The Effectiveness of Extended Reality Training Programmes for Improving Psychomotor Skill Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Organisations are increasingly implementing extended reality (XR) in education, organisationaltraining, and sports practice. However, the effectiveness of XR compared to conventional trainingmethods, and the potential improvements that additional sensory information such as hapticfeedback may offer are unclear. This systematic review and meta-analysis compared XR with non-XR training programmes in improving psychomotor skill performance and assessed whether hapticfeedback improved programmes' effectiveness. Seven databases were searched on January 11*,2024, for randomised controlled trials quantitatively measuring the effectiveness of a psychomotorskill after an XR-based training programme. Sensitivity analyses, publication bias and risk of biaswere assessed. Due to non-independence of effect sizes, robust variance meta-regression modelswere run and presented using forest plots. Thirty-five reports were assessed, totalling 1692participants. Both the post-training and pre-post-training change scores between XR and non-XRgroups were assessed. Four robust variance estimation meta-regression models were created bysplitting two types of control groups: passive (no training) and active (non-XR training). Nodifferences were found between XR training and active control groups. There was, however, abenefit of XR training compared with passive controls on post-training, but not change scores.Additionally, one model showed a significant negative effect of haptic feedback on post-trainingscores compared with active controls, with the other models showing non-significant effects.Evidence certainty was limited by high heterogeneity, risk of bias, and poor methods reporting.Overall, XR-based training offers no significant benefit or detriment for training psychomotorskills.