The Reciprocal Effects of Maternal Dispositional Mindfulness and Young Children’s Mental and Behavioral Problems Amidst COVID-19: A Longitudinal Observational Study

The Reciprocal Effects of Maternal Dispositional Mindfulness and Young Children’s Mental and Behavioral Problems Amidst COVID-19: A Longitudinal Observational Study | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article The Reciprocal Effects of Maternal Dispositional Mindfulness and Young Children’s Mental and Behavioral Problems Amidst COVID-19: A Longitudinal Observational Study Zhijun Liu, Hui Tang, Shilin Zhang, Guoyan Liu, Yongjia Zheng, and 4 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9008390/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract It is not well understood whether maternal mindfulness can serve as a protective factor to mitigate mental and behavioral problems (MBPs) in young children, particularly in the face of disastrous events such as the COVID-19 pandemic. This longitudinal observational study, involving 483 mothers, demonstrated that dispositional mindfulness of the mothers during COVID-19-triggered household confinement negatively predicted their young children’s MBPs ( β = -0.11, p < 0.01) five months later when household confinement was lifted. Interestingly, MBPs in young children also significantly predicted mothers’ dispositional mindfulness ( β = -0.20, p < 0.001). This study contributes new insights into the reciprocal effects between maternal behaviors and young children’s MBPs. Dispositional mindfulness Mental and behavioral problems Young children COVID-19 Figures Figure 1 Introduction Household confinement was implemented as an emergency measure to curb the spread of the COVID-19 virus in China, turning families into more isolated ecological systems characterized by limited living space and restricted social activities. During household confinement, there was a noted increase in the number of children and adolescents experiencing mental and behavioral problems (MBPs) (Chai et al., 2021 ), with long-term consequences observed on their mental health (Singh et al., 2020 ). Studies have indicated that parental behaviors play a crucial role in the psychosocial development of young children, especially in adverse environments (Parent et al., 2021 ; Tso et al., 2022 ) Dispositional mindfulness, defined as a personal characteristic that allows one to pay attention to various stimuli in a non-judgmental and intentional manner (Brown et al., 2007 ), is noteworthy for its health benefits. Kabat-Zinn ( 2005 ) theorized that parents with a higher level of mindfulness are more likely to perceive intrapersonal and interpersonal behaviors in a nonjudgmental way, effectively disengaging from negative emotions and providing calm and consistent parenting. Indeed, studies have demonstrated that the practice of mindfulness can improve the quality of parent-child interactions (Coatsworth et al., 2018 ; Tara et al., 2021 ), increasing positive parenting behaviors and result in improved children’s mental health and development (Kil & Antonacci, 2020 ),and effectively promote adults’ psychological well-being (Zhu et al., 2021 ). Furthermore, a positive correlation has been observed between caregivers’ mindfulness and health outcomes in infants and young children, such as sleep quality (Markovic et al., 2021 ). Mothers typically assume a pivotal role in caring for children, making an exploration into the degree to which maternal mindfulness shields the mental health of young children from the detrimental impacts of COVID-19 of significant interest. Given that parenting practices and child behaviors are transactional and not unidirectional (Serbin et al., 2015 ),, investigating how children’s MBPs influence their mothers’ mindfulness is also worth considering. Preliminary evidences suggest that maternal dispositional mindfulness may exhibit a certain level of vulnerability. In this regard, a longitudinal study demonstrated that female caregivers' mindful parenting, which refers to self-regulation, emotional awareness, and full attention (Duncan et al., 2009 ), is predicted by their girls’ internalizing problems (Kim & Gonzales, 2021 ). This is in contrast to the majority of studies focusing on the downstream effect of mindful parenting to the mental health of their children. Anotherresearch has shown that changes in neuroticism in college students were negatively correlated with subsequent changes in mindfulness (Wang et al., 2022 ), together suggesting that children’s maladaptive behaviors may be aassociated with mothers’ subsequent mindfulness. Thus, To data, there is a scarcity in the literature documenting the bidirectional correlations between parents’ dispositional mindfulness and MBPs of young children during the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, we addressed this gap in research by investigating reciprocal interactions between mothers and children through a longitudinal observational study in China. We hypothesize that there is a reciprocal predictive relationship between parents' dispositional mindfulness and the MBPs of their young children within a defined period. Methods Participants and procedure The study was conducted in Zunyi, a city in southwest Guizhou province, China. A longitudinal observational study design was adopted, involving two waves of questionnaire surveys. The first wave of the survey was conducted in February 2020 (T1) when strict household confinement was imposed in response to the local outbreak of COVID-19, while the second wave of the survey was conducted in July 2020 (T2), five months after household confinement was relaxed. This allowed for observations of significant changes in parental and child behaviors. Three public kindergartens in the urban districts of Zunyi were conveniently selected, with over 1,100 enrollments of young children across different age-based classes. We purposively identified 30 classes, with 12 classes in one kindergarten and 9 classes each in the other two, to ensure a balanced distribution of ages among the children. The 30 classes consisted of 706 young children. Survey invitations were then sent to the parent-teacher WeChat groups associated with the identified classes. Eligibility for participation was limited to mothers caring for children aged between three and seven years, with the condition that their children attended the kindergartens regularly (Those who were frequently absent due to health or other reasons were excluded from the study). A total of 613 complete questionnaires in the first wave and 483 in the second wave were returned, yielding a final response rate of 68.41%. According to Hamaker et al., at least 200 participants would be required for establishing Cross-Lagged Panel Models (CLPMs) with two waves (Hamaker et al., 2015 ). Participation in the surveys was anonymous and voluntary and written informed consent was obtained from each of them through a popup window at the beginning of the online survey. The Ethics Committee Zunyi Maternal and Child Health Hospital reviewed and approved all procedures(Approval Number ZYLS-2022-2-003). Measures (1) Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire The mental and behavioral problems of young children were assessed using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), originally developed by Goodman and colleagues (Goodman, 1997 ). This 25-item scale comprises five subscales, encompassing four ‘difficulty’ subscales (Hyperactivity, Peer problems, Conduct problems, and Emotional symptoms) and one ‘strength’ subscale (Prosocial behavior). In this study, we adopted the four ‘difficulty’ subscales to reflect the overall MBPs of the children. Respondents were asked to rate each item based on their child’s daily behaviors on a 3-point Likert scale, ranging from ‘not true’ (0) to ‘certainly true’ (2). The Chinese version of the SDQ has demonstrated satisfactory psychometric properties (Du et al., 2008 ). The Cronbach’s α coefficients of the SDQ in this studywere 0.79 at T1 and 0.78 at T2 for the entire scale. (2) Mindfulness Attention and Awareness Scale The Five-item Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS-F) was used in this study to assess mindfulness of the mothers. The MAAS-F is a unidimensional, psychometrically sound scale designed to reflect an individual’s overall experience of mindful awareness and attention, adapted from the original Mindfulness Attention and Awareness Scale developed by Brown and Ryan (Brown & Ryan, 2003 ). Respondents were asked to indicate the frequency of their experiences and feelings (e.g., ‘I rush through activities without being really attentive to them.’) across five items. Each item was scored on a scale ranging from 1 (almost always) to 6 (almost never). The scores were summed up, with a higher score signifying greater dispositional mindfulness. The MAAS-F has demonstrated good internal consistency, as well as convergent and discriminant validity (Osman et al., 2016 ). The Chinese version of the scale has been validated (Chen et al., 2012 ). The Cronbach’s α coefficient of the MAAS-F was 0.79 at T1 and 0.81 at T2. (3) Demographic information Educational attainments of the respondents and age and gender of the children they cared for were collected. Previous studies show that these factors have a significant impact on parenting styles and MBPs of children (Peverill et al., 2021 ). Data analysis SPSS version 24.0 was employed to perform descriptive statistics, paired-samples t-tests, and correlational analyses of the measurements of interest. To test the hypotheses regarding the bi-directional associations between maternal dispositional mindfulness and MBPs of young children, CLPM models with demographic covariates (i.e., gender and age of children) were established using AMOS 24.0 (Baribeau et al., 2022 ). Model fit was assessed using Comparative Fit Index (CFI > 0.90), Goodness of Fit Index (GFI > 0.90), Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI > 0.90), and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA < 0.08) (Kline, 2016 ). Significance levels in all statistical testing were set at a two-tailed p-value of α = 0.05. Results Demographic characteristics About 68.32% of respondents (n = 330) did not obtain tertiary education. The children they cared for had an age ranging from 3 to 7 years (Mean = 5.44, SD = 0.95) and slightly more than half were boys (52.59%, n = 254). Altogether 322 children (66.7%) were the only children in the family and the rest have at least one sibling. All the children were free of any diagnosis of serious physical or mental diseases. The mean maternal mindfulness scores increased from 3.10 in T1 to 3.92 in T2 ( t = 26.99, p < 0.001). In contrast, MBPs scores of the children decreased from 11.94 in T1 to 11.12 in T2 ( t = 5.01, p < 0.001). Maternal mindfulness was negatively correlated with MBPs of children, with moderate correlation coefficients ranging from − 0.33 to -0.39. Relatively stronger correlations in the same measurements between the two waves were observed, with correlation coefficients ranging from 0.51 to 0.67 (Table 1 ). Table 1 Descriptive statistics and correlational analyses of maternal mindfulness and MBPs of children Variables ɑ M SD r 1 2 3 4 1. Maternal mindfulness at T1 0.79 3.10 0.67 2. MBPs of children at T1 0.69 11.94 4.52 -0.35 *** 3. Maternal mindfulness at T2 0.81 3.92 0.68 0.51 *** -0.35 *** 4. MBPs of children at T2 0.71 11.12 4.40 -0.33 *** 0.67 *** -0.39 *** Note: *** p < 0.001; MBPs = Mental and Behavioral Problems. The CLPM modeling demonstrated basically acceptable model fit: χ 2 / df = 2.52, CFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.96, GFI = 0.99, and RMSEA = 0.056 (CI: 0.017–0.096). Bidirectional associations between maternal mindfulness and MBPs of children were observed after controlling for the age and gender of the children. Maternal mindfulness at T1 predicted negatively MBPs of children at T2, even after adjusting for auto-regressor effects (i.e., MBPs of children at T1) and demographic variables. Conversely, MBPs of children at T1 negatively predicted maternal mindfulness at T2, beyond the auto-regressor effects (i.e., maternal mindfulness at T1) and the influence of demographic variables (Fig. 1 ). Note *** p < 0.001, ** p < 0.01; MBPs = Mental and Behavioral Problems; Error terms and non-significant results are omitted for simplicity. Discussion Utilizing a longitudinal observational design, this study uncovered the reciprocal influences between maternal dispositional mindfulness and MBPs of children. In comparison to the period of household confinement, both maternal mindfulness and MBPs of children exhibited improvement five months after the household confinement was lifted. Higher levels of maternal mindfulness during the COVID-19 confinement significantly predicted a reduction in MBPs of children five months later. Intriguingly, a higher incidence of MBPs in children during household confinement predicted lower levels of maternal dispositional mindfulness five months later. Our findings underscore that during sudden catastrophic events such as COVID-19, maternal mindfulness may serve as a family protective factor negatively associated subsequent MBPs in young children. Given that confinement during the pandemic likely induces fear and anxiety(Chai et al., 2021 ),. According to Brown (2007) and Kabat-Zinn ( 2005 ), it’s reasonable to conclude that mothers with higher levels of mindfulness are more attuned to their own and their children’s psychological and physical states in the present moment and tend to intentionally cultivate moment-to-moment awareness, responding nonjudgmentally in mother-child interactions. Mindful practice in mother-child interactions can foster a cognitive distinction between present perception and situational affective responses, enhancing intentional responses over involuntary emotional reactions (DiMarzio et al., 2022 ). Moreover, higher mindfulness can enhance cognitive flexibility and emotional awareness in child-rearing (Bishop et al., 2004 ), thereby improving family relational functioning (Bögels & Emerson, 2019 ) and fostering consistent discipline in child management and positive parent-child affection (Duncan et al., 2009 ). Together, these aspects of mindful parenting facilitate the reduction of MBPs in children. A novel finding of our study is that more MBPs of young children are associated with lower level of their mothers afterwards. Given that the MAAS scale is commonly used to measure dispositional mindfulness, which is believed to be relatively stable over time and unlikely to be affected by other factors(Brown & Ryan, 2003 ), this finding challenged perceived stability of dispositional mindfulness. There are possible explanations. Firstly, although the MAAS was developed to measure individual dispositional mindfulness, there is evidence that it can be altered by interventions (Tang et al., 2016 ). And, the limited stability could be seen in the moderate coefficient between T1 and T2 ( β = 0.44), even lower than that of MBPs ( β = 0.64). Secondly, according to family systems theory, a family can be viewed as an ecological system where individuals within the family are fundamentally interdependent (Cox & Paley, 1997 ). Within this family ecosystem, the mother-child bond is the most active, significant, and strong, and mothers naturally assume the primary responsibility for raising their children in most families (China National Children’s Center, 2017),and also, are more susceptible to parental stress (Kim & Choi, 2015 ). More MBPs of the children are associated with higher parenting stress (Bianco, 2021), which is associated with subsequent lower level of mindfulness parenting (Oliveira, 2024). Complementary to this, a longitudinal study demonstrated that parents who feel more competent may become more mindful in the parenting role (Lippold et al., 2021 ). In short, our finding challenged the commonly believed stability of dispositional mindfulness and showcased the intimateness of mother-child bond in a family ecosystem facing catastrophe like COVID-19. Regarding this reciprocal effect, we preliminarily propose that the parent-child interaction in a dynamic family system may create a feedback loop. For instance, less MBPs in young children can lessen maternal stress and reinforce mothers’ sense of competence (Lippold et al., 2021 ), leading to more mindful practices such as nonjudgmental acceptance of the self and child, emotional awareness of self and child, self-regulation in the parenting relationship, and compassion for self and child (Duncan et al., 2009 ). Likewise, as previously mentioned, higher mindfulness level in turn enhance the relationship with the children and improve their well-being. Yet, this mutually reinforcing / diminishing effect need further examinations by more well-designed studies. Our findings underscore the protective role of maternal mindfulness in reducing young children’s MBPs, particularly during stressful events like the COVID-19 pandemic. It suggests that mindfulness training for mothers could serve as a preventive intervention to reduce MBPs in children. Moreover, the bidirectional relationship between maternal mindfulness and child MBPs emphasizes the importance of considering mother-child dynamics in future preventive programs aimed at promoting family mental health during crises. Strengths and limitations Our study boasts several strengths. Primarily, we employed a longitudinal design to investigate the protective effect of maternal mindfulness on MBPs of their young children amid an unprecedented pandemic. The cross-lagged panel model is robust in confirming the longitudinal effects between variables due to its statistical merits. Additionally, our study contributes novel evidence from an ecological family system perspective regarding children’s psychopathology and intervention during such a unique period. However, certain limitations should be acknowledged. Firstly, although the sample size was relatively large for a longitudinal design, its non-random selection limits its representativeness and may introduce bias. Secondly, while a prospective longitudinal design is superior to a cross-sectional design, experimental evidence is necessary to reinforce the causal association between caregiver mindfulness and children’s MBPs. Thirdly, the study's limitation to two waves of surveys prevented us from conducting more advanced RI-CLPM modeling (Madigan et al., 2019 ), which requires at least three waves of data to disentangle within-person and between-person effects. These considerations provide valuable insights for future research endeavors in this domain. Declarations Acknowledgements We are grateful to all the participants for spending time to supported this study. Funding We are grateful for being supported by Guizhou Provincial Health Commission Science and Technology Fund Project (Granted No.: gzwkj2023-496), Scientific research project of Guizhou Provincial Health and Wellness Commission (Granted No.: gzwkj2022-201), Zunyi Science and Technology Program (Granted No.: Zun Shi Ke He HZ Zi (2023) 361), and Innovation and Entrepreneurship Training Program for College Students (Grant No. 2024106610969, ZYDC202301117, ZYDC202202105). Consent for publication Not applicable Ethics approval and consent to participate The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Zunyi Maternal and Child Health Care Hospital (Approval No. ZYLS-2022-2-003). All procedures performed in this study involving human participants were conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. 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Wang H, Wang M, Wen Z, Wang Y, Fang J. Which comes first? Modeling the longitudinal association between mindfulness and neuroticism. Pers Indiv Differ. 2022;184:111226. ttps://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111226. Zhu JL, Schülke R, Vatansever D, Xi D, Yan J, Zhao H, Xie X, Feng J, Chen MY, Sahakian BJ, Wang S. Mindfulness practice for protecting mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic. Translational Psychiatry. 2021;11(1):329. ttps://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-021-01459-8. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Supplementarymaterial.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers invited by journal 07 Apr, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 06 Apr, 2026 Editor invited by journal 15 Mar, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 13 Mar, 2026 First submitted to journal 12 Mar, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9008390","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":622081869,"identity":"006105bb-c86f-4a93-996d-318df5366acc","order_by":0,"name":"Zhijun Liu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Zunyi Medical University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zhijun","middleName":"","lastName":"Liu","suffix":""},{"id":622081871,"identity":"14337be3-cb4e-44f9-b6e6-bc0a073387b4","order_by":1,"name":"Hui Tang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Zhaoqing University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hui","middleName":"","lastName":"Tang","suffix":""},{"id":622081873,"identity":"8b3772e5-e641-4368-9199-af4733b49ad2","order_by":2,"name":"Shilin Zhang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Zunyi Medical University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shilin","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhang","suffix":""},{"id":622081874,"identity":"0bff2f9b-b039-4022-98f4-02bc76e267f9","order_by":3,"name":"Guoyan Liu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Zunyi Medical University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Guoyan","middleName":"","lastName":"Liu","suffix":""},{"id":622081875,"identity":"6acbf22c-dbf4-45dd-bea5-fe77dd12ec29","order_by":4,"name":"Yongjia Zheng","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Zunyi Medical University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yongjia","middleName":"","lastName":"Zheng","suffix":""},{"id":622081876,"identity":"f6884a4f-a086-4bb9-ab86-e756c7f40104","order_by":5,"name":"Yangji Chen","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"The Third Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yangji","middleName":"","lastName":"Chen","suffix":""},{"id":622081878,"identity":"ed2dc386-f5dd-40d3-88c4-c109ba106a3c","order_by":6,"name":"Yi Xiong","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Zunyi Maternal and Child Health Care Hospital","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yi","middleName":"","lastName":"Xiong","suffix":""},{"id":622081879,"identity":"95cffad8-434d-40d7-8bd6-1105e07fe878","order_by":7,"name":"Qiyun Jin","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABBklEQVRIie2QsWrDMBCGzwg8XeJVXto+goLBBOI36SJRcKeWQqFkCNQh4IxenbcI9AUuHHgyzdpCoc7SOaVLhhKqrgU7Hjvog7tB93+cJACH4x/iLWzTtgJg4sP0eBYIwU0vJZxXhqGmKFz6qeq1TnEdsZeTWW/xQnYlxXKwednlfBvmpPjOf/OeGEHBLLlsv9jwamxyvg+QNJf4IWIeUANVepO1KhhLq5hVSUQohR/zUCsv49PK+n2XESqB0QKV7KcQA6Nmaa2TSjTWz9dmlVWwKSlVku0n6463jIp69Hp4mJgCtl/7z2PyWBTMzX6WtCt2ID3/77Fuif9ybkvCd0fC4XA4HD887GeJIpyXlgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Zunyi Maternal and Child Health Care Hospital","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Qiyun","middleName":"","lastName":"Jin","suffix":""},{"id":622081880,"identity":"d2171309-eab3-4cf3-ad72-909cde81d7cf","order_by":8,"name":"Chaojie Liu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"La Trobe University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Chaojie","middleName":"","lastName":"Liu","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-03-02 09:39:10","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9008390/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9008390/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":106902040,"identity":"bbebe6dc-c39e-487c-b8c6-9fbd55020fab","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-14 15:08:03","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":96053,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBidirectional associations between parental mindfulness and BMPs of young children\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNote: \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001, \u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.01; MBPs = Mental and Behavioral Problems; Error terms and non-significant results are omitted for simplicity.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9008390/v1/302b03be6764dd2a7414e9f5.png"},{"id":106961096,"identity":"19a05e99-dc5e-4680-b93a-86dca5336500","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-15 09:24:16","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":594169,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9008390/v1/1551744b-3f3f-4192-a978-960b712b2f15.pdf"},{"id":106902038,"identity":"09a9f08d-a6e5-4ffe-98a4-64f49503faef","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-14 15:08:03","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":16516,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Supplementarymaterial.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9008390/v1/56627fd0d33ce9ccd2bdf407.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The Reciprocal Effects of Maternal Dispositional Mindfulness and Young Children’s Mental and Behavioral Problems Amidst COVID-19: A Longitudinal Observational Study","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eHousehold confinement was implemented as an emergency measure to curb the spread of the COVID-19 virus in China, turning families into more isolated ecological systems characterized by limited living space and restricted social activities. During household confinement, there was a noted increase in the number of children and adolescents experiencing mental and behavioral problems (MBPs) (Chai et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), with long-term consequences observed on their mental health (Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies have indicated that parental behaviors play a crucial role in the psychosocial development of young children, especially in adverse environments (Parent et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Tso et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) Dispositional mindfulness, defined as a personal characteristic that allows one to pay attention to various stimuli in a non-judgmental and intentional manner (Brown et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), is noteworthy for its health benefits. Kabat-Zinn (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) theorized that parents with a higher level of mindfulness are more likely to perceive intrapersonal and interpersonal behaviors in a nonjudgmental way, effectively disengaging from negative emotions and providing calm and consistent parenting.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndeed, studies have demonstrated that the practice of mindfulness can improve the quality of parent-child interactions (Coatsworth et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Tara et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), increasing positive parenting behaviors and result in improved children\u0026rsquo;s mental health and development (Kil \u0026amp; Antonacci, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e),and effectively promote adults\u0026rsquo; psychological well-being (Zhu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, a positive correlation has been observed between caregivers\u0026rsquo; mindfulness and health outcomes in infants and young children, such as sleep quality (Markovic et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMothers typically assume a pivotal role in caring for children, making an exploration into the degree to which maternal mindfulness shields the mental health of young children from the detrimental impacts of COVID-19 of significant interest. Given that parenting practices and child behaviors are transactional and not unidirectional (Serbin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e),, investigating how children\u0026rsquo;s MBPs influence their mothers\u0026rsquo; mindfulness is also worth considering. Preliminary evidences suggest that maternal dispositional mindfulness may exhibit a certain level of vulnerability. In this regard, a longitudinal study demonstrated that female caregivers' mindful parenting, which refers to self-regulation, emotional awareness, and full attention (Duncan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), is predicted by their girls\u0026rsquo; internalizing problems (Kim \u0026amp; Gonzales, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This is in contrast to the majority of studies focusing on the downstream effect of mindful parenting to the mental health of their children. Anotherresearch has shown that changes in neuroticism in college students were negatively correlated with subsequent changes in mindfulness (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), together suggesting that children\u0026rsquo;s maladaptive behaviors may be aassociated with mothers\u0026rsquo; subsequent mindfulness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThus, To data, there is a scarcity in the literature documenting the bidirectional correlations between parents\u0026rsquo; dispositional mindfulness and MBPs of young children during the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, we addressed this gap in research by investigating reciprocal interactions between mothers and children through a longitudinal observational study in China. We hypothesize that there is a reciprocal predictive relationship between parents' dispositional mindfulness and the MBPs of their young children within a defined period.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParticipants and procedure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in Zunyi, a city in southwest Guizhou province, China. A longitudinal observational study design was adopted, involving two waves of questionnaire surveys. The first wave of the survey was conducted in February 2020 (T1) when strict household confinement was imposed in response to the local outbreak of COVID-19, while the second wave of the survey was conducted in July 2020 (T2), five months after household confinement was relaxed. This allowed for observations of significant changes in parental and child behaviors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree public kindergartens in the urban districts of Zunyi were conveniently selected, with over 1,100 enrollments of young children across different age-based classes. We purposively identified 30 classes, with 12 classes in one kindergarten and 9 classes each in the other two, to ensure a balanced distribution of ages among the children. The 30 classes consisted of 706 young children. Survey invitations were then sent to the parent-teacher WeChat groups associated with the identified classes. Eligibility for participation was limited to mothers caring for children aged between three and seven years, with the condition that their children attended the kindergartens regularly (Those who were frequently absent due to health or other reasons were excluded from the study). A total of 613 complete questionnaires in the first wave and 483 in the second wave were returned, yielding a final response rate of 68.41%. According to Hamaker et al., at least 200 participants would be required for establishing Cross-Lagged Panel Models (CLPMs) with two waves (Hamaker et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Participation in the surveys was anonymous and voluntary and written informed consent was obtained from each of them through a popup window at the beginning of the online survey. The Ethics Committee Zunyi Maternal and Child Health Hospital reviewed and approved all procedures(Approval Number ZYLS-2022-2-003).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMeasures\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(1) Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mental and behavioral problems of young children were assessed using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), originally developed by Goodman and colleagues (Goodman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). This 25-item scale comprises five subscales, encompassing four \u0026lsquo;difficulty\u0026rsquo; subscales (Hyperactivity, Peer problems, Conduct problems, and Emotional symptoms) and one \u0026lsquo;strength\u0026rsquo; subscale (Prosocial behavior). In this study, we adopted the four \u0026lsquo;difficulty\u0026rsquo; subscales to reflect the overall MBPs of the children. Respondents were asked to rate each item based on their child\u0026rsquo;s daily behaviors on a 3-point Likert scale, ranging from \u0026lsquo;not true\u0026rsquo; (0) to \u0026lsquo;certainly true\u0026rsquo; (2). The Chinese version of the SDQ has demonstrated satisfactory psychometric properties (Du et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). The Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α coefficients of the SDQ in this studywere 0.79 at T1 and 0.78 at T2 for the entire scale.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(2) Mindfulness Attention and Awareness Scale\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Five-item Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS-F) was used in this study to assess mindfulness of the mothers. The MAAS-F is a unidimensional, psychometrically sound scale designed to reflect an individual\u0026rsquo;s overall experience of mindful awareness and attention, adapted from the original Mindfulness Attention and Awareness Scale developed by Brown and Ryan (Brown \u0026amp; Ryan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). Respondents were asked to indicate the frequency of their experiences and feelings (e.g., \u0026lsquo;I rush through activities without being really attentive to them.\u0026rsquo;) across five items. Each item was scored on a scale ranging from 1 (almost always) to 6 (almost never). The scores were summed up, with a higher score signifying greater dispositional mindfulness. The MAAS-F has demonstrated good internal consistency, as well as convergent and discriminant validity (Osman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The Chinese version of the scale has been validated (Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). The Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α coefficient of the MAAS-F was 0.79 at T1 and 0.81 at T2.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(3) Demographic information\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducational attainments of the respondents and age and gender of the children they cared for were collected. Previous studies show that these factors have a significant impact on parenting styles and MBPs of children (Peverill et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSPSS version 24.0 was employed to perform descriptive statistics, paired-samples t-tests, and correlational analyses of the measurements of interest.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo test the hypotheses regarding the bi-directional associations between maternal dispositional mindfulness and MBPs of young children, CLPM models with demographic covariates (i.e., gender and age of children) were established using AMOS 24.0 (Baribeau et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Model fit was assessed using Comparative Fit Index (CFI\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.90), Goodness of Fit Index (GFI\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.90), Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.90), and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.08) (Kline, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSignificance levels in all statistical testing were set at a two-tailed p-value of \u003cem\u003eα\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDemographic characteristics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbout 68.32% of respondents (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;330) did not obtain tertiary education. The children they cared for had an age ranging from 3 to 7 years (Mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.44, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.95) and slightly more than half were boys (52.59%, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;254). Altogether 322 children (66.7%) were the only children in the family and the rest have at least one sibling. All the children were free of any diagnosis of serious physical or mental diseases.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean maternal mindfulness scores increased from 3.10 in T1 to 3.92 in T2 (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;26.99, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). In contrast, MBPs scores of the children decreased from 11.94 in T1 to 11.12 in T2 (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.01, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Maternal mindfulness was negatively correlated with MBPs of children, with moderate correlation coefficients ranging from \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.33 to -0.39. Relatively stronger correlations in the same measurements between the two waves were observed, with correlation coefficients ranging from 0.51 to 0.67 (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics and correlational analyses of maternal mindfulness and MBPs of children\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eɑ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Maternal mindfulness at T1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. MBPs of children at T1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.35\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Maternal mindfulness at T2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.51\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.35\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. MBPs of children at T2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.33\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.39\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003eNote: \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; MBPs\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Mental and Behavioral Problems.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe CLPM modeling demonstrated basically acceptable model fit: \u003cem\u003eχ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e / \u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.52, CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.99, TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.96, GFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.99, and RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.056 (CI: 0.017\u0026ndash;0.096). Bidirectional associations between maternal mindfulness and MBPs of children were observed after controlling for the age and gender of the children. Maternal mindfulness at T1 predicted negatively MBPs of children at T2, even after adjusting for auto-regressor effects (i.e., MBPs of children at T1) and demographic variables. Conversely, MBPs of children at T1 negatively predicted maternal mindfulness at T2, beyond the auto-regressor effects (i.e., maternal mindfulness at T1) and the influence of demographic variables (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eNote\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, \u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01; MBPs\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Mental and Behavioral Problems; Error terms and non-significant results are omitted for simplicity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eUtilizing a longitudinal observational design, this study uncovered the reciprocal influences between maternal dispositional mindfulness and MBPs of children. In comparison to the period of household confinement, both maternal mindfulness and MBPs of children exhibited improvement five months after the household confinement was lifted. Higher levels of maternal mindfulness during the COVID-19 confinement significantly predicted a reduction in MBPs of children five months later. Intriguingly, a higher incidence of MBPs in children during household confinement predicted lower levels of maternal dispositional mindfulness five months later.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur findings underscore that during sudden catastrophic events such as COVID-19, maternal mindfulness may serve as a family protective factor negatively associated subsequent MBPs in young children. Given that confinement during the pandemic likely induces fear and anxiety(Chai et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e),. According to Brown (2007) and Kabat-Zinn (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), it\u0026rsquo;s reasonable to conclude that mothers with higher levels of mindfulness are more attuned to their own and their children\u0026rsquo;s psychological and physical states in the present moment and tend to intentionally cultivate moment-to-moment awareness, responding nonjudgmentally in mother-child interactions. Mindful practice in mother-child interactions can foster a cognitive distinction between present perception and situational affective responses, enhancing intentional responses over involuntary emotional reactions (DiMarzio et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, higher mindfulness can enhance cognitive flexibility and emotional awareness in child-rearing (Bishop et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e), thereby improving family relational functioning (B\u0026ouml;gels \u0026amp; Emerson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and fostering consistent discipline in child management and positive parent-child affection (Duncan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Together, these aspects of mindful parenting facilitate the reduction of MBPs in children.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA novel finding of our study is that more MBPs of young children are associated with lower level of their mothers afterwards. Given that the MAAS scale is commonly used to measure dispositional mindfulness, which is believed to be relatively stable over time and unlikely to be affected by other factors(Brown \u0026amp; Ryan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e), this finding challenged perceived stability of dispositional mindfulness. There are possible explanations. Firstly, although the MAAS was developed to measure individual dispositional mindfulness, there is evidence that it can be altered by interventions (Tang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). And, the limited stability could be seen in the moderate coefficient between T1 and T2 (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.44), even lower than that of MBPs (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.64). Secondly, according to family systems theory, a family can be viewed as an ecological system where individuals within the family are fundamentally interdependent (Cox \u0026amp; Paley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). Within this family ecosystem, the mother-child bond is the most active, significant, and strong, and mothers naturally assume the primary responsibility for raising their children in most families (China National Children\u0026rsquo;s Center, 2017),and also, are more susceptible to parental stress (Kim \u0026amp; Choi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). More MBPs of the children are associated with higher parenting stress (Bianco, 2021), which is associated with subsequent lower level of mindfulness parenting (Oliveira, 2024). Complementary to this, a longitudinal study demonstrated that parents who feel more competent may become more mindful in the parenting role (Lippold et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In short, our finding challenged the commonly believed stability of dispositional mindfulness and showcased the intimateness of mother-child bond in a family ecosystem facing catastrophe like COVID-19.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding this reciprocal effect, we preliminarily propose that the parent-child interaction in a dynamic family system may create a feedback loop. For instance, less MBPs in young children can lessen maternal stress and reinforce mothers\u0026rsquo; sense of competence (Lippold et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), leading to more mindful practices such as nonjudgmental acceptance of the self and child, emotional awareness of self and child, self-regulation in the parenting relationship, and compassion for self and child (Duncan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Likewise, as previously mentioned, higher mindfulness level in turn enhance the relationship with the children and improve their well-being. Yet, this mutually reinforcing / diminishing effect need further examinations by more well-designed studies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur findings underscore the protective role of maternal mindfulness in reducing young children\u0026rsquo;s MBPs, particularly during stressful events like the COVID-19 pandemic. It suggests that mindfulness training for mothers could serve as a preventive intervention to reduce MBPs in children. Moreover, the bidirectional relationship between maternal mindfulness and child MBPs emphasizes the importance of considering mother-child dynamics in future preventive programs aimed at promoting family mental health during crises.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Strengths and limitations","content":"\u003cp\u003eOur study boasts several strengths. Primarily, we employed a longitudinal design to investigate the protective effect of maternal mindfulness on MBPs of their young children amid an unprecedented pandemic. The cross-lagged panel model is robust in confirming the longitudinal effects between variables due to its statistical merits. Additionally, our study contributes novel evidence from an ecological family system perspective regarding children\u0026rsquo;s psychopathology and intervention during such a unique period.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, certain limitations should be acknowledged. Firstly, although the sample size was relatively large for a longitudinal design, its non-random selection limits its representativeness and may introduce bias. Secondly, while a prospective longitudinal design is superior to a cross-sectional design, experimental evidence is necessary to reinforce the causal association between caregiver mindfulness and children\u0026rsquo;s MBPs. Thirdly, the study's limitation to two waves of surveys prevented us from conducting more advanced RI-CLPM modeling (Madigan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), which requires at least three waves of data to disentangle within-person and between-person effects. These considerations provide valuable insights for future research endeavors in this domain.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe are grateful to all the participants for spending time to supported this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe are grateful for being supported by Guizhou Provincial Health Commission Science and Technology Fund Project (Granted No.: gzwkj2023-496), Scientific research project of Guizhou Provincial Health and Wellness Commission (Granted No.: gzwkj2022-201), Zunyi Science and Technology Program (Granted No.: Zun Shi Ke He HZ Zi (2023) 361), and Innovation and Entrepreneurship Training Program for College Students (Grant No. 2024106610969, ZYDC202301117, ZYDC202202105).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Zunyi Maternal and Child Health Care Hospital (Approval No. ZYLS-2022-2-003). All procedures performed in this study involving human participants were conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Written informed consent was obtained from all participating mothers prior to participation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;The authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData availability statement\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data are available upon request to the corresponding author based on reasonable reasons.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBaribeau DA, Vigod S, Brittain H, Vaillancourt T, Szatmari P, Pullenayegum E. Application of Transactional (Cross-lagged panel) Models in Mental Health Research: An Introduction and Review of Methodological Considerations. 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Pers Indiv Differ. 2022;184:111226. ttps://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111226.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZhu JL, Sch\u0026uuml;lke R, Vatansever D, Xi D, Yan J, Zhao H, Xie X, Feng J, Chen MY, Sahakian BJ, Wang S. Mindfulness practice for protecting mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic. Translational Psychiatry. 2021;11(1):329. ttps://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-021-01459-8.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"psyo","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Psychology](http://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"BMC Psychology","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Dispositional mindfulness, Mental and behavioral problems, Young children, COVID-19","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9008390/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9008390/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIt is not well understood whether maternal mindfulness can serve as a protective factor to mitigate mental and behavioral problems (MBPs) in young children, particularly in the face of disastrous events such as the COVID-19 pandemic. This longitudinal observational study, involving 483 mothers, demonstrated that dispositional mindfulness of the mothers during COVID-19-triggered household confinement negatively predicted their young children\u0026rsquo;s MBPs (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = -0.11, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) five months later when household confinement was lifted. Interestingly, MBPs in young children also significantly predicted mothers\u0026rsquo; dispositional mindfulness (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = -0.20, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). This study contributes new insights into the reciprocal effects between maternal behaviors and young children\u0026rsquo;s MBPs.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The Reciprocal Effects of Maternal Dispositional Mindfulness and Young Children’s Mental and Behavioral Problems Amidst COVID-19: A Longitudinal Observational Study","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-14 15:07:59","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9008390/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-07T17:32:37+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-04-06T12:15:19+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2026-03-16T03:36:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-03-13T15:44:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Psychology","date":"2026-03-13T02:49:46+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"psyo","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Psychology](http://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"BMC Psychology","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"65a20c8c-f25e-4076-9e3a-f142aaa7138d","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 14th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-14T15:07:59+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-14 15:07:59","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9008390","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9008390","identity":"rs-9008390","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}