Mapping transcription factor occupancy using minimal numbers of cells in vitro and in vivo

The identification of transcription factor (TF) binding sites in the genome is critical to understanding gene regulatory networks (GRNs). While ChIP-seq is commonly used to identify TF targets, it requires specific ChIP-grade antibodies and high cell numbers, often limiting its applicability. D NA a denine m ethyltransferase id entification (DamID), developed and widely used in Drosophila , is a distinct technology to investigate protein-DNA interactions. Unlike ChIP-seq, it does not require antibodies, precipitation steps or chemical protein-DNA crosslinking, but to date it has been seldom used in mammalian cells due to technical impediments. Here we describe an optimised DamID method coupled with next generation sequencing (DamID-seq) in mouse cells, and demonstrate the identification of the binding sites of two TFs, OCT4 and SOX2, in as few as 1,000 embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and neural stem cells (NSCs), respectively. Furthermore, we have applied this technique in vivo for the first time in mammals. Oct4 DamID-seq in the gastrulating mouse embryo at 7.5 days post coitum (dpc) successfully identified multiple Oct4 binding sites proximal to genes involved in embryo development, neural tube formation, mesoderm-cardiac tissue development, consistent with the pivotal role of this TF in post-implantation embryo. This technology paves the way to unprecedented investigations of TF-DNA interactions and GRNs in specific cell types with limited availability in mammals including in vivo samples.