework: The role of social and human capital in the reintegration process Depending on whether returnees did or did not have positive social and economic experiences while abroad, their process of reintegration into their home country may be difficult. The reintegration process includes a wide range of economic, social-psychological, and cultural aspects that complement each other ( 30 ). While all these factors play a crucial role in the successful reintegration of returnees into their country of origin, the economic factors are of particular importance (31). Whether return migrants have reintegrated into the labor market of their home country is seen as a key indicator of their overall level of reintegration (31). Recent studies have suggested that there is a tendency for return migrants to engage in entrepreneurial activities (1; 34; 8, 22 in 8]. However, these studies also showed that whether returnees become entrepreneurs depends on their human capital, social networks, and access to credit ( 32 ) and on the reintegration infrastructure in their home country. In economic terms, successful migrants tend to be those who have either accumulated enough financial capital to start their own business upon return or who have obtained skills and knowledge that allow them to easily find a job and apply their skills ( 30 ). Returnees seeking to make business investments need social capital and human capital accumulated through work experience ( 33 ). According to Lin (2004, p.55–56), human capital consists of “resources possessed by the individual, who can use and dispose of them with great freedom and without much concern for compensation.” Human capital is accumulated through actions taken by individuals, mainly through education, training, and experience (36). In general, the literature on this topic has found that compared to non-migrants, returnees have better employment prospects and superior know-how and skills. On the other hand, “social capital is rooted in social networks and social relations and is conceived as resources embedded in a social structure that is accessed and/or mobilized in purposive actions” (36, p.41). This form of capital is generated by creating and maintaining direct and indirect social ties (36). Moreover, social capital is linked to an individual’s network of social relations ( 37 ), which are held together by norms of trust and reciprocity that provide mutual benefits (38; 37). Social networks play a key role in migrants’ willingness to return to their origin country. Whether migrants feel ready to return depends on the extent to which they can mobilize the resources they would need to return, such as the appropriate contacts, relationships, skills, and acquaintances [2]. Such resources emerge from patterns of interpersonal relationships and cross-border linkages. The maintenance of such networks is of paramount importance, as returnees may need these networks to implement their initiatives and projects following their return [2;39). In addition, migrants’ willingness to return may depend on whether they have the relevant information about the origin country. Having cross-border and domestic social capital (family and friends) can greatly enhance the reintegration process (35; 27). There is a vast body of literature supporting the claim that social networks facilitate returnees’ access to information about job and economic opportunities (40;41;42;37;31). Personal social networks, and family ties facilitate entrepreneurs’ access to the financial and other resources they need to develop new ventures (43). In addition, immigrants seem to benefit considerably from their social contacts, who can provide them with useful publicly available and restricted information on the labor market in general, as well on the regulations and practices relevant to setting up a new business, which may be specific to the host country (41;42). Scholars have suggested that entrepreneurs’ network ties have three different types of utility (advice, resources, and emotional support) that are central to supporting the growth of new ventures (43;44). Advice networks can help entrepreneurs identify opportunities for new products or services; facilitate their access to specialized knowledge on industry trends, changes and gaps in supply chains and distribution channels, technology developments, new markets for existing products, consumer trends, and changes in laws and regulations ( 45 ) and advise them on sales and marketing strategies and financial decisions (44). Interpersonal trust has positive effects when making investment decisions ( 46 ) and loyalty between individuals increases the chances of business success (47). Receiving emotional support from network members can help entrepreneurs manage their psychological stress when faced with challenges, and can increase their motivation, commitment, and confidence (47). In addition, entrepreneurs rely on other individuals to gain access to key resources, such as the financial capital, labor, supplies, and new technologies they need to grow their business (48). These kinds of networks facilitate entrepreneurs’ access to customers and supplies. The friends and family members of entrepreneurs often serve as their first customers and can later spread information about the business among their networks through a kind of “snowball effect” (47). Considering these arguments, it appears that the social networks of return migrants could ease their reintegration into the social and economic life of their origin country ( 37 ). Moreover, the concept of social networks is a key element of the life course paradigm, which is based on the idea of linked lives, and on the embeddedness of life course events in social relationships ( 49 ). The principle of linked lives means that “individuals’ lives are not evolving in a vacuum but are interdependent: embedded in networks of social relations” ( 50 ). This principle is a suitable and potentially fruitful conceptual starting point for analyzing immigrants’ paths to reintegration through the lens of the social network paradigm. 4. Methodology The paper draws on 37 biographical interviews conducted with Albanian returnees from Greece. Of these interviews, 12 were carried out between 2015 and 2016, and 25 were carried out between March and May 2021. The empirical material used in this study is derived from fieldwork conducted in three different sites in Albania: Voskopoja located in the southeast; Tirana, located in the central part of the country; and Fier, located in the south. In our analysis, we employed a purposive selection of participants. We interviewed migrants who satisfied the following criteria: (a) they were over 18 years old when the interview took place; (b) they had spent more than one year abroad; and (c) they had some work experience in Greece. Identifying return migrants was not easy. My access to them largely depended on the “snowball method;” i.e., the contacts were generated through existing networks I had established through my previous interviews with participants, and my own familial and social bonds within the community. In addition, I contacted local NGOs working on the reintegration of return migrants to help me identify returnees. The field research was conducted primarily in bars and in the returnees’ workplaces and homes. The length of the interviews varied from approximately one to three hours. Participants were previously informed about the nature of the research; they were told explicitly that their participation was voluntary, and they were informed that they were free to end the interview at any time, or not to respond to particular questions. To preserve confidentiality, all the names of the participants are pseudonyms. All the interviews were conducted in the Albanian language and were then partially translated into English. The interviews broadly employed a life history approach, as they explored the participants’ life course experiences in Greece, their motivations for returning, and their post-return experiences and reintegration challenges. The interviews were coded based on the inductive approach and were analyzed thematically with the MAXQDA software program. The main themes and codes are presented in table 2. 5. Returning pathways: The role of social and human capital in labor market reintegration 5.1 Preparing for the return Most of the migrants in our sample who returned to Albania were driven by economic reasons; either their work in the destination country was affected by the 2008 economic crisis, or they perceived that they had better economic prospects in Albania. The economic crisis negatively affected many Albanian migrants, as most were working in the service industry or in construction, which was among the sectors that were hit the hardest by the crisis. Many of the interviewees reported that had been working in more than one job or had been working three shifts to make ends meet. Others said that their income from employment in their host country had been low because they were in precarious jobs. These challenges prompted many of the migrants in our sample to consider starting a business in Albania. They perceived that the economic situation in Albania provided potentially profitable investment opportunities. Moreover, several participants indicated that their fatigue from job-hopping and having extended working hours made the prospect of self-employment very appealing. In addition, family reasons and nostalgia prompted many of the Albanian migrants to return. Many of the interviewees said they returned to care for their elderly parents, particularly after their parents developed health problems. Another group of participants reported that they decided to return after having accumulated enough savings in the host country, which they planned to invest in, mostly in the tourism and services sectors. Although most interviewees indicated that they returned in response to the economic crisis, they noted that even before the onset of the crisis, they had maintained their relationships with family and friends across the border and made frequent visits to Albania. Few of them have made attempt to invest in their homeland even before the onset of the crisis. Our empirical evidence suggests that the migrants in our sample had multiple migration episodes before resettling in Albania. Although most of the participants lived in Greece for many years, most had visited Albania several times, especially during summer or winter vacations. For example, Esma, a 44-year-old kitchen assistant, said, “We visited [Albania] five times within a year. We've kept in touch with our friends here. I often came over to help my brother during winter.” Most of the migrants stayed in Greece long enough to save considerable financial capital and were eager to return and set up a new business. Several participants reported using the savings they accumulated abroad to establish a business. In many cases, there was a positive link between the employment experience the returnees acquired in Greece and their post-return employment experiences. Our empirical evidence showed that the Albanian returnees were inclined to work and invest in work profiles like those they became familiar with while abroad. Some of the return migrants had been working in food outlets and tourism in Greece and set up a similar business in Albania following their return. Merita, a 41-year-old woman, said, “Having had a positive experience in Greece with this kind of sector, I thought I could put my skills to practice and start a coffee bar business” (Merita, 41). 5.3 The role of social networks in facilitating labor market reintegration Through maintaining regular communication, visiting their home country, using the internet, and watching Albanian TV stations, the returnees were well informed about the political, economic, and social events that were taking place back home. The narratives of the returnees indicated that their systematic communication and cooperation with friends and family members proved useful, as it enabled them to get valuable and restricted information about potential investment pathways in Albania. Social networks provide information about labor market conditions and regulations Our findings showed that many of the returnees counted on their kin and friends for information about the business climate and labor market opportunities in Albania. The returnees reported that they faced many difficulties in re-entering the Albanian labor market, as they lacked the skills that were required, and were thus unprepared to take advantage of the potential investment pathways. It appears that very few return migrants in Albania get any kind of official labor market information from the migration counters that have been set up to serve as resource centers for return migrants. None of the returnees in our study reported accessing these migration counters or being aware that they existed. The interviews clearly showed that the returnees had very little information about policies or domestic legislation relevant for starting a business or gaining access to public services, and that family members and friends were their main sources of information. Thus, the participants reported relying on insights and tips from their networks, which they saw as good sources of information on the labor market and business conditions. When we returned here, we started inquiring about other hotels in the area. We asked around and we realized that many of our friends had started their hotels and restaurants. I would often ask them: “What's it like to have your hotel and how is the business climate over there [Albania]. I was influenced by them. We got some ideas from them and lots of useful information. Thought I should try it out once, with the support of my family. (Dardan, 30) I did refer to my family and friends for support. I got back in touch with some of my closest friends who helped me understand how things work in Albania; but in terms of developing a business idea, that was my original idea. They helped me adjust more easily to life here and get to know things, rules and business procedures, which I had no idea at all. I followed their advice, as I trust them a lot. (Merita 41) Social networks served in other cases as mediators for facilitating access to institutions and other business owners: We came to Albania thinking we would purchase a piece of land to build a winery, with a garden in the front so we could use it during the summer months. Because if we were to use it during winter, we would have to invest more in the property to install heating. We got in touch with our people here [friends and cousins] because they knew where we could get properties, but a lot of issues came up. Some properties were missing registration papers, some were being held up in court cases, and some were inadequate. We ended up renting the property of two elderly people in the area who had opened a restaurant. As we were chatting with our friends, we found out that their children had moved to Tirana and had gotten good jobs. We asked whether they were looking to rent the place and they said they would consider it if they found the right people. This is how we came across this property, and luckily, we reached an agreement with the owners thanks to the orientation and information we received from our friends. (Dashi, 38) Social networks provide ideas about where to invest Many returnees were uncertain about the types of businesses and the geographic areas in which they were seeking to invest. The returnees reported experiencing many difficulties in accessing labor market-specific information, orientation, and guidance from public institutions, and particularly information about the sectors in which they could invest their savings. While the fast-growing tourism industry offered attractive business opportunities for most of the returnees to Albania, others said they were assisted by their friends and acquaintances in identifying suitable sectors and geographic areas for investment. Therefore, they had to rely on the advice they received from their friends and cousins. I had my budget, but I had no idea where to invest. Our family friends came over to visit us and suggested this idea. They asked whether we ever intended to return to Albania. I told them we had nothing to do there; what jobs could we possibly do in Albania, with those low wages? I didn't have a profession, but on the other hand, my husband was complaining that work in construction was already diminishing. Our friends told us that in Voskopoja there was a need for bakeries. There used to be a bakery, but the owner had passed away, his widow had closed down the business and now the only way for them to get bread was to receive it from a guy who delivered it from Korca. We liked the idea of starting our own business. (Merita 41) It is interesting to note that for many of the interviewees, family and friends proved to be good sources of information on where they should or should not invest their financial capital. For example, Dashi, a 38-year-old chef, described how his investment decisions were directly influenced by the advice of his cousins. He had been working as a chef in a gourmet restaurant in Greece for more than 20 years, and he wanted to use that experience to invest in a restaurant in Tirana. However, he changed his mind after his cousins informed him that investing in Tirana was not a smart choice. There are fewer opportunities to invest in Tirana. Gourmet restaurants cost more than two million euros, or otherwise, you'd better go for a Korca Grill. I used to come to Tirana very often on Easter holidays, but I found the rent too expensive. I thought I could invest in Tirana since I had many friends and cousins that could assist me with both information and resources, and as clients. One of my cousins who lives in Tirana helped me get around and visit many restaurants. [...] He convinced me that it would be unwise to invest in a restaurant in Tirana because I wouldn't survive the market. Let alone with home cooking! (Dashi, 38) My siblings came over to visit us in Greece and they suggested that there was a need for this kind of work (bakery) in Voskopoje. We considered this their advice because we trusted them a lot and my husband were tired of working in construction. (Aulona, 40) Although the participants noted that the central government had announced several support schemes to incentivize the establishment of start-ups by offering soft loans and to help returnees reintegrate into the labor market, none of them indicated that they had profited from such schemes. Instead, they reported facing numerous challenges in accessing basic services, such as electricity and water, as well as administrative barriers and bureaucracy. All the returnees gave numerous examples of situations in which they were helped to gain access to services and resources by their social networks, and some reported that their social networks provided them with financial resources as well. I relied on my family for everything that I needed - starting with the initial capital I needed to start the business. I came to Voskopoja to buy a piece of land and one of my cousins who used to own a hotel advised me to start a winery in Voskopoja. He told me, “Get yourself a piece of land, grow a garden and work seasonally only during summertime. Six months of good income in Voskopoja would last you for an entire year.” (Dashi 38) These narratives show that relations among family members and friends were characterized by high levels of trust, which facilitated cooperation, mutuality, and comfort in sharing information. It appears that these advice networks were essential to returnees seeking to become entrepreneurs, as they provided them with easy access to reliable information. Personal networks were beneficial for the return migrants, as the networks offered them specific knowledge and advice about how the labor market functioned. As the narratives above clearly illustrate, the returnees had easier access to information thanks to their social networks. Thus, according to the interviewees, local social networks served as channels for gaining access to resources and helping them to expand their business activities. Social networks help in finding employment Although most of the participants said that they opened their own businesses after they returned from Greece, some reported that their friends and relatives helped them get a job following their return. Therefore, it appears that social capital played a role in the returnees’ access to employment in their home country. I got this job through a friend of mine, who used to work here previously. Before this, I used to work in a different tavern. I've been working here for four years now, and I like it - the working conditions are better. (Arba 24) Overall, the narratives presented in this section highlight that the returnees gained access to valuable resources for starting new ventures through network ties, including tangible resources, knowledge, and advice. Thus, our empirical findings suggest that the return migrants’ family ties and social and kinship networks helped them start and grow their business ventures. Using transnational networks to promote and enhance business prospects Many of the participants reported that their social networks helped them advertise their business and attract new clients. Friends living in both countries served as clients and as promotors of the returnees’ business activities through their social networks, i.e., through the “snowball effect” (47). Besides accumulating savings and learning new skills, some of the return migrants used their time abroad to build relationships with potential suppliers and find sources of information that would allow them to start, and gradually expand, small manufacturing businesses of their own. Kristaq, a 60-year-old plumber who opened a micro-enterprise selling construction materials in Fier, bought some of his materials and machines in Greece, where he also got some ideas about how to expand his business. Many of the migrants visited Albania very often while living in Greece, usually to see their family in friends, to renovate their house, or to have a vacation. They reported that during these trips, they noticed that the country was developing at a fast pace. This prompted many of the migrants to seek to replicate in Albania the types of businesses they were involved in while in Greece. Other migrants followed in their footsteps. These back-and-forth movements of the returnees created multiple relationships between their home country and their destination country, which they later mobilized to establish and expand transnational business structures. Some of the return migrants who had been working in the tourism sector in Greece took the opportunity to invite their friends in Greece to come to Albania as tourists. For example, one participant said that he had invited his Greek friends to stay in his hotel as guests or clients: Many friends from Thessaloniki came here as clients. Many of them are returning clients and they have spread the word about my business. They brought me new clients, and they advertised my business on their social networks; 99%-100% of the work here is thanks to my friends. My friends from Greece used to call me as they heard that I opened a business here, so they wanted to come over here. My friends here as well were my clients, and they played a key role in advertising my business to other clients all over Albania. All this work is established and expanded through friends. That's how things work over here. This business would not have survived without the assistance of my network, both friends and family. (Ceni, 53) As the narratives above show, the assistance provided by the returnees’ social networks went beyond giving advice. In many cases, friends and family members became customers themselves or recommended the business to other people. These narratives illustrate how the returnees used both cross-border and domestic social capital (family and friends) to help them reintegrate into the labor market. These networks included various kinds of interpersonal ties that linked people in both the origin country and the destination country through bonds of friendship, kinship and shared community (51). It thus appears that reciprocity, trust, and social responsibility played important roles in various contexts. 5.4 The role of human capital According to the participants, their migration experiences provided them with opportunities to enhance their skills, learn new languages, and learn innovative techniques that they were then able to transfer to their entrepreneurial activities in Albania. Human capital gained abroad: Knowledge and skills The returnees reported that their work experience in Greece was quite beneficial for them, as it enabled them to learn new languages and new ways of behaving: Waiters in Greece spoke at least two foreign languages. I learned English there, I already knew French and Italian since I was here, and I had learned Russian when I was at school. Meanwhile, Albanian waiters are generally less prepared. I am happy that I learned all these things in Greece, which could never be taught in Albania. (Arba, 24) I learned a lot about customer service in Greece because I've worked both in a hotel and in a restaurant. I'm very keen on making guests feel welcome, so every time we have guests over, I take over the hotel's reception desk. I learned to speak Greek and other foreign languages such as Italian and English, which come in handy even in Albania. I also learned the technique of setting the table for fine dining. I learned to be patient with clients. (Dardan 30) In addition, some of the returnees said that they had been able to apply innovative techniques and new skills and techniques they learned abroad in Albania. For example, one participant recounted that his father learned a new technology in Greece and brought it to Albania: My dad learned about the technology for extracting honey, which he is practicing here, with a few changes because the technology used there was of a higher quality. Whereas here, everything is done manually. (Dardan 30) These narratives indicate that the returnees brought to Albania the Greek style and Greek innovations, not only in their approaches to business, but also in their behavior, attitudes, and modes of communication. For example, some of the returnees reported that in Greece, they acquired technical skills and learned about business innovations and ethical standards that better comply with the European work culture: Upon my return, I insisted a lot on applying my knowledge of customer service and the management of the coffee bar. What I've brought back with me is a European style of communication. We've been here for 13 years now and I'm still maintaining it. While interacting with clients, I maintain the mantra I've learned in Greece: that the customer is always right. Whatever the client says because, at the end of the day, it's thanks to the client that we're working. (Desar, 44) The style of communication, culture, and attributes I've acquired in Greece have been very useful in terms of handling others with the proper respect. I did learn much on the professional level. There is no culture of ethical working in Albania. I've had a lot of issues with cleanliness. Apart from this, instead of doing their job, people tend to meddle in other people's affairs, comment on how much I'm learning and so on. (Skender 53) As well as bringing skills and knowledge about the Greek style to their business ventures in Albania, the returnees brought with them a better understanding of how to construct and furnish their business premises, as the comment below illustrates: Having worked in construction in Greece has helped me a lot to build my business back in Albania. I managed to build everything by myself, drawing on the methods and approaches I've learned when in Greece. Having worked in construction in Greece helped me a lot because I did the entire project myself. (Redon 47) Business pathways in Albania: Investing in familiar sectors and adapting the labor market Many of the returning migrants said that they sought to replicate in Albania the enterprises they had been working in while in Greece. For example, some of the migrants who worked in patisseries in Greece set up their own businesses after returning to Albania. Many of the participants reported becoming involved in service sector businesses, like trade and hotels/restaurants, or in manufacturing. Everything I now know it's because of my experience in Greece in the tourism sector. My approach to work, customer service, organization, and cooking skills - all this I learned in Greece. (Afrim 53) Making bread comes with difficulties. Initially, we hired a baker from Tirana, because we had no clue how to do it. He trained us and my husband learned how to make bread. When in Greece, my husband used to go over to an Albanian baker's shop to gain some bread baking skills and the profession gradually grew on him. (Aulona, 40) Several of the participants indicated that by capitalizing on their migration experiences in their host country, they were able to provide a new working culture, new products, or better-quality work in Albania than those offered by their local competitors. For some of the returnees, working in the same sector in Albania as they did in Greece facilitated the process of transferring their skills. However, others admitted that their initial plan for introducing the “Greek style” to their business activities in Albania was not always successful. Moreover, some of the returnees acknowledged that it was a bit risky to rely only on the advice of their social networks in identifying investment pathways, without studying and collecting formal information about labor market trends. These investments were not always successful. Many of the migrants said that they adapted their initial business plan to accommodate the needs and/or mentality of Albanians. To survive in their new setting, they had to modify the work culture in their business to fit the local market context and client demands. I've had to switch things around a bit at the restaurant because there's a different mentality here. Albanians are used to the same old dishes and it's very hard to change this. I find it difficult to introduce new dishes on the menu. I would like to introduce some Greek dishes to the menu, to turn it into a Greek cuisine kind of place. But since our clientele was not used to that kind of food, we had to adapt it. We have traditional cuisine as in all Voskopoja, and we've only introduced some Greek dishes and sweets, just as we used to do when back in Greece. The dishes are very different from ours. I've had to change things a bit. (Dardan 30) Our experience in Greece has helped us a lot in the kitchen. However, my wife must incorporate some traditional cuisine into the menu because our customers demand mostly roasted meats. In the summer, I might start introducing dishes that we learned on the island, such as lasagna. (Esma, 44) The majority of the return migrants in the restaurant business stressed that they had to slightly change their menus to include more traditional cuisine, in line with client demands. Although the skills they brought with them enabled the returnees to modernize and westernize the management and development of their business, they still had to incorporate older traditions to ensure that their business in Albania survived. Thus, the migrants who returned brought with them new ideas and practices they acquired in their host country. These narratives indicate that returnees can play an important role in the socioeconomic development of Albania, as they bring back skills, knowledge, and know-how that are crucial for business management and development. It appears that continuing to work or investing in the sector they worked in while in Greece made it easier for the interviewees to transfer their skills. The business climate is very important for private investors. However, our findings suggest that the returnees perceived the business climate in Albania as unfavorable for the successful development of their business ventures. Most of the participants stated that the bureaucracy in Albania, along with the widespread informality and corruption, were the main obstacles to their reintegration into the labor market. They faced difficulties in accessing the necessary documentation. Moreover, a lack of infrastructure, scarce public investment, and non-transparent business procedures in relation to investments and soft loans, were perceived as key barriers to the returnees’ successful reintegration into the labor market. In some cases, when their business plan or investment failed or was not successful, the returnees had to look for other business ideas or consider migrating to other EU countries. These narratives show that regardless of the social and human capital the return migrants had acquired while abroad, structural factors in Albania impeded the development of their business ventures. Discussion and conclusions This study explored the role of social networks and human capital in the labor market reintegration of Albanian citizens who returned to their home country from Greece. The paper drew on 37 biographical interviews conducted with Albanian returnees in three geographical areas in Albania: Fier, Tirana, and Voskopoja. The study found that the migrants had different reasons for returning to their origin country, including economic reasons (unemployment/end of the contract, more/better jobs, desire to invest savings) and family/life cycle concerns (parental ties, marriage, retirement, children’s education). In addition to family reasons, feelings of nostalgia, and a desire to invest in Albania, the onset of the Greek economic crisis caused many migrants to return to Albania. The return migrants we interviewed reported that they invested the expertise, skills, and money they acquired in Greece in their home country, with a majority of them indicating that they had a plan to start a private business before they returned to Albania. This study contributes to the academic scholarship in a variety of ways. In this article, we paid particular attention to the role of social and human capital, as we identified these forms of capital as the main factors that influenced the returnees’ patterns of reintegration into their origin country. In terms of human capital, the study found that the return migrants were more likely to consider investments in small micro-enterprises, which gave them opportunities to transfer the know-how, the new skills, and the knowledge they accumulated abroad. As regards the social capital, the narratives above show that the returnees’ patterns of reintegration depended on the extent to which they were able to mobilize the resources that were most crucial for their successful reintegration into the labor market. These resources were either tangible (i.e., financial capital) or intangible (i.e., contacts, relationships, skills, and acquaintances) [2]. Consistent with findings from other studies, our results suggest that regardless of the overall business environment and infrastructure in the home country, the returnees made use of various kinds of network ties, including those who offered them advice, resources, and emotional support (43; 44). The findings revealed that although the returnees were well equipped with new ideas and knowledge about how to set up and manage a business, their social networks provided them with new information on the labor market climate, business procedures, and investment trends in Albania. We also observed that the returnees’ social networks played an important role in their reintegration. The narratives showed that the returnees’ friends and family members facilitated their access to resources, such as initial capital for establishing their business. In many cases, the returnees’ network ties served as mediators who facilitated their access to institutions and other business owners. Thus, these kinds of networks provided the returnees with information about the labor market, new products or services, changes and gaps in supply chains and distribution channels, the latest trends in consumer behavior, and new developments in laws and market regulations. Our findings indicated that the Albanian return migrants were supported by transnational social networks and partnerships with business contacts in their host country, which were maintained while they were abroad, and were later reinforced. In some cases, members of the returnees’ transnational networks became their first customers, or these network ties assisted them by promoting or advertising the business among their own networks. In addition, the proximity of Albania to Greece made it easy for the migrants to make occasional visits to their host country, and to establish patterns of transnational personal and business networks. Finally, the interpersonal trust and emotional support they received from their family members alleviated the returnees’ anxiety and stress following their return and increased their chances of successfully starting and growing a business. In addition, the narratives showed that trust and a sense of social responsibility among friends and relatives were key to the development, management, and expansion of the returnees’ business ventures. The returnees’ social networks linked their communities in their home country and their host country, and these links remained important after they returned to their home country. This article adds to the existing scholarship by emphasizing that returnees’ prospects for labor market reintegration depended on the interplay of their human and social capital. By looking at this big picture, we realized that family and kinship networks play a large role in shaping the lives of migrants. We observed that the migrants’ decisions were inextricably linked to and influenced by significant others. This finding also points to the ideas of linked lives over time and of transnational space. However, returnees’ investments in Albania were not always successful. Some of these business ideas did not work out, either because the investments were not in line with local labor market demands, or because of the structural constraints in Albania. This group of returnees reported that they regretted investing in Albania and were considering migrating to other EU countries. However, given the circular and fluid patterns of Albanian migration, the return of these migrants should not be viewed as the endpoint of their migration trajectories, but as permanent pathways. Nevertheless, even though we recognize the importance of social capital, we are also aware that the labor market legislation, policies, and institutional frameworks of the country of origin could either impede or improve return migrants’ opportunities for developing a business after their return. Further studies are needed to shed more light on these structural factors. Gender differences in the process of labor market reintegration, and, more particularly, in the process of setting up and managing a business after return migration, are topics that deserve special attention in future research. These studies may, for example, examine the ways men and women mobilize their resources during the post-return phase, and how important these resources are not only during the business establishment stage, but also over the long run. Future quantitative research could also explore the effects of different characteristics of networks – such as network size, network density, network diversity, the preponderance of strong or weak ties, and network redundancy – on the performance of businesses started by returnees, and how these characteristics are intertwined with the human capital the return migrants gained while abroad. Declarations Ethics and Informed consent The research was approved by the ethical committee, composed of members of mentoring Institution of the project University of Jyväskylä in Finland. Informed consent was obtained from all participants. The researcher guaranteed all the respondents, that the information they gave for the interview will be used only for the purpose of academic research. The interviews were tape recorded after oral consent from the respondents. All personal information of the participants was coded separately, and pseudonyms were used to maintain the anonymity of the participants. Participants were offered the opportunity to see the transcripts of the interview. Author Contribution All this Study were conceptualized and written by me as the primary researcher and reviewed and partially written by co-authors. The data collection process and analysis were conducted by me as the primary researcher under close co-authors. Acknowledgement We would like to express our gratitude to Prof. Dr Clara Mulder for her helpful comments and suggestions on earlier drafts of this article. Special thanks go to our research participants for sharing their life stories during interviews. Finally, we would like to thank the Open Society Foundation for supporting this research through the Civil Society Scholar Awards. References Abbas, S. (2019). Workers’ remittances and domestic investment in south Asia: a comparative econometric inquiry. 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Papers in Regional Science, 95, 126. https://doi.org/10.1111/pirs.12117 Renzulli, L. & Aldrich, H.E. (2005). Who can you turn to? Tie activation within core business discussion networks. Social Forces, 84, 323–341. Tiemoko, R. (2004). Migration, return and socio-economic change in west Africa: the role of family. Population, Space and Place, 10(2), 155–174. https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.320 Wahba, J., & Zenou, Y. (2009). Out of sight, out of mind: migration, entrepreneurship and social capital (Ser. Cepr discussion paper, no. 7552). Centre for Economic Policy Research. Retrieved May 5, 2022, from http://www.cepr.org.ezproxy.eui.eu/content/discussion-papers . Wang, D. J. (2020). When do return migrants become entrepreneurs? the role of global social networks and institutional distance. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, 14(2), 125–148. https://doi.org/10.1002/sej.1352 Wingens, M. (2011). A life-course perspective on migration and integration. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-1545-5 Piracha, M., & Vadean, F. (2010). Return migration and occupational choice: evidence from Albania. World Development, 38(8), 1141–1155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2009.12.015 Tables Table 1: Returnees’ profiles Int. No Fictive name Sex Age Education level Year of emigration Year of return Occupation in the receiving country Occupation in Albania 1 Besim M 41 High School 1999 2011 Private business in construction Owns a bakery/bar 2 Aulona F 40 High School 1999 2011 Domestic worker Owns a bakery/bar 3 Andon M 55 High School 1991 2002 Construction worker and farmer Private business in 4 Redon M 47 High School 1991 2020 Waiter & construction worker Owns a restaurant and guesthouse 5 Esma F 44 High School 1991 2020 Cook Cook, in her own restaurant/guesthouse 6 Afrim M 53 University degree 1991 2010 Waiter Owns a restaurant 7 Arba F 24 High School 2005 2015 Tourism sector Culinary 8 Bardhyl M 58 8th grade 1992 2020 Construction worker Owns a restaurant and guesthouse 9 Blerime F 57 8th grade 1992 2018 Personal assistant for the elderly Owns a restaurant and guesthouse 10 Ceni M 53 High School 1991 2001/2010 Different jobs; worked mainly in plastering Owns a guesthouse 11 Dardan M 30 MA degree 2008 2017 Assistant waiter Administration of his family business 12 Desar M 44 High School 1991 2008 Worked in a transportation company Owns a restaurant and guesthouse 13 Dashi M 38 High School 1994 2018 Cook assistant/ Chef Owns a restaurant 14 Merita F 41 University degree 1997 2012 Service industry Administration of a coffee bar 15 Nertila F 50 University degree 1999 2009 Different (unspecified) jobs; medical sector Medical worker 16 Skender M 53 University degree 1998 2011 Hospitality sector; owner of a pastry shop Engineer 17 Sokol M 46 High school 2001 2013/2015 Driver Driver 18 Rezi F 48 High school 1997 2011 Domestic worker/ Bakery Private business (bakery) 19 Erjet M 42 8th grade 1996 2021 Tourism sector Private business (bar & minimarket) 20 Liza F 65 High school 1995 2017 Domestic worker Private business (construction materials) 21 Kristaq M 60 High school 1997 2005 Plumber/Construction Retired 22 Kico M 31 8th grade 2005 2009 Construction/Pottery Private business (pottery) 23 Bukurie F 37 University degree 2007 2015 Seller Private business (teacher) 24 Jera F 35 High school 1992 2010 Domestic worker/ Hairdresser Private business (fashion/ hairdresser/ minimarket) 25 Gisel F 40 High school 1997 2010 Domestic worker/seller Babysitter 26 Dafina F 42 High school 1997 2011 Domestic worker Restaurant (chef) Private business (restaurant and bakery) in Tirana & Saranda 27 Bela F 38 University degree 1994 2010 Seller/ hairdresser Hairdresser 28 Irida F 49 High school 1999 2001 Domestic worker/ Tailor Tailor 29 Kudret M 44 High school 1999 2002 Construction/ Factory specialist Private business 30 Bona F 60 High school 1991 2008 Domestic worker Private business 31 Lili F 37 High school 1997 2014 hairdresser Private business 32 Anda F 33 High school 1997 2000 Domestic worker/ Tailor Domestic worker/failed to open a business 33 Kimet M 59 Primary Education 1991 2007 Construction Guard 34 Denisa F 42 High school 1997 2001 Domestic worker Private business 35 Rigers M 40 High school 1997 2014 Wood specialist/Driver Private business in agriculture 36 Niku M 38 High school 1996 2006 Pizza delivery Driver 37 Drita F 47 High school 1996 2010 Bakery Private business (bakery) Table 2: Main themes and codes Themes Codes Experience in the host country Work experience, trainings, and capacities; family life Preparing for return Reasons for returning; Orientation/ investment plan; keeping in contact with the origin country and preparing for return Return to Albania Challenges in labor market reintegration; challenges in accessing public information and resources; non-enabling business environment/ climate and regulations Social network Social network: Information and assistance from social networks on the labor market; facilitating access to institutions and business; advice about where to invest; resources from social networks; assistance with employment; trust and solidarity; transnational networks Human capital transfer Human capital transfer of knowledge and skills; work culture; transferring the "Greek style"; adapting to the Albanian environment; challenges faced Source: Data from researcher Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 24 Oct, 2024 Reviews received at journal 23 Oct, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 21 Oct, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 19 Sep, 2024 Reviews received at journal 18 Sep, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 17 Sep, 2024 Reviewers invited by journal 17 Sep, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 09 Sep, 2024 Submission checks completed at journal 03 Sep, 2024 First submitted to journal 12 Aug, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4901254","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":357915311,"identity":"ca66fced-8be4-457a-850e-f18ef97c1de5","order_by":0,"name":"Armela Xhaho","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA5UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYLCCBwwMCQwSDIxA+gCRWhIgWpgNSNbCJkGUFv7ZpxMfJNQczuOf3Xysmqfmjhw/A/PDRzfwaJE4l7vZIOFYWrHEnWNpt3mOPTOWbGAzNs7BZ80Z3m0SCWw2iQ03csxu87AdTtxwgIdNGp8W+TO8238k/JNInA/UUszzjwgtBkBbGBLbbBI3ALUw87YRocXwDO9micS+tMSNN9KSJef2HTaWbCbgF7kzvBs/fPh2OHHejeSDH958OyzHz9788DFe7yMDJh4QyUyschBg/EGK6lEwCkbBKBgxAADH01LjpTY5DQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"University of Groningen","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Armela","middleName":"","lastName":"Xhaho","suffix":""},{"id":357915314,"identity":"254871ee-0d14-405e-ae28-551dce4bbfe7","order_by":1,"name":"Ajay Bailey","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Utrecht University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ajay","middleName":"","lastName":"Bailey","suffix":""},{"id":357915317,"identity":"37c9d4d9-a87d-4097-818b-41bc8a76da30","order_by":2,"name":"Erka Caro","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Tirana","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Erka","middleName":"","lastName":"Caro","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-08-12 14:29:35","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4901254/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4901254/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":65909194,"identity":"bc518ea8-c886-44b2-bbed-528534943c17","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-04 09:23:04","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":776498,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4901254/v1/1f74a492-e578-4a89-a2dd-6d9471da6c9f.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eLabor market reintegration strategies of Albanian return migrants from Greece: The role of human and social capital\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eFor many migrants, returning to their country of origin is an important turning point in their migration trajectory. However, whether reverse migration proves successful depends largely on whether returnees can reintegrate into their community [1] and on the extent to which they can resume participation in the social, economic, cultural, and political life of their country of origin [2]. Effective reintegration is crucial for returnees seeking to contribute to their country of origin by making investments, introducing new ideas, or building trade and business networks [3]. Against this backdrop, this study extends the ongoing theoretical and empirical analysis of return trajectories by capturing the diverse strategies Albanian migrants returning to their home country from Greece have used in navigating the labor market upon their\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ereturn. Specifically, we examine how the social and human capital the returnees accumulated while abroad shaped their patterns of reintegration into the labor market.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany studies have analyzed the impact of migration and remittances on investment potential in the origin country [4,5,6,7,8). Other studies largely focused on the profile of returnees and on their reasons for returning (9;10; 11;12), identity construction after return migration (11; 13, 14), circular and transnational patterns of migration (15; 3;16); family influences upon return decisions and transfer of social, human and financial capital (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e) and as well as on reintegration and structural challenges upon return (18;19;20). While this literature has shed further light on the link between return migration and entrepreneurship/investment potential in the country of origin (21; 11, 2008; 1,8, 22), there is limited empirical evidence on the strategies return migrants use to adapt to the labor market of their home country upon their return.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe question of how returnees\u0026rsquo; social capital and human capital affect their labor market reintegration process has been generally overlooked. Indeed, the role that return migrants\u0026rsquo; social networks play in their entrepreneurial activities back in Albania has also attracted very little attention (23;24). This study adds to the existing literature by exploring the mechanisms and strategies returnees use to reintegrate into the labor market of Albania. Through an analysis of 37 biographical interviews, this article sheds light on the importance of the social and human capital migrants brings back to their home country. While return migration can be either voluntary or forced, the focus of this paper is on individuals who voluntarily returned to Albania after living in Greece. This study draws upon social network and human capital theoretical frameworks to explore in more detail the returnees\u0026rsquo; patterns of reintegration into the labor market of their country of origin. The main research questions we want to explore in this study are as follows: What are the motives and patterns of return migration among Albanians returning to their home country after living in Greece? And how do the social networks and human capital of return migrants facilitate their reintegration into the labor market of their home country upon their return?\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Return migration from Greece","content":"\u003cp\u003eGreece has been one of the leading destination countries for Albanian migrants. At the beginning of the 1990s, most Albanian migration outflows to Greece followed a spontaneous and irregular path (24;9). In the early 2000s, these migratory trends were characterized by a low-intensity pattern and since then they were matured into more permanent family settlements (9). Various social, economic, and political factors triggered a wave of return migration from Greece that has been underway since 2001 (26). According to INSTAT (2020), a total of 95,064 Albanian citizens returned to Albania after living abroad in the 2011\u0026ndash;2019 period, with the vast majority returning from Greece. Albanians returning from Greece have been found to be especially likely to invest their financial capital in a small, family-owned business in their home country (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e). The decision to invest upon their return was sudden in some cases and was based on a well-organized and planned strategy in others. Studies have shown that most Albanians living in Greece maintained strong ties with their home country. There is also evidence that these returnees are inclined to seek work in the sectors in which they were employed in their host country (28), and that they tend to start businesses like those they have been exposed to while abroad (8;22; 33). Return migration is not necessarily the endpoint of the migration cycle; rather, it is one of several paths in the wider mobility process, as migrants may engage in multiple emigration and return migration episodes, and remigration [3]. It has been shown that the lack of reintegration policies in Albania is a push factor that leads many returnees to emigrate to another country (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e). Regardless of whether returnees are planning to remain indefinitely in Albania, most have maintained strong ties with their home country by, for example, sending remittances, making regular visits, establishing transnational businesses, or building houses (34; 35). Such practices have led to the establishment of transnational communities (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e) made up of individuals who move back and forth between the two countries (14). These transnational spaces enabled migrants to send financial and social remittances in the form of ideas, values, behaviors, and identities (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Theoretical framework: The role of social and human capital in the reintegration process","content":"\u003cp\u003eDepending on whether returnees did or did not have positive social and economic experiences while abroad, their process of reintegration into their home country may be difficult. The reintegration process includes a wide range of economic, social-psychological, and cultural aspects that complement each other (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e). While all these factors play a crucial role in the successful reintegration of returnees into their country of origin, the economic factors are of particular importance (31). Whether return migrants have reintegrated into the labor market of their home country is seen as a key indicator of their overall level of reintegration (31). Recent studies have suggested that there is a tendency for return migrants to engage in entrepreneurial activities (1; 34; 8, 22 in 8]. However, these studies also showed that whether returnees become entrepreneurs depends on their human capital, social networks, and access to credit (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e) and on the reintegration infrastructure in their home country. In economic terms, successful migrants tend to be those who have either accumulated enough financial capital to start their own business upon return or who have obtained skills and knowledge that allow them to easily find a job and apply their skills (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e). Returnees seeking to make business investments need social capital and human capital accumulated through work experience (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e). According to Lin (2004, p.55\u0026ndash;56), human capital consists of \u0026ldquo;resources possessed by the individual, who can use and dispose of them with great freedom and without much concern for compensation.\u0026rdquo; Human capital is accumulated through actions taken by individuals, mainly through education, training, and experience (36). In general, the literature on this topic has found that compared to non-migrants, returnees have better employment prospects and superior know-how and skills. On the other hand, \u0026ldquo;social capital is rooted in social networks and social relations and is conceived as resources embedded in a social structure that is accessed and/or mobilized in purposive actions\u0026rdquo; (36, p.41). This form of capital is generated by creating and maintaining direct and indirect social ties (36). Moreover, social capital is linked to an individual\u0026rsquo;s network of social relations (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e), which are held together by norms of trust and reciprocity that provide mutual benefits (38; 37).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial networks play a key role in migrants\u0026rsquo; willingness to return to their origin country. Whether migrants feel ready to return depends on the extent to which they can mobilize the resources they would need to return, such as the appropriate contacts, relationships, skills, and acquaintances [2]. Such resources emerge from patterns of interpersonal relationships and cross-border linkages. The maintenance of such networks is of paramount importance, as returnees may need these networks to implement their initiatives and projects following their return [2;39). In addition, migrants\u0026rsquo; willingness to return may depend on whether they have the relevant information about the origin country. Having cross-border and domestic social capital (family and friends) can greatly enhance the reintegration process (35; 27).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere is a vast body of literature supporting the claim that social networks facilitate returnees\u0026rsquo; access to information about job and economic opportunities (40;41;42;37;31). Personal social networks, and family ties facilitate entrepreneurs\u0026rsquo; access to the financial and other resources they need to develop new ventures (43). In addition, immigrants seem to benefit considerably from their social contacts, who can provide them with useful publicly available and restricted information on the labor market in general, as well on the regulations and practices relevant to setting up a new business, which may be specific to the host country (41;42). Scholars have suggested that entrepreneurs\u0026rsquo; network ties have three different types of utility (advice, resources, and emotional support) that are central to supporting the growth of new ventures (43;44). Advice networks can help entrepreneurs identify opportunities for new products or services; facilitate their access to specialized knowledge on industry trends, changes and gaps in supply chains and distribution channels, technology developments, new markets for existing products, consumer trends, and changes in laws and regulations (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e) and advise them on sales and marketing strategies and financial decisions (44). Interpersonal trust has positive effects when making investment decisions (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e) and loyalty between individuals increases the chances of business success (47). Receiving emotional support from network members can help entrepreneurs manage their psychological stress when faced with challenges, and can increase their motivation, commitment, and confidence (47). In addition, entrepreneurs rely on other individuals to gain access to key resources, such as the financial capital, labor, supplies, and new technologies they need to grow their business (48). These kinds of networks facilitate entrepreneurs\u0026rsquo; access to customers and supplies. The friends and family members of entrepreneurs often serve as their first customers and can later spread information about the business among their networks through a kind of \u0026ldquo;snowball effect\u0026rdquo; (47). Considering these arguments, it appears that the social networks of return migrants could ease their reintegration into the social and economic life of their origin country (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, the concept of social networks is a key element of the life course paradigm, which is based on the idea of linked lives, and on the embeddedness of life course events in social relationships (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e). The principle of linked lives means that \u0026ldquo;individuals\u0026rsquo; lives are not evolving in a vacuum but are interdependent: embedded in networks of social relations\u0026rdquo; (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e). This principle is a suitable and potentially fruitful conceptual starting point for analyzing immigrants\u0026rsquo; paths to reintegration through the lens of the social network paradigm.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe paper draws on 37 biographical interviews conducted with Albanian returnees from Greece.\u0026nbsp;Of these interviews, 12 were carried out between 2015 and 2016, and 25 were carried out between March and May 2021. The empirical material used in this study is derived from fieldwork conducted in three different sites in Albania: Voskopoja located in the southeast; Tirana, located in the central part of the country; and Fier, located in the south. In our analysis, we employed a purposive selection of participants. We interviewed migrants who satisfied the following criteria: (a) they were over 18 years old when the interview took place; (b) they had spent more than one year abroad; and (c) they had some work experience in Greece. Identifying return migrants was not easy. My access to them largely depended on the “snowball method;” i.e., the contacts were generated through existing networks I had established through my previous interviews with participants, and my own familial and social bonds within the community. In addition, I contacted local NGOs working on the reintegration of return migrants to help me identify returnees. The field research was conducted primarily in bars and in the returnees’ workplaces and homes. The length of the interviews varied from approximately one to three hours. Participants were previously informed about the nature of the research; they were told explicitly that their participation was voluntary, and they were informed that they were free to end the interview at any time, or not to respond to particular questions. To preserve confidentiality, all the names of the participants are pseudonyms. All the interviews were conducted in the Albanian language and were then partially translated into English. The interviews broadly employed a life history approach, as they explored the participants’ life course experiences in Greece, their motivations for returning, and their post-return experiences and reintegration challenges. The interviews were coded based on the inductive approach and were analyzed thematically with the MAXQDA software program. The main themes and codes are presented in table 2.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Returning pathways: The role of social and human capital in labor market reintegration","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e5.1 Preparing for the return\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMost of the migrants in our sample who returned to Albania were driven by economic reasons; either their work in the destination country was affected by the 2008 economic crisis, or they perceived that they had better economic prospects in Albania. The economic crisis negatively affected many Albanian migrants, as most were working in the service industry or in construction, which was among the sectors that were hit the hardest by the crisis. Many of the interviewees reported that had been working in more than one job or had been working three shifts to make ends meet. Others said that their income from employment in their host country had been low because they were in precarious jobs. These challenges prompted many of the migrants in our sample to consider starting a business in Albania. They perceived that the economic situation in Albania provided potentially profitable investment opportunities. Moreover, several participants indicated that their fatigue from job-hopping and having extended working hours made the prospect of self-employment very appealing. In addition, family reasons and nostalgia prompted many of the Albanian migrants to return. Many of the interviewees said they returned to care for their elderly parents, particularly after their parents developed health problems. Another group of participants reported that they decided to return after having accumulated enough savings in the host country, which they planned to invest in, mostly in the tourism and services sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlthough most interviewees indicated that they returned in response to the economic crisis, they noted that even before the onset of the crisis, they had maintained their relationships with family and friends across the border and made frequent visits to Albania. Few of them have made attempt to invest in their homeland even before the onset of the crisis. Our empirical evidence suggests that the migrants in our sample had multiple migration episodes before resettling in Albania. Although most of the participants lived in Greece for many years, most had visited Albania several times, especially during summer or winter vacations. For example, Esma, a 44-year-old kitchen assistant, said, \u0026ldquo;We visited [Albania] five times within a year. We\u0026apos;ve kept in touch with our friends here. I often came over to help my brother during winter.\u0026rdquo; Most of the migrants stayed in Greece long enough to save considerable financial capital and were eager to return and set up a new business. Several participants reported using the savings they accumulated abroad to establish a business. In many cases, there was a positive link between the employment experience the returnees acquired in Greece and their post-return employment experiences. Our empirical evidence showed that the Albanian returnees were inclined to work and invest in work profiles like those they became familiar with while abroad. Some of the return migrants had been working in food outlets and tourism in Greece and set up a similar business in Albania following their return. Merita, a 41-year-old woman, said, \u0026ldquo;Having had a positive experience in Greece with this kind of sector, I thought I could put my skills to practice and start a coffee bar business\u0026rdquo; (Merita, 41).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e5.3 The role of social networks in facilitating labor market reintegration\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThrough maintaining regular communication, visiting their home country, using the internet, and watching Albanian TV stations, the returnees were well informed about the political, economic, and social events that were taking place back home. The narratives of the returnees indicated that their systematic communication and cooperation with friends and family members proved useful, as it enabled them to get valuable and restricted information about potential investment pathways in Albania.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSocial networks provide information about labor market conditions and regulations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOur findings showed that many of the returnees counted on their kin and friends for information about the business climate and labor market opportunities in Albania. The returnees reported that they faced many difficulties in re-entering the Albanian labor market, as they lacked the skills that were required, and were thus unprepared to take advantage of the potential investment pathways. It appears that very few return migrants in Albania get any kind of official labor market information from the migration counters that have been set up to serve as resource centers for return migrants. None of the returnees in our study reported accessing these migration counters or being aware that they existed. The interviews clearly showed that the returnees had very little information about policies or domestic legislation relevant for starting a business or gaining access to public services, and that family members and friends were their main sources of information.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThus, the participants reported relying on insights and tips from their networks, which they saw as good sources of information on the labor market and business conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWhen we returned here, we started inquiring about other hotels in the area. We asked around and we realized that many of our friends had started their hotels and restaurants. I would often ask them: \u0026ldquo;What\u0026apos;s it like to have your hotel and how is the business climate over there [Albania]. I was influenced by them. We got some ideas from them and lots of useful information. Thought I should try it out once, with the support of my family. (Dardan, 30)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eI did refer to my family and friends for support. I got back in touch with some of my closest friends who helped me understand how things work in Albania; but in terms of developing a business idea, that was my original idea. They helped me adjust more easily to life here and get to know things, rules and business procedures, which I had no idea at all. I followed their advice, as I trust them a lot. (Merita 41)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSocial networks served in other cases as mediators for facilitating access to institutions and other business owners:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWe came to Albania thinking we would purchase a piece of land to build a winery, with a garden in the front so we could use it during the summer months. Because if we were to use it during winter, we would have to invest more in the property to install heating. We got in touch with our people here [friends and cousins] because they knew where we could get properties, but a lot of issues came up. Some properties were missing registration papers, some were being held up in court cases, and some were inadequate. We ended up renting the property of two elderly people in the area who had opened a restaurant. As we were chatting with our friends, we found out that their children had moved to Tirana and had gotten good jobs. We asked whether they were looking to rent the place and they said they would consider it if they found the right people. This is how we came across this property, and luckily, we reached an agreement with the owners thanks to the orientation and information we received from our friends. (Dashi, 38)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSocial networks provide ideas about where to invest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMany returnees were uncertain about the types of businesses and the geographic areas in which they were seeking to invest. The returnees reported experiencing many difficulties in accessing labor market-specific information, orientation, and guidance from public institutions, and particularly information about the sectors in which they could invest their savings. While the fast-growing tourism industry offered attractive business opportunities for most of the returnees to Albania, others said they were assisted by their friends and acquaintances in identifying suitable sectors and geographic areas for investment. Therefore, they had to rely on the advice they received from their friends and cousins.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eI had my budget, but I had no idea where to invest. Our family friends came over to visit us and suggested this idea. They asked whether we ever intended to return to Albania. I told them we had nothing to do there; what jobs could we possibly do in Albania, with those low wages? I didn\u0026apos;t have a profession, but on the other hand, my husband was complaining that work in construction was already diminishing. Our friends told us that in Voskopoja there was a need for bakeries. There used to be a bakery, but the owner had passed away, his widow had closed down the business and now the only way for them to get bread was to receive it from a guy who delivered it from Korca. We liked the idea of starting our own business. (Merita 41)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIt is interesting to note that for many of the interviewees, family and friends proved to be good sources of information on where they should or should not invest their financial capital. For example, Dashi, a 38-year-old chef, described how his investment decisions were directly influenced by the advice of his cousins. He had been working as a chef in a gourmet restaurant in Greece for more than 20 years, and he wanted to use that experience to invest in a restaurant in Tirana. However, he changed his mind after his cousins informed him that investing in Tirana was not a smart choice.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThere are fewer opportunities to invest in Tirana. Gourmet restaurants cost more than two million euros, or otherwise, you\u0026apos;d better go for a Korca Grill. I used to come to Tirana very often on Easter holidays, but I found the rent too expensive. I thought I could invest in Tirana since I had many friends and cousins that could assist me with both information and resources, and as clients. One of my cousins who lives in Tirana helped me get around and visit many restaurants. [...] He convinced me that it would be unwise to invest in a restaurant in Tirana because I wouldn\u0026apos;t survive the market. Let alone with home cooking! (Dashi, 38)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMy siblings came over to visit us in Greece and they suggested that there was a need for this kind of work (bakery) in Voskopoje. We considered this their advice because we trusted them a lot and my husband were tired of working in construction. (Aulona, 40)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlthough the participants noted that the central government had announced several support schemes to incentivize the establishment of start-ups by offering soft loans and to help returnees reintegrate into the labor market, none of them indicated that they had profited from such schemes. Instead, they reported facing numerous challenges in accessing basic services, such as electricity and water, as well as administrative barriers and bureaucracy. All the returnees gave numerous examples of situations in which they were helped to gain access to services and resources by their social networks, and some reported that their social networks provided them with financial resources as well.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eI relied on my family for everything that I needed - starting with the initial capital I needed to start the business. I came to Voskopoja to buy a piece of land and one of my cousins who used to own a hotel advised me to start a winery in Voskopoja. He told me, \u0026ldquo;Get yourself a piece of land, grow a garden and work seasonally only during summertime. Six months of good income in Voskopoja would last you for an entire year.\u0026rdquo; (Dashi 38)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThese narratives show that relations among family members and friends were characterized by high levels of trust, which facilitated cooperation, mutuality, and comfort in sharing information. It appears that these advice networks were essential to returnees seeking to become entrepreneurs, as they provided them with easy access to reliable information. Personal networks were beneficial for the return migrants, as the networks offered them specific knowledge and advice about how the labor market functioned. As the narratives above clearly illustrate, the returnees had easier access to information thanks to their social networks. Thus, according to the interviewees, local social networks served as channels for gaining access to resources and helping them to expand their business activities.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSocial networks help in finding employment\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlthough most of the participants said that they opened their own businesses after they returned from Greece, some reported that their friends and relatives helped them get a job following their return. Therefore, it appears that social capital played a role in the returnees\u0026rsquo; access to employment in their home country.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eI got this job through a friend of mine, who used to work here previously. Before this, I used to work in a different tavern. I\u0026apos;ve been working here for four years now, and I like it - the working conditions are better. (Arba 24)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOverall, the narratives presented in this section highlight that the returnees gained access to valuable resources for starting new ventures through network ties, including tangible resources, knowledge, and advice. Thus, our empirical findings suggest that the return migrants\u0026rsquo; family ties and social and kinship networks helped them start and grow their business ventures.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUsing transnational networks to promote and enhance business prospects\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMany of the participants reported that their social networks helped them advertise their business and attract new clients. Friends living in both countries served as clients and as promotors of the returnees\u0026rsquo; business activities through their social networks, i.e., through the \u0026ldquo;snowball effect\u0026rdquo; (47). Besides accumulating savings and learning new skills, some of the return migrants used their time abroad to build relationships with potential suppliers and find sources of information that would allow them to start, and gradually expand, small manufacturing businesses of their own. Kristaq, a 60-year-old plumber who opened a micro-enterprise selling construction materials in Fier, bought some of his materials and machines in Greece, where he also got some ideas about how to expand his business. Many of the migrants visited Albania very often while living in Greece, usually to see their family in friends, to renovate their house, or to have a vacation. They reported that during these trips, they noticed that the country was developing at a fast pace. This prompted many of the migrants to seek to replicate in Albania the types of businesses they were involved in while in Greece. Other migrants followed in their footsteps. These back-and-forth movements of the returnees created multiple relationships between their home country and their destination country, which they later mobilized to establish and expand transnational business structures. Some of the return migrants who had been working in the tourism sector in Greece took the opportunity to invite their friends in Greece to come to Albania as tourists. For example, one participant said that he had invited his Greek friends to stay in his hotel as guests or clients:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMany friends from Thessaloniki came here as clients. Many of them are returning clients and they have spread the word about my business. They brought me new clients, and they advertised my business on their social networks; 99%-100% of the work here is thanks to my friends. My friends from Greece used to call me as they heard that I opened a business here, so they wanted to come over here. My friends here as well were my clients, and they played a key role in advertising my business to other clients all over Albania. All this work is established and expanded through friends. That\u0026apos;s how things work over here. This business would not have survived without the assistance of my network, both friends and family. (Ceni, 53)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAs the narratives above show, the assistance provided by the returnees\u0026rsquo; social networks went beyond giving advice. In many cases, friends and family members became customers themselves or recommended the business to other people.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThese narratives illustrate how the returnees used both cross-border and domestic social capital (family and friends) to help them reintegrate into the labor market. These networks included various kinds of interpersonal ties that linked people in both the origin country and the destination country through bonds of friendship, kinship and shared community (51). It thus appears that reciprocity, trust, and social responsibility played important roles in various contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e5.4 The role of human capital\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAccording to the participants, their migration experiences provided them with opportunities to enhance their skills, learn new languages, and learn innovative techniques that they were then able to transfer to their entrepreneurial activities in Albania.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHuman capital gained abroad: Knowledge and skills\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe returnees reported that their work experience in Greece was quite beneficial for them, as it enabled them to learn new languages and new ways of behaving:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWaiters in Greece spoke at least two foreign languages. I learned English there, I already knew French and Italian since I was here, and I had learned Russian when I was at school. Meanwhile, Albanian waiters are generally less prepared. I am happy that I learned all these things in Greece, which could never be taught in Albania. (Arba, 24)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eI learned a lot about customer service in Greece because I\u0026apos;ve worked both in a hotel and in a restaurant. I\u0026apos;m very keen on making guests feel welcome, so every time we have guests over, I take over the hotel\u0026apos;s reception desk. I learned to speak Greek and other foreign languages such as Italian and English, which come in handy even in Albania. I also learned the technique of setting the table for fine dining. I learned to be patient with clients. (Dardan 30)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn addition, some of the returnees said that they had been able to apply innovative techniques and new skills and techniques they learned abroad in Albania. For example, one participant recounted that his father learned a new technology in Greece and brought it to Albania:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMy dad learned about the technology for extracting honey, which he is practicing here, with a few changes because the technology used there was of a higher quality. Whereas here, everything is done manually. (Dardan 30)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThese narratives indicate that the returnees brought to Albania the Greek style and Greek innovations, not only in their approaches to business, but also in their behavior, attitudes, and modes of communication. For example, some of the returnees reported that in Greece, they acquired technical skills and learned about business innovations and ethical standards that better comply with the European work culture:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUpon my return, I insisted a lot on applying my knowledge of customer service and the management of the coffee bar. What I\u0026apos;ve brought back with me is a European style of communication. We\u0026apos;ve been here for 13 years now and I\u0026apos;m still maintaining it. While interacting with clients, I maintain the mantra I\u0026apos;ve learned in Greece: that the customer is always right. Whatever the client says because, at the end of the day, it\u0026apos;s thanks to the client that we\u0026apos;re working. (Desar, 44)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe style of communication, culture, and attributes I\u0026apos;ve acquired in Greece have been very useful in terms of handling others with the proper respect. I did learn much on the professional level. There is no culture of ethical working in Albania. I\u0026apos;ve had a lot of issues with cleanliness. Apart from this, instead of doing their job, people tend to meddle in other people\u0026apos;s affairs, comment on how much I\u0026apos;m learning and so on. (Skender 53)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAs well as bringing skills and knowledge about the Greek style to their business ventures in Albania, the returnees brought with them a better understanding of how to construct and furnish their business premises, as the comment below illustrates:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHaving worked in construction in Greece has helped me a lot to build my business back in Albania. I managed to build everything by myself, drawing on the methods and approaches I\u0026apos;ve learned when in Greece. Having worked in construction in Greece helped me a lot because I did the entire project myself. (Redon 47)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBusiness pathways in Albania: Investing in familiar sectors and adapting the labor market\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMany of the returning migrants said that they sought to replicate in Albania the enterprises they had been working in while in Greece. For example, some of the migrants who worked in patisseries in Greece set up their own businesses after returning to Albania. Many of the participants reported becoming involved in service sector businesses, like trade and hotels/restaurants, or in manufacturing.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEverything I now know it\u0026apos;s because of my experience in Greece in the tourism sector. My approach to work, customer service, organization, and cooking skills - all this I learned in Greece. (Afrim 53)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMaking bread comes with difficulties. Initially, we hired a baker from Tirana, because we had no clue how to do it. He trained us and my husband learned how to make bread. When in Greece, my husband used to go over to an Albanian baker\u0026apos;s shop to gain some bread baking skills and the profession gradually grew on him. (Aulona, 40)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSeveral of the participants indicated that by capitalizing on their migration experiences in their host country, they were able to provide a new working culture, new products, or better-quality work in Albania than those offered by their local competitors. For some of the returnees, working in the same sector in Albania as they did in Greece facilitated the process of transferring their skills. However, others admitted that their initial plan for introducing the \u0026ldquo;Greek style\u0026rdquo; to their business activities in Albania was not always successful. Moreover, some of the returnees acknowledged that it was a bit risky to rely only on the advice of their social networks in identifying investment pathways, without studying and collecting formal information about labor market trends. These investments were not always successful. Many of the migrants said that they adapted their initial business plan to accommodate the needs and/or mentality of Albanians. To survive in their new setting, they had to modify the work culture in their business to fit the local market context and client demands.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eI\u0026apos;ve had to switch things around a bit at the restaurant because there\u0026apos;s a different mentality here. Albanians are used to the same old dishes and it\u0026apos;s very hard to change this. I find it difficult to introduce new dishes on the menu. I would like to introduce some Greek dishes to the menu, to turn it into a Greek cuisine kind of place. But since our clientele was not used to that kind of food, we had to adapt it. We have traditional cuisine as in all Voskopoja, and we\u0026apos;ve only introduced some Greek dishes and sweets, just as we used to do when back in Greece. The dishes are very different from ours. I\u0026apos;ve had to change things a bit. (Dardan 30)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOur experience in Greece has helped us a lot in the kitchen. However, my wife must incorporate some traditional cuisine into the menu because our customers demand mostly roasted meats. In the summer, I might start introducing dishes that we learned on the island, such as lasagna. (Esma, 44)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe majority of the return migrants in the restaurant business stressed that they had to slightly change their menus to include more traditional cuisine, in line with client demands. Although the skills they brought with them enabled the returnees to modernize and westernize the management and development of their business, they still had to incorporate older traditions to ensure that their business in Albania survived. Thus, the migrants who returned brought with them new ideas and practices they acquired in their host country. These narratives indicate that returnees can play an important role in the socioeconomic development of Albania, as they bring back skills, knowledge, and know-how that are crucial for business management and development. It appears that continuing to work or investing in the sector they worked in while in Greece made it easier for the interviewees to transfer their skills.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe business climate is very important for private investors. However, our findings suggest that the returnees perceived the business climate in Albania as unfavorable for the successful development of their business ventures. Most of the participants stated that the bureaucracy in Albania, along with the widespread informality and corruption, were the main obstacles to their reintegration into the labor market. They faced difficulties in accessing the necessary documentation. Moreover, a lack of infrastructure, scarce public investment, and non-transparent business procedures in relation to investments and soft loans, were perceived as key barriers to the returnees\u0026rsquo; successful reintegration into the labor market. In some cases, when their business plan or investment failed or was not successful, the returnees had to look for other business ideas or consider migrating to other EU countries. These narratives show that regardless of the social and human capital the return migrants had acquired while abroad, structural factors in Albania impeded the development of their business ventures.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion and conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study explored the role of social networks and human capital in the labor market reintegration of Albanian citizens who returned to their home country\u0026nbsp;from Greece. The paper drew on 37 biographical interviews conducted with Albanian returnees in three geographical areas in Albania: Fier, Tirana, and Voskopoja.\u0026nbsp;The study found that the migrants had different reasons for returning to their origin country, including economic reasons (unemployment/end of the contract, more/better jobs, desire to invest savings) and family/life cycle concerns (parental ties, marriage, retirement, children’s education).\u0026nbsp;In addition to family reasons, feelings of nostalgia, and a desire to invest in Albania, the onset of the Greek economic crisis caused many migrants to return to Albania. The return migrants we interviewed reported that they invested the expertise, skills, and money they acquired in Greece in their home country, with a majority of them indicating that they had a plan to start a private business before they returned to Albania.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;This study contributes to the academic scholarship in a variety of ways.\u0026nbsp;In this article, we paid particular attention to the role of social and human capital, as we identified these forms of capital as the main factors that influenced the returnees’ patterns of reintegration into their origin country.\u0026nbsp;In terms of human capital, the study found that the return migrants were more likely to consider investments in small micro-enterprises, which gave them opportunities to transfer the know-how, the new skills, and the knowledge they accumulated abroad. As regards the social capital, the narratives above show that the returnees’ patterns of reintegration depended on the extent to which they were able to mobilize the resources that were most crucial for their successful reintegration into the labor market. These resources were either tangible (i.e., financial capital) or intangible (i.e., contacts, relationships, skills, and acquaintances) [2].\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsistent with findings from other studies, our results suggest that regardless of the overall business environment and infrastructure in the home country, the returnees made use of various kinds of network ties, including those who offered them advice, resources, and emotional support (43; 44). The findings revealed that although the returnees were well equipped with new ideas and knowledge about how to set up and manage a business, their social networks provided them with new information on the labor market climate, business procedures, and investment trends in Albania. We also observed that the returnees’ social networks played an important role in their reintegration. The narratives showed that the returnees’ friends and family members facilitated their access to resources, such as initial capital for establishing their business. In many cases, the returnees’ network ties served as mediators who facilitated their access to institutions and other business owners. Thus, these kinds of networks provided the returnees with information about the labor market, new products or services, changes and gaps in supply chains and distribution channels, the latest trends in consumer behavior, and new developments in laws and market regulations. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur findings indicated that the Albanian return migrants were supported by transnational social networks and partnerships with business contacts in their host country, which were maintained while they were abroad, and were later reinforced. In some cases, members of the returnees’ transnational networks became their first customers, or these network ties assisted them by promoting or advertising the business among their own networks. In addition, the proximity of Albania to Greece made it easy for the migrants to make occasional visits to their host country, and to establish patterns of transnational personal and business networks.\u0026nbsp;Finally, the interpersonal trust and emotional support they received from their family members alleviated the returnees’ anxiety and stress following their return and increased their chances of successfully starting and growing a business. In addition, the narratives showed that trust and a sense of social responsibility among friends and relatives were key to the development, management, and expansion of the returnees’ business ventures. The returnees’ social networks linked their communities in their home country and their host country, and these links remained important after they returned to their home country.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis article adds to the existing scholarship by emphasizing that returnees’ prospects for labor market reintegration depended on the interplay of their human and social capital. By looking at this big picture, we realized that family and kinship networks play a large role in shaping the lives of migrants. We observed that the migrants’ decisions were inextricably linked to and influenced by significant others. This finding also points to the ideas of linked lives over time and of transnational space. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, returnees’ investments in Albania were not always successful. Some of these business ideas did not work out, either because the investments were not in line with local labor market demands, or because of the structural constraints in Albania. This group of returnees reported that they regretted investing in Albania and were considering migrating to other EU countries. However, given the circular and fluid patterns of Albanian migration, the return of these migrants should not be viewed as the endpoint of their migration trajectories, but as permanent pathways.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNevertheless, even though we recognize the importance of social capital, we are also aware that the labor market legislation, policies, and institutional frameworks of the country of origin could either impede or improve return migrants’ opportunities for developing a business after their return. Further studies are needed to shed more light on these structural factors. Gender differences in the process of labor market reintegration, and, more particularly, in the process of setting up and managing a business after return migration, are topics that deserve special attention in future research. These studies may, for example, examine the ways men and women mobilize their resources during the post-return phase, and how important these resources are not only during the business establishment stage, but also over the long run. Future quantitative research could also explore the effects of different characteristics of networks – such as network size, network density, network diversity, the preponderance of strong or weak ties, and network redundancy – on the performance of businesses started by returnees, and how these characteristics are intertwined with the human capital the return migrants gained while abroad.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics and Informed consent\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe research was approved by the ethical committee, composed of members of mentoring Institution of the project University of Jyväskylä in Finland. \u0026nbsp;Informed consent was obtained from all participants. The researcher guaranteed all the respondents, that the information they gave for the interview will be used only for the purpose of academic research. \u0026nbsp;The interviews were tape recorded after oral consent from the respondents. All personal information of the participants was coded separately, and pseudonyms were used to maintain the anonymity of the participants. Participants were offered the opportunity to see the transcripts of the interview.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll this Study were conceptualized and written by me as the primary researcher and reviewed and partially written by co-authors. The data collection process and analysis were conducted by me as the primary researcher under close co-authors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe would like to express our gratitude to Prof. Dr Clara Mulder for her helpful comments and suggestions on earlier drafts of this article. Special thanks go to our research participants for sharing their life stories during interviews. Finally, we would like to thank the Open Society Foundation for supporting this research through the Civil Society Scholar Awards.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbbas, S. (2019). Workers\u0026rsquo; remittances and domestic investment in south Asia: a comparative econometric inquiry. International Migration, 57(5), 89\u0026ndash;104. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1111/imig.12612\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1111/imig.12612\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAguilera, M. B., \u0026amp; Massey, D., S. (2003). \u0026ldquo;Social capital and the wages of Mexican migrants: new hypotheses and tests. 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World Development, 38(8), 1141\u0026ndash;1155. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2009.12.015\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.worlddev.2009.12.015\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 1: Returnees\u0026rsquo; profiles\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"623\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInt. No\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFictive name\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSex\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAge\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEducation level\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eYear of emigration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eYear of return\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOccupation in the receiving country\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOccupation in Albania\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBesim\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh School\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1999\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrivate business in construction\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOwns a bakery/bar\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAulona\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh School\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1999\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDomestic worker\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOwns a bakery/bar\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAndon\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh School\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1991\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConstruction worker and farmer\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrivate business in\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRedon\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh School\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1991\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2020\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWaiter \u0026amp; construction worker\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOwns a restaurant and guesthouse\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEsma\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh School\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1991\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2020\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCook\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCook, in her own restaurant/guesthouse\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAfrim\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUniversity degree\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1991\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2010\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWaiter\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOwns a restaurant\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eArba\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh School\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2005\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2015\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTourism sector\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCulinary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e8\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBardhyl\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8th grade\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1992\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2020\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConstruction worker\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOwns a restaurant and guesthouse\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e9\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlerime\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8th grade\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1992\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2018\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePersonal assistant for the elderly\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOwns a restaurant and guesthouse\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e10\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCeni\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh School\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1991\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2001/2010\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDifferent jobs; worked mainly in plastering\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOwns a guesthouse\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e11\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDardan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMA degree\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2008\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2017\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAssistant waiter\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdministration of his family business\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e12\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDesar\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh School\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1991\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2008\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWorked in a transportation company\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOwns a restaurant and guesthouse\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e13\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDashi\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh School\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1994\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2018\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCook assistant/ Chef\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOwns a restaurant\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e14\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMerita\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUniversity degree\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1997\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2012\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eService industry\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdministration of a coffee bar\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e15\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNertila\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUniversity degree\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1999\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2009\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDifferent (unspecified) jobs; medical sector\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMedical worker\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e16\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSkender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUniversity degree\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1998\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHospitality sector; owner of a pastry shop\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEngineer\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e17\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSokol\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh school\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2013/2015\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDriver\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDriver\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e18\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRezi\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh school\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1997\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDomestic worker/ Bakery\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrivate business (bakery)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e19\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eErjet\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8th grade\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1996\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTourism sector\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrivate business (bar \u0026amp; minimarket)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e20\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLiza\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh school\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1995\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2017\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDomestic worker\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrivate business (construction materials)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e21\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKristaq\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh school\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1997\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2005\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePlumber/Construction\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRetired\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e22\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKico\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8th grade\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2005\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2009\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConstruction/Pottery\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrivate business (pottery)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e23\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBukurie\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUniversity degree\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2007\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2015\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSeller\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrivate business (teacher)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e24\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJera\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh school\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1992\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2010\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDomestic worker/ Hairdresser\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrivate business (fashion/ hairdresser/ minimarket)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e25\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGisel\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh school\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1997\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2010\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDomestic worker/seller\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBabysitter\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e26\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDafina\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh school\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1997\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDomestic worker Restaurant (chef)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrivate business (restaurant and bakery) in Tirana \u0026amp; Saranda\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e27\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBela\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUniversity degree\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1994\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2010\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSeller/ hairdresser\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHairdresser\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e28\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIrida\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh school\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1999\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDomestic worker/ Tailor\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTailor\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e29\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKudret\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh school\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1999\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConstruction/ Factory specialist\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrivate business\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e30\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBona\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh school\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1991\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2008\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDomestic worker\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrivate business\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e31\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLili\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh school\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1997\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2014\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ehairdresser\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrivate business\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e32\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnda\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh school\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1997\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDomestic worker/ Tailor\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDomestic worker/failed to open a business\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e33\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKimet\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrimary Education\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1991\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2007\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConstruction\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGuard\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e34\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDenisa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh school\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1997\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDomestic worker\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrivate business\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e35\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRigers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh school\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1997\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2014\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWood specialist/Driver\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrivate business in agriculture\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e36\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNiku\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh school\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1996\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2006\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePizza delivery\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDriver\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.44872%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e37\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8.97436%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDrita\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.28846%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.76923%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.2179%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh school\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.859%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1996\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.0577%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2010\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.3526%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBakery\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.0321%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrivate business (bakery)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2: Main themes and codes\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"630\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 28.5714%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThemes\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 71.4286%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCodes\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 28.5714%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExperience in the host country\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 71.4286%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWork experience, trainings, and capacities; family life\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 28.5714%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePreparing for return\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 71.4286%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReasons for returning; Orientation/ investment plan; keeping in contact with the origin country and preparing for return\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 28.5714%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eReturn to Albania\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 71.4286%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChallenges in labor market reintegration; challenges in accessing public information and resources; non-enabling business environment/ climate and regulations\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 28.5714%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSocial network\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 71.4286%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSocial network: Information and assistance from social networks on the labor market; facilitating access to institutions and business; advice about where to invest; resources from social networks; assistance with employment; trust and solidarity; transnational networks\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 28.5714%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHuman capital transfer\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 71.4286%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHuman capital transfer of knowledge and skills; work culture; transferring the \u0026quot;Greek style\u0026quot;; adapting to the Albanian environment; challenges faced\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSource: Data from researcher\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-global-society","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Global Society](https://www.springer.com/journal/44282)","snPcode":"44282","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44282/3","title":"Discover Global Society","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"return, labor market reintegration, entrepreneurship, social network, human capital","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4901254/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4901254/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eFor many migrants, returning to their country of origin is an important turning point in their migration trajectory. However, whether reverse migration proves successful depends largely on whether returnees are again able to participate in the social, economic, cultural, and political life of their country of origin. This paper draws on 37 biographical interviews conducted with Albanian returnees in three different geographical areas of Albania: Fier, Tirana, and Voskopoja. It aims to capture the diverse strategies the return migrants employed in navigating the labor market upon their return. We examine how the social and human capital the returnees accumulated while abroad shaped their patterns of reintegration into the labor market. We find that the returnees\u0026rsquo; social capital in the form of social relationships and their human capital in the form of work experience influenced their entrepreneurial activities in their home country. Moreover, we observe that some of the returnees who were able to capitalize on their migration experiences in their host country introduced a new work culture and new products to their home country and offered better quality work than their local competitors. Our findings further indicate that while the returnees\u0026rsquo; social networks improved their economic prospects, the levels of trust and social responsibility in these networks enabled them to develop and expand their business activities.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Labor market reintegration strategies of Albanian return migrants from Greece: The role of human and social capital","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-10-04 09:14:57","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4901254/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2024-10-24T04:41:19+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-10-23T17:29:15+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"109190055852049874645665573470762772100","date":"2024-10-21T08:28:06+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"103463347112184578911976285120831025479","date":"2024-09-19T08:56:01+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-09-18T15:19:55+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"238006007193635269252235445949059111343","date":"2024-09-17T08:02:50+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-09-17T04:27:30+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-09-09T18:13:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-09-03T05:04:55+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Global Society","date":"2024-08-12T14:28:14+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-global-society","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Global Society](https://www.springer.com/journal/44282)","snPcode":"44282","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44282/3","title":"Discover Global Society","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"d0759923-5f09-4968-b215-f5c62826ccec","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 4th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-11-25T06:08:21+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-10-04 09:14:57","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4901254","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4901254","identity":"rs-4901254","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}