The impact of distracting factors on reaction time in student drivers and non-drivers

The impact of distracting factors on reaction time in student drivers and non-drivers | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article The impact of distracting factors on reaction time in student drivers and non-drivers Magdalena Pieknik-Janiszewska, Janusz Maciaszek This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4788836/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The study aimed to evaluate the effect of two different types of music and cognitive task on students’ reaction time and additionally to compare results of two groups: drivers and non-drivers. Reaction tests associated with driving-related skills were conducted on 52 students aged 18–25, 33 of them were drivers and 19 were no-drivers. Tests included three parameters: choice reaction time, the number of correct reactions and the number of no reactions and were conducted in four conditions: in silence (control test), with energetic music, with relaxing music and with cognitive task (answering questions). It turned out that results of all three parameters were better in silence and with music than while doing cognitive task. There were no differences between the two examined groups. Biological sciences/Neuroscience/Cognitive neuroscience/Attention Biological sciences/Neuroscience/Cognitive neuroscience/Decision Biological sciences/Neuroscience/Cognitive neuroscience/Cognitive control reaction time distraction road safety music cognitive task Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction The ability to react within an appropriately short time is crucial in some everyday life activities, such as participating in road traffic [1] or undertaking various sports activities [2]. This ability is highly dependent on numerous factors, such as sex [3], age [4], exhaustion, training level [5] [6], music [7], noise [8], intelligence, and task complexity [9]. Individuals, especially those for whom a response at the appropriate time is crucial, should be aware of the external and internal factors that can positively and negatively affect this ability. Distractors are the subject of extensive research, as it has been found that they do not affect the reaction time equally. In the case of distractors impacting cognitive functions, the effect is generally negative, but it varies depending on the type of stimulus. Distraction typically increases the reaction time, although occasionally, an ostensibly distracting stimulus can act as a catalyst and decrease the reaction time [10]. The influence of a cognitive distractor, mental fatigue, on complex reaction time was investigated, and an increased reaction time was detected for both men and women and for both auditory and visual stimuli [11]. Another cognitive distractor is engaging in conversation, which is a subject of research particularly in the context of road safety. The advent of mobile phones and hands-free systems has become another aspect of this problem. Using a hands-free system while driving, although it might seem safer than holding a phone, still poses some risk. [12-15]. There are limited evidences that holding a phone in hand may function as a reminder to drivers of the potential impact of the device on road safety and lead to more cautious driving [14]. The hands-free system mitigates the risks associated with handling a phone (such as searching for and holding the device), but it introduces new risks. Drivers may exhibit a tendency to engage in more frequent and longer conversations using this system, paradoxically remaining under the influence of the dangers posed by phone use for extended periods [13]. Also both hands-free and hand-held conversations can impair driver performance more than listening to the radio [12][15-18]. Additionally, phone conversations generally last longer than those with a passenger [19]. Research indicates that talking to a passenger may be less distracting than phone conversation, as the passenger is aware of the road situation and can adjust their communication behaviour to avoid distracting the driver at critical moments [20]. The act of conversing itself affects the ability to respond to varying degrees, depending on the complexity of the conversation and the emotional load it carries [13]. Another common potential distractor appears to be music, as it is a common component of everyday activities, including driving. There is no definitive answer on how it affects drivers' abilities, primarily because this factor encompasses many variables. Important considerations include the volume level, the type of music, and the driver's musical preferences [7][21-24]. Additionally, operating audio equipment can further influence the reaction time and overall attentiveness while driving. While drivers generally have control over music in most cases, they may not have the same control over other audio distractors, such as street noise. Unfortunately, avoiding street noise is not always possible. Its impact on cognitive functions has been demonstrated; however, for this effect to be noticeable, the noise must be of sufficient intensity, and the tasks must be complex or cognitively demanding. No significant effect of street noise has been shown on simple and repetitive tasks [8]. Typically, the term “reaction time” refers to the interval between the onset of a stimulus and the initiation of movement. It comprises five temporal segments, each of which has a plastic duration [25]. Several types of reactions can be distinguished, depending on the type of stimulus and the expected response [25]. This study focuses on choice reactions, where it is necessary to choose the appropriate response to a given stimulus. In this study, we focused on auditory distractors (listening to two different types of music during the test) and cognitive distractors (a task requiring participants to answer questions during the test). The main purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of two different types of music and cognitive task on students’ reaction time and additionally to compare the results of two groups: drivers and non-drivers. To our knowledge, this is the first study of its kind comparing the effects of different types of music, silence, and cognitive tasks on reaction time and accuracy of drivers and non-drivers. Methodology Participants Information about the opportunity to participate in the study was communicated to students of Poznań University. 56 individuals volunteered for the study, however the results of 4 individuals were excluded from the analysis - 3 of them did not complete the consent form expressing permission to use their results in the study, and 1 of them exceeded the maximum age limit of 25 years. Ultimately, in this study were used the results of 52 students (age = 19.44 yr., SD = 1.73): 30 women (age = 19.73 yr., SD = 2.08) and 22 men (age = 19.05 yr., SD = 1.00). All participants provided signed informed consents, and the Bioethics Committee at the Karol Marcinkowski Medical University in Poznań granted ethical approval for this study. All methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations. The inclusion criteria for the study required participants to be students aged 18 to 25 years with overall physical fitness. All participants were healthy, physically fit, and provided consent to the use of their results in the study. 33 participants had a driver's licence and driving experience, while 19 did not. Drivers represent a social group for whom the ability to react quickly is particularly crucial, and distractors that hinder safe vehicle operation pose a tangible threat. That's why we decided to focus in this study on examining the impact of distractors on reaction time associated with driving-related skills (reacting to visual stimuli resembling traffic lights and auditory stimuli resembling car horn). We also compared the results between the two groups of individuals: who have been driving for at least 1 month, at least several times a month (drivers), who do not drive at all, drive less frequently than several times a month, or have been driving for less than 1 month (non-drivers). Furthermore, the study focuses on teenagers and young adults as individuals under the age of 30 are most susceptible to problems with concentration while driving due to performing a secondary task (like talking/singing, cell texting, reaching for in-vehicle objects etc.) [26]. Research has shown that individuals in the 18-25 age group are more likely to engage in additional activities while driving compared to those in the 26-54 and 55+ age groups, and are also the most susceptible to car accidents [27]. Distraction, in turn, can lead to an increase in reaction time to appearing stimuli Apparatus The study used the Alfa-Electronics reaction time metre, an advanced apparatus devised to gauge the velocity, appropriateness and consistency of responses to visual and auditory stimuli. The apparatus features components simulating vehicle operation: two pedals (operated by feet), light signals in the form of a vertical signal indicator with three illuminated discs in the following order from top to bottom: red, yellow and green, an auditory signal resembling a horn, and additionally manually operated buttons. The participant sat on a chair in front of the assembled equipment, allowing for comfortable button operation and clear visibility of the signal indicator. The study employed a program examining complex reaction time, in which each stimulus had a specific response assigned: red light - right leg, yellow light - right hand, green light - left hand, sound - left leg. Procedure The preliminary test emitted 10 stimuli, while the main test emitted 20. In order to acquaint themselves with the apparatus, participants also underwent a trial test in a simple reaction time mode, featuring 20 stimuli without predefined responses. The order of testing was as follows: trial I: simple reaction time test, 20 stimuli, in silence; trial II: complex reaction time test, 10 stimuli, in silence main test: four complex reaction time tests in random order, 20 stimuli, in silence, while energetic music (“Stayin' Alive” by Bee Gees) played in the background, while relaxing music (“Frühling der Vergänglichkeit” by Buddha Code) played in the background, responding to questions spoken by a speech synthesiser (dual task). Stimuli in each test were presented in the same sequence; however, participants were informed that the stimuli would appear in a random order. This procedure was implemented to discourage participants from remembering the stimulus sequences. Statistical analysis Statistical analyses were performed using Statistica 10 software (StatSoft Inc. OK, U.S.) and statistical significance was defined as p<0.05. Normal distribution was verified using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. ANOVA was used to determine the significance of differences between groups drivers and non-drivers and for the analysis of variation between different tests results and Tukey's post hoc test was used to examine the differences between groups. The first factor (within-subject factor: “conditions”) was analysed in four situations (silence, energetic music, relaxing music, dual task). The second factor (between-subject factor: “group”) was also analysed in two levels (drivers and non-drivers). The Eta 2 (η 2 ) was calculated in order to measure interactive effects. The Eta 2 can be defined as the proportion of variance associated with or accounted for by each of the main effects, interactions, and errors in an ANOVA study. It was also used to calculate the power of other significant effects. Results The control test was conducted in silence and examined three parameters: reaction time, the number of correct reactions and the number of no reactions. There were no differences in results of two examined groups: drivers (n=33) and non-drivers (n=19) (table 1) Figure 1 shows the average reaction time for tests performed in silence (control test), with music (two types), and while performing a cognitive task. It also shows the differences between the drivers and non-drivers. There were no differences between two groups of subjects. Interaction effect is not statistically significant (F = 0.53, p = 0.660, η 2 = 0.01). The reaction times during silence, energetic music, and relaxing music were shorter among both measured groups than when the subjects had to additionally answer the questions (p<0.005). Figure 2 shows the mean number of correct responses for all four tests and the differences between drivers and non-drivers. There were no differences between these two groups. The interaction effect was not statistically significant (F=0.33, p=0.801, η 2 =0.01). The number of correct responses during silence, energetic music, and relaxing music was greater among both measured groups than when the subjects had to additionally answer the questions (p<0.05). Figure 3 shows the mean number of correct responses for all four tests and the differences between drivers and non-drivers. There were no differences between these two groups. The interaction effect was not statistically significant (F=0.45, p=0.0.717, η2 =0.76). The number of no responses during silence, energetic music, and relaxing music was lower among both measured groups than when the subjects had to additionally answer the questions (p<0.05). Discussion No statistically significant effect of music on reaction time or accuracy was observed, which is consistent with existing research on the subject. Our study did not focus on preferences but on different types of music. Cowart et al. [ 24 ] examined the impact of different types of music - classical and participant-selected (non-classical) music - on the reaction times of four young individuals. They conducted tests with music played for 2 minutes and 8 minutes. In all the cases, they also reported no statistically significant differences. Gupta et al. [ 22 ] conducted a study with 52 men aged 18–25, examining the effects of different types of music (soft and hard rock) on auditory reaction time, with each type played at different volumes. The tests lasted 2 minutes each. They compared the results obtained during music playback with those from a control test conducted in silence and found no significant differences. The aforementioned studies, like ours, measured reaction time during short-term music exposure. Meško et al. [ 7 ] designed a study where music exposure lasted 30 minutes, but there was no variation in volume or genre. They observed a positive effect of stimulating music (techno) on reaction time, but this effect only appeared during the silence after 30 minutes of listening to techno music. No significant changes were observed during the music listening period. It can be inferred that background music does not significantly affect reaction time and accuracy, regardless of volume or type. Intuitively, one might expect different conclusions: relaxation music could either prolong reaction time by inducing drowsiness or shorten it by improving concentration and calming the mind. Similarly, stimulating music could shorten reaction time by increasing focus or prolong it by causing distraction. In our study, a cognitively demanding task, which can simulate a challenging conversation, significantly affected choice reaction time and accuracy. This is consistent with numerous studies focused on road safety, which primarily examine the impact of conversations (with a passenger, using a cell phone, or using a hands-free system) on driving-related skills such as reaction time and correct response to specific stimuli. Parkes et al. [ 28 ] compared the ability to perform driving-related tasks among well-educated participants under conditions without conversation and while using a hands-free system. They reported deterioration in choice reaction time, responsiveness to a change in speed limit from 80 to 50 km/h, and situation awareness (measured by a questionnaire) when engaging in a phone conversation, which aligns with our study’s findings. Compared with reactions where participants listened to the radio, engaging in phone conversation (handheld and hands-free) increased reaction time and doubled the likelihood of participants failing to respond to the stimulus. No differences were found between handheld and hands-free conversations [ 15 ]. It can conclude that the conversation must be demanding for it to negatively affect driving-related abilities. These findings align with our findings: music does not prove to be as engaging as conversation; thus, it does not significantly affect choice reaction time, unlike the demanding cognitive task. These conclusions indicate that a secondary task must be cognitively engaging to disrupt the accuracy of performing the primary task and affect the choice reaction time. Conclusion Short-term music listening does not affect choice reaction time or accuracy, regardless of the nature of the music (stimulating/relaxing). In contrast, a cognitively demanding task has a negative impact on choice reaction time and accuracy. Driving experience does not have an effect on the results. Limitation The participants were assessed at various times of the day (between 8 AM and 3 PM) - some of them may have been shortly after consuming coffee, while others after several hours of academic activities or physical exercise, which could have impacted the reaction time. There are also limitations about music used in this study - important in influencing reaction time may be facts such as whether the participant is familiar with the particular musical composition and if it aligns with their musical preferences. It should also be considered that these studies pertain to a narrow age group of 18–25 years, and therefore may not necessarily reflect the situation in other age groups. Additionally, there is a limitation regarding the level of driving experience; the maximum duration for which the subjects could have accumulated driving experience is 7 years (as individuals in Poland can obtain a driver's licence at the age of 18). Consequently, it is not recommended generalising the study's findings to individuals with longer driving experience, who may have developed enhanced driving attentiveness, potentially resulting in shorter reaction times to various road events. Declarations Author contributions M.P-J, and J.M. contributed to the conception and design of the work. M.P-J. contributed to data acquisition and organised the database. J.M. performed the statistical analysis and prepared figures. M.P-J. contributed interpretation of data and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. All authors contributed to the manuscript revision, read, and approved the submitted version. Data availability The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. References Droździel, P., Tarkowski, S., Rybicka, I. & Wrona, R. Drivers’ reaction time research in the conditions in the real traffic. Open Eng. 10 , 35–47 https://doi.org/10.1515/eng-2020-0004 (2020). Nuri, L., Shadmehr, A., Ghotbi, N. & Attarbashi Moghadam, B. Reaction time and anticipatory skill of athletes in open and closed skill-dominated sport. Eur. J. Sport Sci. 13 , 431–436 https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2012.738712 (2012). Jain, A., Bansal, R., Kumar, A. & Singh, K. A comparative study of visual and auditory reaction times on the basis of gender and physical activity levels of medical first year students. Int. J. Appl. Basic Med. Res. 5 , 124 https://doi.org/10.4103/2229-516X.157168 (2015). Darbutas, T., Juodžbalienė, V., Skurvydas, A. & Kriščiūnas, A. Dependence of reaction time and movement speed on task complexity and age. Medicina (Kaunas, Lithuania) 49 , 18–22 (2013). Soto-Leon, V. et al. Effects of fatigue induced by repetitive movements and isometric tasks on reaction time. Hum. Mov. Sci. 73 , 102679 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2020.102679 (2020). Pavelka, R. et al. Acute fatigue affects reaction times and reaction consistency in Mixed Martial Arts fighters. PLoS One 15 , e0227675 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227675 (2020). Meško, M., Strojnik, V., Mateja, V. & Damir, K. The effect of listening to techno music on reaction times to visual stimuli Účinky poslechu techno hudby na dobu reakce na vizuální podněty. Acta Univ. Palackianae Olomuc. Gymnica 39 (2009). den Boer, L. C. & Schroten, A. Traffic noise reduction in Europe. CE Delft, 9 (2007). Darbutas, T., Juodžbalienė, V., Skurvydas, A. & Kriščiūnas, A. Dependence of reaction time and movement speed on task complexity and age. Medicina (Kaunas) 49 , 18–22 (2013). Boring, E.G. & Langfeld, H.S. Foundations of Psychology , 7th Edition, 60–61, 476–479 (1955). Shinde, P. & Pazare, P. Effect of distraction on choice reaction time in normal females and males. World J. Pharm. Res. 3, 362–371. (2014). Consiglio, W., Driscoll, P., Witte, M. & Berg, W.P. Effect of cellular telephone conversations and other potential interference on reaction time in a braking response. Accid. Anal. Prev. 35 , 495–500 (2003). Dragutinovic, N. & Twisk, D. Use of mobile phones while driving – effects on road safety. SWOV Institute for Road Safety Research (2005). Patten, C.J.D., Kircher, A., Östlund, J. & Nilsson, L. Using mobile telephones; cognitive workload and attention resource allocation. Accident Anal. Prev. 36 , 341–350 (2004). Strayer, D.L. & Johnston, W.A. Driven to distraction; Dual-task studies of simulated driving and conversing on a cellular telephone. Psychol. Sci. 12 , 462–466 (2001). Caird, J.K., Willness, C.R., Steel, P. & Scialfa, C. A meta-analysis of the effects of cell phones on driver performance. Accident Anal. Prev. 40, 1282–1293 (2008). Charlton, S.G. Distractive effects of cellphone use. Land Transport NZ Research Report 349 . (2008). Parkes, A.M., Luke, T., Burns, P.C. & Lansdown, T. Conversations in cars: the relative hazards of mobile phones. TRL Report 664, (2007). Crundall, D., Bains, M., Chapman, P. & Underwood, G. Regulating conversation during driving: A problem for mobile telephones? Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 8 , 197–211 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2005.01.003 (2005). Parkes, A. Conversations in cars: the relative hazards of mobile phones. ResearchGate https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.2732.9446 (2002). Naserpour, M., et al. A study of students cognitive performance under noise exposure, using Continuous Performance Test. Study on the effects of noise on cognitive performances. J Health Saf Work 4, 41–54 (2014). Gupta, R.R., Nagpal, M. & Sharma, R. Effect of type of music on auditory reaction time in young adult males. J Med Acad. 1 , 5–9 (2018). Zakharova, N.N. & Ivashchenko, O.I. Effect of music on motor reaction time and interhemispheric relations. Zhurnal vysshei nervnoi deiatelnosti imeni I P Pavlova 34 , 212–218 (1984). Cowart, D., Durham, H., Morse, E. & Quinn, M. The effect of preference of music on reaction time. J Sci Med. 3 , 1–6 https://doi.org/10.37714/josam.v2i4.73 (2021). Bołoban, W.N. Reaction time and motor time in an athlete’s movements. Pedagogics, Psychology, Medical-Biological Problems Of Physical Training And Sports , 10, 295-300 (2009). Guo, F., et al. The effects of age on crash risk associated with driver distraction. Int. J. Epidemiol. 46 , 258–265 https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyw234 (2017). Young, K.L. & Lenné, M.G. Driver engagement in distracting activities and the strategies used to minimise risk. Safety Sci. 48 , 326–332 (2010). Parkes, A., Hooijmeijer, V., Diepens, V. & Okkema, E. The influence of the use of mobile phones on driver situation awareness. (2001). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4788836","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":345417989,"identity":"44156d79-c581-42c0-b63c-4e9f94f80554","order_by":0,"name":"Magdalena Pieknik-Janiszewska","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAxElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYJACCRDB2N4AoixI0dJzAM4mUguDRAKRWnTbj1+88YPhDgPzzDdmDxh3EKHF7ExOsWUPwzMGxtk55gaMZ4jRciAnTYKH4XB94+zcbRKMbcRoOf8mTfIPw2EGxplnidVyI/2YNA9IywxeorW8YbaWMQD6pSf/u0EiUX45n/7w5puKOwyG7cfSHnzcYUNYCwMDjwEDg8EBBsMGBjaGxAZidDCwPwASBxjkGYBaGInTMgpGwSgYBSMMAACKbjoWGeCmGwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego im. Eugeniusza Piaseckiego w Poznaniu","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Magdalena","middleName":"","lastName":"Pieknik-Janiszewska","suffix":""},{"id":345417990,"identity":"c8ce9b07-5e82-4465-937b-9ec64d225a2e","order_by":1,"name":"Janusz Maciaszek","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego im. Eugeniusza Piaseckiego w Poznaniu","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Janusz","middleName":"","lastName":"Maciaszek","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-07-23 12:41:19","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4788836/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4788836/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":63371569,"identity":"ae6afe4a-703d-4d4b-845b-c4bcf168a904","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-27 11:56:22","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":51813,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDifferences in reaction time (s) for test performed in silence, with energetic music, with relaxing music or with cognitive task.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4788836/v1/49661b3778c50ac882a6d91c.png"},{"id":63371571,"identity":"2df7012c-e3bf-417e-a122-9479a5a37c7f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-27 11:56:22","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":53795,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDifferences in correct reactions (number) for tests performed in silence, with energetic music, with relaxing music or with cognitive task.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4788836/v1/d7fd67b349cbf0d36e1cd8b5.png"},{"id":63371570,"identity":"6a447dea-41d0-4722-be1d-9829645ec812","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-27 11:56:22","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":11549,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDifferences in no reactions (number) for tests performed in silence, with energetic music, with relaxing music or with cognitive task.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4788836/v1/c18e5cfbaae71c15f66977fd.png"},{"id":63372738,"identity":"23af521f-cdaf-45d8-838f-4a7d1d69fbc3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-27 12:12:24","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":376160,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4788836/v1/19f7a15e-d8bc-47cf-898a-fabf8c94b7f4.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The impact of distracting factors on reaction time in student drivers and non-drivers","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe ability to react within an appropriately short time is crucial in some everyday life activities, such as participating in road traffic [1] or undertaking various sports activities [2]. This ability is highly dependent on numerous factors, such as sex [3], age [4], exhaustion, training level [5] [6], music [7], noise [8], intelligence, and task complexity [9]. Individuals, especially those for whom a response at the appropriate time is crucial, should be aware of the external and internal factors that can positively and negatively affect this ability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDistractors are the subject of extensive research, as it has been found that they do not affect the reaction time equally. In the case of distractors impacting cognitive functions, the effect is generally negative, but it varies depending on the type of stimulus. Distraction typically increases the reaction time, although occasionally, an ostensibly distracting stimulus can act as a catalyst and decrease the reaction time [10]. The influence of a cognitive distractor, mental fatigue, on complex reaction time was investigated, and an increased reaction time was detected for both men and women and for both auditory and visual stimuli [11]. Another cognitive distractor is engaging in conversation, which is a subject of research particularly in the context of road safety. The advent of mobile phones and hands-free systems has become another aspect of this problem. Using a hands-free system while driving, although it might seem safer than holding a phone, still poses some risk. [12-15]. There are limited evidences that holding a phone in hand may function as a reminder to drivers of the potential impact of the device on road safety and lead to more cautious driving [14]. The hands-free system mitigates the risks associated with handling a phone (such as searching for and holding the device), but it introduces new risks. Drivers may exhibit a tendency to engage in more frequent and longer conversations using this system, paradoxically remaining under the influence of the dangers posed by phone use for extended periods [13]. Also both hands-free and hand-held conversations can impair driver performance more than listening to the radio [12][15-18]. Additionally, phone conversations generally last longer than those with a passenger [19]. Research indicates that talking to a passenger may be less distracting than phone conversation, as the passenger is aware of the road situation and can adjust their communication behaviour to avoid distracting the driver at critical moments [20]. The act of conversing itself affects the ability to respond to varying degrees, depending on the complexity of the conversation and the emotional load it carries [13].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnother common potential distractor appears to be music, as it is a common component of everyday activities, including driving. There is no definitive answer on how it affects drivers' abilities, primarily because this factor encompasses many variables. Important considerations include the volume level, the type of music, and the driver's musical preferences [7][21-24]. Additionally, operating audio equipment can further influence the reaction time and overall attentiveness while driving. While drivers generally have control over music in most cases, they may not have the same control over other audio distractors, such as street noise. Unfortunately, avoiding street noise is not always possible. Its impact on cognitive functions has been demonstrated; however, for this effect to be noticeable, the noise must be of sufficient intensity, and the tasks must be complex or cognitively demanding. No significant effect of street noise has been shown on simple and repetitive tasks [8].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTypically, the term “reaction time” refers to the interval between the onset of a stimulus and the initiation of movement. It comprises five temporal segments, each of which has a plastic duration [25]. Several types of reactions can be distinguished, depending on the type of stimulus and the expected response [25]. This study focuses on choice reactions, where it is necessary to choose the appropriate response to a given stimulus.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this study, we focused on auditory distractors (listening to two different types of music during the test) and cognitive distractors (a task requiring participants to answer questions during the test).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe main purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of two different types of music and cognitive task on students’ reaction time and additionally to compare the results of two groups: drivers and non-drivers. To our knowledge, this is the first study of its kind comparing the effects of different types of music, silence, and cognitive tasks on reaction time and accuracy of drivers and non-drivers.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003eParticipants\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformation about the opportunity to participate in the study was communicated to students of Poznań University. 56 individuals volunteered for the study, however the results of 4 individuals were excluded from the analysis - 3 of them did not complete the consent form expressing permission to use their results in the study, and 1 of them exceeded the maximum age limit of 25 years. Ultimately, in this study were used the results of 52 students (age = 19.44 yr., SD = 1.73): 30 women (age = 19.73 yr., SD = 2.08) and 22 men (age = 19.05 yr., SD = 1.00). All participants provided signed informed consents, and the Bioethics Committee at the Karol Marcinkowski Medical University in Poznań granted ethical approval for this study. All methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe inclusion criteria for the study required participants to be students aged 18 to 25 years with overall physical fitness. All participants were healthy, physically fit, and provided consent to the use of their results in the study. 33 participants had a driver\u0026apos;s licence and driving experience, while 19 did not.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDrivers represent a social group for whom the ability to react quickly is particularly crucial, and distractors that hinder safe vehicle operation pose a tangible threat. That\u0026apos;s why we decided to focus in this study on examining the impact of distractors on reaction time associated with driving-related skills (reacting to visual stimuli resembling traffic lights and auditory stimuli resembling car horn). We also compared the results between the two groups of individuals:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col start=\"1\" type=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ewho have been driving for at least 1 month, at least several times a month (drivers),\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ewho do not drive at all, drive less frequently than several times a month, or have been driving for less than 1 month (non-drivers).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the study focuses on teenagers and young adults as individuals under the age of 30 are most susceptible to problems with concentration while driving due to performing a secondary task (like talking/singing, cell texting, reaching for in-vehicle objects etc.) [26]. Research has shown that individuals in the 18-25 age group are more likely to engage in additional activities while driving compared to those in the 26-54 and 55+ age groups, and are also the most susceptible to car accidents [27]. Distraction, in turn, can lead to an increase in reaction time to appearing stimuli\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eApparatus \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study used the Alfa-Electronics reaction time metre, an advanced apparatus devised to gauge the velocity, appropriateness and consistency of responses to visual and auditory stimuli.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe apparatus features components simulating vehicle operation: two pedals (operated by feet), light signals in the form of a vertical signal indicator with three illuminated discs in the following order from top to bottom: red, yellow and green, an auditory signal resembling a horn, and additionally manually operated buttons. The participant sat on a chair in front of the assembled equipment, allowing for comfortable button operation and clear visibility of the signal indicator.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study employed a program examining complex reaction time, in which each stimulus had a specific response assigned:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ered light - right leg,\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eyellow light - right hand,\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003egreen light - left hand,\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003esound - left leg.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eProcedure\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe preliminary test emitted 10 stimuli, while the main test emitted 20. In order to acquaint themselves with the apparatus, participants also underwent a trial test in a simple reaction time mode, featuring 20 stimuli without predefined responses.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe order of testing was as follows:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col start=\"1\" type=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003etrial I: simple reaction time test, 20 stimuli, in silence;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003etrial II: complex reaction time test, 10 stimuli, in silence\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003emain test: four complex reaction time tests in random order, 20 stimuli,\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ein silence,\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ewhile energetic music (\u0026ldquo;Stayin\u0026apos; Alive\u0026rdquo; by Bee Gees) played in the background,\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ewhile relaxing music (\u0026ldquo;Fr\u0026uuml;hling der Verg\u0026auml;nglichkeit\u0026rdquo; by Buddha Code) played in the background,\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eresponding to questions spoken by a speech synthesiser (dual task).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStimuli in each test were presented in the same sequence; however, participants were informed that the stimuli would appear in a random order. This procedure was implemented to discourage participants from remembering the stimulus sequences.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStatistical analyses were performed using Statistica 10 software (StatSoft Inc. OK, U.S.) and statistical significance was defined as p\u0026lt;0.05. Normal distribution was verified using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. ANOVA was used to determine the significance of differences between groups drivers and non-drivers and for the analysis of variation between different tests results and Tukey\u0026apos;s post hoc test was used to examine the differences between groups. The first factor (within-subject factor: \u0026ldquo;conditions\u0026rdquo;) was\u0026nbsp;analysed\u0026nbsp;in four\u0026nbsp;situations\u0026nbsp;(silence, energetic music, relaxing music, dual task). The second factor (between-subject factor: \u0026ldquo;group\u0026rdquo;) was also\u0026nbsp;analysed\u0026nbsp;in two levels (drivers and non-drivers). The Eta\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e (\u0026eta;\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) was calculated in order to measure interactive effects. The Eta\u003csup\u003e2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003ecan be defined as the proportion of variance associated with or accounted for by each of the main effects, interactions, and errors in an ANOVA study. It was also used to calculate the power of other significant effects.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe control test was conducted in silence and examined three parameters: reaction time, the number of correct reactions and the number of no reactions. There were no differences in results of two examined groups: drivers (n=33) and non-drivers (n=19) (table 1)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg src=\"data:image/png;base64,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\" width=\"556\" height=\"425\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 1 \u0026nbsp;shows the average reaction time for tests performed in silence (control test), with music (two types), and while performing a cognitive task. It also shows the differences between the drivers and non-drivers. There were no differences between two groups of subjects. Interaction effect is not statistically significant (F = 0.53, p = 0.660, \u0026eta;\u003csup\u003e2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e= 0.01).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe reaction times during silence, energetic music, and relaxing music were shorter among both measured groups than when the subjects had to additionally answer the questions (p\u0026lt;0.005).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 2 shows the mean number of correct responses for all four tests and the differences between drivers and non-drivers. There were no differences between these two groups. The interaction effect was not statistically significant (F=0.33, p=0.801,\u0026nbsp;\u0026eta;\u003csup\u003e2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e=0.01).\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe number of correct responses during silence, energetic music, and relaxing music was greater among both measured groups than when the subjects had to additionally answer the questions (p\u0026lt;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 3 shows the mean number of correct responses for all four tests and the differences between drivers and non-drivers. There were no differences between these two groups. The interaction effect was not statistically significant (F=0.45, p=0.0.717, \u0026eta;2 =0.76).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe number of no responses during silence, energetic music, and relaxing music was lower among both measured groups than when the subjects had to additionally answer the questions (p\u0026lt;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eNo statistically significant effect of music on reaction time or accuracy was observed, which is consistent with existing research on the subject. Our study did not focus on preferences but on different types of music. Cowart et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e] examined the impact of different types of music - classical and participant-selected (non-classical) music - on the reaction times of four young individuals. They conducted tests with music played for 2 minutes and 8 minutes. In all the cases, they also reported no statistically significant differences. Gupta et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e] conducted a study with 52 men aged 18\u0026ndash;25, examining the effects of different types of music (soft and hard rock) on auditory reaction time, with each type played at different volumes. The tests lasted 2 minutes each. They compared the results obtained during music playback with those from a control test conducted in silence and found no significant differences. The aforementioned studies, like ours, measured reaction time during short-term music exposure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeško et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e] designed a study where music exposure lasted 30 minutes, but there was no variation in volume or genre. They observed a positive effect of stimulating music (techno) on reaction time, but this effect only appeared during the silence after 30 minutes of listening to techno music. No significant changes were observed during the music listening period. It can be inferred that background music does not significantly affect reaction time and accuracy, regardless of volume or type. Intuitively, one might expect different conclusions: relaxation music could either prolong reaction time by inducing drowsiness or shorten it by improving concentration and calming the mind. Similarly, stimulating music could shorten reaction time by increasing focus or prolong it by causing distraction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn our study, a cognitively demanding task, which can simulate a challenging conversation, significantly affected choice reaction time and accuracy. This is consistent with numerous studies focused on road safety, which primarily examine the impact of conversations (with a passenger, using a cell phone, or using a hands-free system) on driving-related skills such as reaction time and correct response to specific stimuli. Parkes et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e] compared the ability to perform driving-related tasks among well-educated participants under conditions without conversation and while using a hands-free system. They reported deterioration in choice reaction time, responsiveness to a change in speed limit from 80 to 50 km/h, and situation awareness (measured by a questionnaire) when engaging in a phone conversation, which aligns with our study\u0026rsquo;s findings. Compared with reactions where participants listened to the radio, engaging in phone conversation (handheld and hands-free) increased reaction time and doubled the likelihood of participants failing to respond to the stimulus. No differences were found between handheld and hands-free conversations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. It can conclude that the conversation must be demanding for it to negatively affect driving-related abilities. These findings align with our findings: music does not prove to be as engaging as conversation; thus, it does not significantly affect choice reaction time, unlike the demanding cognitive task. These conclusions indicate that a secondary task must be cognitively engaging to disrupt the accuracy of performing the primary task and affect the choice reaction time.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eShort-term music listening does not affect choice reaction time or accuracy, regardless of the nature of the music (stimulating/relaxing). In contrast, a cognitively demanding task has a negative impact on choice reaction time and accuracy. Driving experience does not have an effect on the results.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLimitation\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe participants were assessed at various times of the day (between 8 AM and 3 PM) - some of them may have been shortly after consuming coffee, while others after several hours of academic activities or physical exercise, which could have impacted the reaction time.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere are also limitations about music used in this study - important in influencing reaction time may be facts such as whether the participant is familiar with the particular musical composition and if it aligns with their musical preferences.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt should also be considered that these studies pertain to a narrow age group of 18\u0026ndash;25 years, and therefore may not necessarily reflect the situation in other age groups. Additionally, there is a limitation regarding the level of driving experience; the maximum duration for which the subjects could have accumulated driving experience is 7 years (as individuals in Poland can obtain a driver's licence at the age of 18). Consequently, it is not recommended generalising the study's findings to individuals with longer driving experience, who may have developed enhanced driving attentiveness, potentially resulting in shorter reaction times to various road events.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eAuthor contributions\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM.P-J, and J.M. contributed to the conception and design of the work. M.P-J. contributed to data acquisition and organised the database. J.M. performed the statistical analysis and prepared figures. M.P-J. contributed interpretation of data and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. All authors contributed to the manuscript revision, read, and approved the submitted version.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData availability\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDroździel, P., Tarkowski, S., Rybicka, I. \u0026amp; Wrona, R. Drivers\u0026rsquo; reaction time research in the conditions in the real traffic. \u003cem\u003eOpen Eng.\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e10\u003c/strong\u003e, 35\u0026ndash;47 https://doi.org/10.1515/eng-2020-0004 (2020).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNuri, L., Shadmehr, A., Ghotbi, N. \u0026amp; Attarbashi Moghadam, B. Reaction time and anticipatory skill of athletes in open and closed skill-dominated sport. \u003cem\u003eEur. J. Sport Sci.\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e13\u003c/strong\u003e, 431\u0026ndash;436 https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2012.738712 (2012).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJain, A., Bansal, R., Kumar, A. \u0026amp; Singh, K. A comparative study of visual and auditory reaction times on the basis of gender and physical activity levels of medical first year students. \u003cem\u003eInt. J. Appl. Basic Med. Res.\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5\u003c/strong\u003e, 124 https://doi.org/10.4103/2229-516X.157168 (2015).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDarbutas, T., Juodžbalienė, V., Skurvydas, A. \u0026amp; Kri\u0026scaron;čiūnas, A. Dependence of reaction time and movement speed on task complexity and age. \u003cem\u003eMedicina (Kaunas, Lithuania)\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e49\u003c/strong\u003e, 18\u0026ndash;22 (2013).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSoto-Leon, V. et al. Effects of fatigue induced by repetitive movements and isometric tasks on reaction time. \u003cem\u003eHum. Mov. Sci.\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e73\u003c/strong\u003e, 102679 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2020.102679 (2020).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePavelka, R. et al. Acute fatigue affects reaction times and reaction consistency in Mixed Martial Arts fighters. \u003cem\u003ePLoS One\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e15\u003c/strong\u003e, e0227675 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227675 (2020).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMe\u0026scaron;ko, M., Strojnik, V., Mateja, V. \u0026amp; Damir, K. The effect of listening to techno music on reaction times to visual stimuli \u0026Uacute;činky poslechu techno hudby na dobu reakce na vizu\u0026aacute;ln\u0026iacute; podněty. \u003cem\u003eActa Univ. Palackianae Olomuc. Gymnica\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e39\u003c/strong\u003e (2009).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eden Boer, L. C. \u0026amp; Schroten, A. Traffic noise reduction in Europe. \u003cem\u003eCE Delft, \u003c/em\u003e9 (2007).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDarbutas, T., Juodžbalienė, V., Skurvydas, A. \u0026amp; Kri\u0026scaron;čiūnas, A. Dependence of reaction time and movement speed on task complexity and age. \u003cem\u003eMedicina (Kaunas)\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e49\u003c/strong\u003e, 18\u0026ndash;22 (2013).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBoring, E.G. \u0026amp; Langfeld, H.S. \u003cem\u003eFoundations of Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, 7th Edition, 60\u0026ndash;61, 476\u0026ndash;479 (1955).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShinde, P. \u0026amp; Pazare, P. Effect of distraction on choice reaction time in normal females and males. \u003cem\u003eWorld J. Pharm. Res. \u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3,\u003c/strong\u003e 362\u0026ndash;371. (2014).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eConsiglio, W., Driscoll, P., Witte, M. \u0026amp; Berg, W.P. Effect of cellular telephone conversations and other potential interference on reaction time in a braking response. \u003cem\u003eAccid. Anal. Prev.\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e35\u003c/strong\u003e, 495\u0026ndash;500 (2003).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDragutinovic, N. \u0026amp; Twisk, D. Use of mobile phones while driving \u0026ndash; effects on road safety. \u003cem\u003eSWOV Institute for Road Safety Research \u003c/em\u003e(2005).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePatten, C.J.D., Kircher, A., \u0026Ouml;stlund, J. \u0026amp; Nilsson, L. Using mobile telephones; cognitive workload and attention resource allocation. \u003cem\u003eAccident Anal. Prev.\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e36\u003c/strong\u003e, 341\u0026ndash;350 (2004).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eStrayer, D.L. \u0026amp; Johnston, W.A. Driven to distraction; Dual-task studies of simulated driving and conversing on a cellular telephone. \u003cem\u003ePsychol. Sci.\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e12\u003c/strong\u003e, 462\u0026ndash;466 (2001). \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCaird, J.K., Willness, C.R., Steel, P. \u0026amp; Scialfa, C. A meta-analysis of the effects of cell phones on driver performance. \u003cem\u003eAccident Anal. Prev.\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e40,\u003c/strong\u003e 1282\u0026ndash;1293 (2008).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCharlton, S.G. Distractive effects of cellphone use. \u003cem\u003eLand Transport NZ Research Report\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e 349\u003c/strong\u003e. (2008).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eParkes, A.M., Luke, T., Burns, P.C. \u0026amp; Lansdown, T. Conversations in cars: the relative hazards of mobile phones. \u003cem\u003eTRL Report\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e664, \u003c/strong\u003e(2007).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCrundall, D., Bains, M., Chapman, P. \u0026amp; Underwood, G. Regulating conversation during driving: A problem for mobile telephones? \u003cem\u003eTransp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav.\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e8\u003c/strong\u003e, 197\u0026ndash;211 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2005.01.003 (2005).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eParkes, A. Conversations in cars: the relative hazards of mobile phones. \u003cem\u003eResearchGate\u003c/em\u003e https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.2732.9446 (2002).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNaserpour, M., et al. A study of students cognitive performance under noise exposure, using Continuous Performance Test. Study on the effects of noise on cognitive performances. \u003cem\u003eJ Health Saf Work\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4,\u003c/strong\u003e 41\u0026ndash;54 (2014).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGupta, R.R., Nagpal, M. \u0026amp; Sharma, R. Effect of type of music on auditory reaction time in young adult males. \u003cem\u003eJ Med Acad.\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1\u003c/strong\u003e, 5\u0026ndash;9 (2018).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZakharova, N.N. \u0026amp; Ivashchenko, O.I. Effect of music on motor reaction time and interhemispheric relations. \u003cem\u003eZhurnal vysshei nervnoi deiatelnosti imeni I P Pavlova \u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e34\u003c/strong\u003e, 212\u0026ndash;218 (1984).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCowart, D., Durham, H., Morse, E. \u0026amp; Quinn, M. The effect of preference of music on reaction time. \u003cem\u003eJ Sci Med.\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3\u003c/strong\u003e, 1\u0026ndash;6 https://doi.org/10.37714/josam.v2i4.73 (2021).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBołoban, W.N. Reaction time and motor time in an athlete\u0026rsquo;s movements. \u003cem\u003ePedagogics, Psychology, Medical-Biological Problems Of Physical Training And Sports\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e10,\u003c/strong\u003e 295-300 (2009).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGuo, F., et al. The effects of age on crash risk associated with driver distraction. \u003cem\u003eInt. J. Epidemiol.\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e46\u003c/strong\u003e, 258\u0026ndash;265 https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyw234 (2017).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYoung, K.L. \u0026amp; Lenn\u0026eacute;, M.G. Driver engagement in distracting activities and the strategies used to minimise risk. \u003cem\u003eSafety Sci.\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e48\u003c/strong\u003e, 326\u0026ndash;332 (2010).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eParkes, A., Hooijmeijer, V., Diepens, V. \u0026amp; Okkema, E. The influence of the use of mobile phones on driver situation awareness. (2001).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"reaction time, distraction, road safety, music, cognitive task","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4788836/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4788836/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe study aimed to evaluate the effect of two different types of music and cognitive task on students\u0026rsquo; reaction time and additionally to compare results of two groups: drivers and non-drivers. Reaction tests associated with driving-related skills were conducted on 52 students aged 18\u0026ndash;25, 33 of them were drivers and 19 were no-drivers. Tests included three parameters: choice reaction time, the number of correct reactions and the number of no reactions and were conducted in four conditions: in silence (control test), with energetic music, with relaxing music and with cognitive task (answering questions). It turned out that results of all three parameters were better in silence and with music than while doing cognitive task. There were no differences between the two examined groups.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The impact of distracting factors on reaction time in student drivers and non-drivers","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-08-27 11:56:18","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4788836/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"2bd61183-d075-461c-b532-64eb1fea0a16","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 27th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":36614890,"name":"Biological sciences/Neuroscience/Cognitive neuroscience/Attention"},{"id":36614891,"name":"Biological sciences/Neuroscience/Cognitive neuroscience/Decision"},{"id":36614892,"name":"Biological sciences/Neuroscience/Cognitive neuroscience/Cognitive control"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-08-27T11:56:20+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-08-27 11:56:18","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4788836","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4788836","identity":"rs-4788836","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}