Mental health mediates the relationship between supportive teaching and online learning engagement among university students during the Covid-19 pandemic: a cross-sectional study

Mental health mediates the relationship between supportive teaching and online learning engagement among university students during the Covid-19 pandemic: a cross-sectional study | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Mental health mediates the relationship between supportive teaching and online learning engagement among university students during the Covid-19 pandemic: a cross-sectional study xinzhu wang, kaixian fu, yajun lin This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6516469/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, significant focus has been directed towards the effectiveness of online learning. However, there exists a paucity of research examining the relationship between online teaching behaviors during this period and the corresponding online learning behaviors. The objective of this study was to analyze the influence of supportive teaching (ST) on online learning engagement (OLE) and to elucidate the underlying mechanisms involved. In 2022, during the pandemic in China, convenience sampling was used to select 1,998 university students. Data were collected through an online survey, with ST, OLE, and mental health (MH) assessed using a 5-point Likert scale. Descriptive and regression analyses were performed to examine the role of MH in mediating the association between ST and OLE. We found high levels of ST (M = 3.78), moderate levels of MH (M = 3.28) and OLE (M = 3.10) in Chinese university students during the epidemic. There was a positive association between ST and both OLE ( β = 0.366) and MH ( β = 0.354). MH exhibited a positive correlation with OLE ( β = 0.151), and it mediated the relationship between ST and OLE. Additionally, OLE was associated with a variety of factors including major choice, mother education level, family economic status, and family location. The findings of this study demonstrate that ST can positively impact the OLE of university students with the mediation of MT. Therefore, university educators should demonstrate increased supportive teaching behavior in online instruction to positively impact student learning engagement during the pandemic lockdown. Supportive teaching Mental health Online learning engagement Mediating role the COVID-19 pandemic Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Introduction During the 2019 to 2022 COVID-19 pandemic, Chinese universities initiated the implementation of online teaching, requiring college students to conduct remote learning from home. Prior studies revealed that online learning at home leads to decreased concentration, learning motivation, and low learning efficiency [ 1 – 3 ]. Meanwhile, the COVID-19 pandemic has also impacted the mental health of students. The prevalence rates of mild to extreme stress, anxiety, and depression in Chinese university students during the COVID-19 pandemic were reported as 24.6%, 38.3%, and 43.6% respectively [ 4 ]. Decreased mental health can negatively affect learning behavior[ 5 ]. How to enhance students' online learning engagement and improve their mental health became two key concerns for Chinese university teachers during the pandemic The school environment and classroom atmosphere can profoundly influence students' psychological well-being and learning behaviors. For instance, fostering students' academic competence and social relatedness can significantly enhance their MH, motivation, learning engagement, and overall academic achievement[ 6 , 7 ]. Research on traditional classroom teaching has demonstrated that supportive teaching behavior can positively impact students' mental health [ 8 , 9 ], and enhance their level of learning engagement as well [ 10 , 11 ]. In Chinese higher education, instructors are expected to demonstrate supportive teaching behaviors—including care, encouragement, and constructive academic feedback—to foster student motivation and mitigate mental health risks. During the pandemic, these expectations were further reinforced. However, to date, there has been limited research on the specific correlation between ST, MH, and OLE among university students in pandemic settings. The present study aims to address this gap and contribute to improving the engagement of university students in online learning. We argue that supportive teaching behavior not only contributes to MH in students, but also enhances their learning engagement through the promotion of MH. This study contributes to enriching the understanding of the relationships between ST, MH, and OLE in high educational context. Literature review Online Learning Engagement ​ Student learning engagement has been well documented as a key factor associated with academic outcomes in schools. For instance, a study revealed that both in-class and pre-class engagement could significantly improve university students' academic performance [ 12 ]. Similarly, another study involving students enrolled in online education showed a positive correlation between learning engagement and academic performance, not only for individual modules but also across the entire cohort [ 13 ]. In recent years, learning engagement has emerged as a pivotal determinant of overall educational quality in the context of online learning [ 14 , 15 ]. Prior studies have proposed that learning engagement consists of three essential components: emotional, behavioral, and cognitive involvement [ 16 , 17 ]. Emotional involvement refers to students' affective attitudes toward peers, teachers, and the overall curriculum. Behavioral involvement involves students' active participation in academic activities such as completing coursework. Cognitive involvement relates to the attention and cognitive effort students invest in their course[ 16 , 17 ]. Other research indicates that learning engagement involves vigor, dedication, and absorption with regard to courses or school work [ 18 , 19 ]. Specifically, vigor represents a positive feeling accompanied by a high level of energy during study; dedication signifies a positive cognitive attitude toward the learning process and academic outcomes. Finally, absorption entails a sense of competence, success, and accomplishment. While these three dimensions are distinct constructions in their own right, they exhibit close correlations with each other. Dixson (2010) posited that OLE comprises four key elements: online learning skills, feeling on the online learning processes, attitudes towards social interactions with peers and instructors, as well as behaviors exhibited in online courses [ 20 ]. ​ Taken together, our study suggests that students exhibit greater engagement in online learning when they demonstrate high levels of activity and energy during learning. Thus, OLE encompasses the positive attitudes, active learning behaviors, and cognitive input of students into the online course. Essentially, OLE pertains to a positive mental state characterized by vigor, energy, and activity. Supportive Teaching and Online Learning Engagement A well-documented belief posits that teaching behavior plays a pivotal role in students' cognitive development, psychological state, learning behaviors, and academic outcomes [ 21 – 23 ]. For instance, research revealed that teachers' emotional support and organizational behaviors in classroom have a remarkable impact on students' self-efficacy, happiness, and learning behavior [ 24 ]. Positive teaching behaviors such as providing clear objectives, timely feedback, encouragement to students, and fostering strategic thinking can significantly enhance students' cognitive and metacognitive skills [ 25 ]. ST encompass teaching behaviors that are perceived by students as warm, caring, supportive, encouraging, and helpful. For instance, Mainhard et al. (2011) proposed that ST includes providing clear and structured instruction, monitoring students' learning progress, and motivating them to give their best effort [ 26 ]. Another study indicated that timely feedback on students' homework and active communication with them regarding their learning also fall within the realm of ST in online teaching processes [ 27 ]. In another paper, ST was described as "supporting students' interests, conveying a tone of care and affection, offering explanatory rationales, and employing invitational language" [ 28 ]. Additional studies have suggested that guiding students [ 29 ], providing constructive feedback on their learning [ 30 ], scaffolding their progress and offering assistance [ 31 ], giving explicit suggestions [ 32 ], etc., all contribute to students' learning progress. Empirical evidence supports the positive impact of ST on student learning engagement. A study revealed that, when compared to a controlling teaching style, ST was significantly associated with higher levels of learning engagement in online courses [ 33 ]. Chiu (2021) proposed that encouragement, caring communication, clear lectures, and positive attitudes towards students were all conducive to enhancing their learning engagement during the pandemic-induced shift to online education [ 34 ]. Notably, when students perceived supportive cues throughout the learning process, they tended to unintentionally enhance their leaning engagement [ 35 ]. Furthermore, several other studies have consistently documented a positive correlation between ST and students' learning engagement [ 36 – 38 ]. In terms of explaining why ST can enhance learning engagement, some studies suggest that it directly stimulates students’ academic motivation, which subsequently improves their level of engagement [ 33 , 36 ]. Additionally, Lavy et al. (2020) found that students' self-esteem and well-being serve as co-mediators in the relationship between supportive caring teaching practices and academic engagement among students [ 39 ]. The Mediation role of Mental Health in the Relationship between Supportive Teaching and Online Learning Engagement. Learning engagement contributes to active engagement and persistence in the learning process, which in turn has a significant impact on learning outcomes. Consequently, identifying the psychological factors that facilitate learning engagement has been an enduring focus of scholarly interest within higher education for years [ 40 ]. Research has shown a strong correlation between mental health and cognitive as well as behavioral engagement during learning. For instance, researchers discovered that school-aged youth were able to enhance their behavioral, emotional, and cognitive involvement in academic pursuits when their mental health improved through targeted psychological interventions [ 41 ]. Individuals with depressive symptoms often display diminished energy levels, increased distractibility, and decreased interest in academic activities [ 42 ]. In a Chinese study involving university students, the findings from cross-lagged analyses indicated that depressive symptoms were predictive of subsequent academic engagement, rather than the reverse [ 43 ]. A study revealed that adolescents with higher levels of depressive symptoms tend to exhibit reduced engagement in learning, including decreased vigor, dedication, and absorption towards scholastic tasks [ 18 ]. Moreover, students' burnout and psychological well-being [ 44 ], anxiety levels [ 45 ], negative academic emotions [ 46 ], as well as vitality [ 47 ] have all been empirically linked to students' level of learning engagement. Supportive teaching behaviors, such as engaging in academic interactions and providing teacher praise, have the potential to enhance the teacher-student relationship, thereby positively influencing the learning behaviors of students with emotional and behavioral disorders [ 48 ]. A study demonstrated that the provision of emotional support by teachers, encompassing trust, love, and empathy, significantly enhanced the academic motivation of students; concurrently, instrumental support in the form of questioning and clarification during instruction could alleviate students' levels of mathematics anxiety [ 49 ]. Supportive behaviors from teachers, encompassing emotional and practical support, have the potential to influence students' school adjustment and academic competence [ 50 ]. Curby et al. (2013) discovered a positive association between teachers' emotional support and improved academic and social outcomes in children [ 51 ]. Furthermore, a longitudinal study spanning five years demonstrated that emotional and social support provided by teachers can yield beneficial effects on depressive symptoms among adolescent pupils [ 52 ]. To date, limited research has been devoted to investigating the impact of ST on MH and subsequently on OLE in the context of a pandemic. Studies revealed that supportive and caring cues in teaching behaviors can yield positive effects on students' psychological well-being, learning engagement, and academic performance[ 49 , 53 ]. We propose that ST can have a positive effect on MH and thus on OLE levels in the COVID-19 era. RESEARCH Model and HypothesEs ​ Based on the aforementioned literature review, we aim to develop an integrated model illustrating the interrelations between ST, MH, and OLE among university students during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2022. Our hypotheses were as follows: H1:ST exhibits a positive correlation with OLE; H2: ST may enhance MH; H3: MH may positively affect OLE. In summary, this model implies that MH plays a mediating role in the relationship between ST and OLE. A visual representation of the model can be observed in Fig. 1 . METHODS Declarations The current study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and the protocol received approval from the Research Ethics Committee of Xichang University (EN20211030). Informed consent was obtained from all participants. Measurements for Key Variables Supportive teaching behaviors primarily include teachers' emotional support for students—such as encouragement and care—as well as practical support during the learning process, such as structured lecturing[26-28, 31]. Drawing upon these studies on teaching behaviors, we developed a concise scale to assess ST in online classes. The scale consists of five items, encompassing clear and structured lectures, encouragement of active participation [26, 31], genuine concern for student well-being [28], meticulous feedback on assignments, and effective communication with students [27]. For instance, one item stated: “The teachers encourage us to try our best in online class.” These five items included both emotional support (e.g., care and encouragement) and practical support (e.g., clarity in lectures). The WHO-Five Well-being Index (WHO-5) was employed in the current study to assess students’ MH. WHO-5 contains five items, including being vigorous, feeling fresh when waking up in the morning, being interested in things, feeling sad, and feeling calm. One of them reads “I feel downhearted and sad. (reverse coding) ” The reliability and validity of WHO-5 have been demonstrated in numerous studies across different age groups [54]. We used nine items to assess OLE adapted from a prior study[55]. These items encompassed three dimensions: emotional engagement, cognitive engagement, and behavioral engagement. Each dimension consists of three items. The measures of emotional engagement include items such as "I look forward to online class ," while cognitive engagement is assessed through items like " In online class, I think about different ways to solve a problem." Similarly, behavioral engagement is captured by items such as "I put effort into learning in my online class." The measurements mentioned above were assessed using a five-point Likert scale, ranging from “1 (never)” to “5 (always)”. To minimize response errors, some items are presented in reverse form and subsequently scored in reverse during the data analysis. Average scores were computed for each measurement, with higher average scores indicating higher ST levels, better MH states, and better OLE, respectively. In the current study, Cronbach's alpha coefficients for ST, MH, and OLE were found to be 0.740, 0.838, and 0.770, respectively. Controlling Variables The survey incorporated several common individual characteristics, including gender (female=0, male=1), age in years, university grade (a set of dummy variables indicating freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior), and university major (Science and engineering=0, humanities=1). Additionally, other social backgrounds such as family economic status (relative to neighbors: poor=0, rich=1), parental education (Low=0: Junior high school and below; High=1: high school and above), and family location (rural area=0, urban area=1) were considered. These three social variables have been consistently identified as influential factors on students' academic behaviors across numerous studies [56, 57], thus they are controlled for in the present investigation. Survey Time and Respondents From February to July 2022, there was a resurgence of the epidemic, leading to the resumption of online courses at most universities. This survey was conducted in June using an online research platform（named as QUESTIONNAIRE STAR, and a convenience sampling method was adopted. Initially, we collected 2153 questionnaires and ultimately obtained a valid sample of 1998 respondents. The respondents in the valid sample were distributed across more than 20 provinces and the 4 municipalities directly under the central government. Table 1 presents additional characteristics of this valid sample. Table 1. Basic Characteristics of Respondents (N=1998) Variable Levels Frequency Percentage Gender Male 939 47.00 Female 1059 53.00 Grade Freshman 154 7.71 Sophomore 838 41.94 Junior 680 34.03 Senior 326 16.32 Major Science and Engineering 895 44.79 Humanities 1103 55.21 Mother Education Low 830 41.50 High 1168 58.50 Father Education Low 403 20.17 High 1595 79.83 Family Economic Status Poor 913 45.70 Rich 1085 54.30 Family Location Rural Area 838 41.94 Urban Area 1160 58.11 Age (M=20.58, SD=1.30) 16-18 486 24.30 19-21 1464 73.30 22-25 48 2.40 Data Analysis Methods The data in this study were processed using IBM SPSS Statistics 27.0. Specifically, Harman’s single-factor test was employed to assess common method bias, followed by descriptive statistics to summarize the dataset. Pearson’s product-moment correlation analysis was conducted to examine bivariate relationships, and linear regression analysis was performed to test the mediation model. RESEARCH RESULTS Common Method Bias Test The Harman single-factor test revealed two factors with eigenvalues exceeding 1.0 across all items measuring ST, MH, and OLE. The first factor accounted for 38.01% of the total variance for the respective constructs, below the critical threshold of 40%. This result suggested that common method bias was not a substantial concern in the present study. Descriptive Statistics We used IBM SPSS Statistics 26.0 software for data analysis. Table 2 presents descriptive statistics, including means (M), standard deviations (SD), and Pearson’s correlations among the continuous variables. Table 2. Basic Descriptions of Key Variables M SD ST MH OLE ST 3.78 0.71 1 MH 3.28 0.89 0.390 ** 1 OLE 3.10 0.56 0.396 ** 0.295 ** 1 Note: ** P<0.01. ST=Supportive Teaching; MH=Mental Health; OLE=Online Learning Engagement. Table 2 showed that during the 2022 pandemic, Chinese university students exhibited an average score of 3.78 in ST, 3.28 in MH, and a mean of 3.10 in OLE. The results presented in Table 2 demonstrate a significant positive correlation between ST and MH ( r =0.390, p <0.01), as well as a positive association between ST and OLE ( r =0.396, p <0.01). Furthermore, OLE is positively associated with MH ( r =0.295, p <0.01). Regression Analysis In previous studies, three-step regressions have commonly been employed to investigate the mediating roles among variables [58]. Following this approach, we used the same approach to validate our research model and assumptions. In step 1, we regressed the OLE on ST. If the regression result was statistically significant, we proceeded to step 2, where MH was subsequently regressed on ST. When significant correlation between ST and MH was observed in step 2, we performed simultaneous regression of OLE on both ST and MH in step 3. Our research model and assumptions were considered valid when obtaining saliency regression results for ST, MH, and OLE simultaneously. The three-step regression procedure consisted of controlling for all relevant variables. Table 3 presented the full set of regression results. Table 3. Results of the Three-step Regression Analysis Step 1: OLE Step 2: MH Step 3: OLE β t β t β t (Constant) 7.601 ** 4.064 ** 7.035 ** Age 0.010 0.388 -0.012 -.477 0.012 0.466 Gender -0.027 -1.328 0.026 1.259 -0.031 -1.535 Grade sophomore 0.013 0.31 0.065 1.565 0.003 0.074 Junior -0.015 -0.35 0.042 0.993 -0.021 -0.507 Senior -0.005 -0.116 0.082 2.045 -0.017 -0.430 Major 0.040 1.952 -0.029 -1.422 0.044 2.191 * Mother Education 0.088 3.965 ** 0.060 2.690 ** 0.079 3.591 ** Father Education -0.024 -1.107 -0.028 -1.276 -0.020 -0.923 Family Economic Status 0.064 3.137 ** 0.118 5.735 ** 0.047 2.275 * Family Location 0.116 5.690 ** 0.057 2.786 ** 0.108 5.318 ** ST 0.366 17.429 ** 0.354 16.753 ** 0.313 14.097 ** MH 0.151 6.831 ** F =40.066 ** F =38.479 ** F =42.018 ** adj. R 2 =0.179 adj . R 2 =0.171 adj . R 2 =0.198 Notes: (1) reference groups are female, freshman, science and engineering, low education, poor, and rural area. (2) * p<0.05 , ** p<0.01 The regression analysis in step 1 demonstrated a significant and positive association between ST and levels of OLE ( β= 0.366, p <0.01). Thus, our first hypothesis, which posits a positive correlation between ST and OLE among university students, is robustly supported. The regression analysis in step 2 demonstrated a significant and positive association between ST and levels of MH ( β= 0.354, p <0.01). Therefore, our second hypothesis, which posits that ST can enhance MH, is strongly supported. In step 3, the results revealed that OLE was positively and significantly predicted by both ST ( β= 0.313, p <0.01) and MH ( β= 0.151, p <0.01) simultaneously. These findings suggest that the relationship between ST and OLE among university students is partially mediated by MH. As a result, the third hypothesis receives substantial support. The relationships among ST, MH, and OLE were visually depicted in Fig.2, with specific regression coefficients assigned to each route connecting them. It is evident that our research model has been effectively validated, demonstrating the mediating role of MH between ST and OLE among university students during the pandemic. The results of Step 3 indicated significant associations between major ( β =0.044, p <0.05), mother education ( β= 0.079, p <0.01), family economic status ( β= 0.047, p <0.05), and family location ( β= 0.108, p <0.01) with levels of OLE. In summary, humanities majors exhibited higher levels of OLE than those in science and engineering disciplines. The students whose mothers had higher levels of education showed greater OLE than those whose mothers had lower levels of education. Individuals from wealthy families showed higher OLE than their counterparts from poorer families. Students from urban families showed higher levels of OLE compared to their rural counterparts. DISCUSSION Descriptions on Supportive Teaching, Mental Health, and Online Learning Engagement The current study utilized a 5-point Likert scale ranging from “1=never” to “5=always” to assess ST, MH, and OLE. It was suggested that when interpreting the composite scores using averages in a 5-point Likert scale, an interval of “2.62-3.42” indicates a moderate level, while “3.43-4.23” indicates a high level [59]. Therefore, during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2022, Chinese university students exhibited a moderate level of mental health (M=3.28), perceived a high level of ST (M=3.78), and demonstrated a moderate level of OLE (M=3.10). These findings are consistent with previous research indicating that university students' mental health was adversely affected during the pandemic [4, 60], and that online learning at home led to decreased concentration and low learning efficiency in the pandemic [1]. The high level of ST indicated that during the COVID-19 pandemic, Chinese university teachers demonstrated numerous supportive teaching behaviors during online teaching. Research Model and Hypotheses The present study employed a three-step regression technique to validate the proposed mediation model. Firstly, the regression analysis demonstrated that ST could significantly predict OLE ( β =0.366, p <0.01; see step 1 in Table 3), providing strong support for Hypothesis 1, which states that ST exhibits a positive correlation with OLE. This suggests that students who perceive higher levels of supportive cues in online classes tend to be more engaged in online learning compared to students who perceive lower levels of supportive cues. Such a finding aligns with previous findings. For instance, Gray (2016) demonstrated that supportive teaching behaviors such as clear instruction, active feedback, and communication in forums can enhance students' learning engagement and satisfaction in online courses [61]. Similarly, Yates et al. (2021) revealed that caring and supportive cues from teachers were beneficial for promoting students’ learning engagement during the pandemic-induced shift to online classes [62]. It is clear that during the COVID-19 pandemic, students enrolled in online courses needed increased care, assistance, and support to foster positive online learning behaviors. Teaching behaviors in class are a crucial component of the learning environment, and a supportive teaching environment can positively influence students' cognition, emotions, and behaviors. Secondly, our data analysis showed that ST could predict MH positively ( β =0.354, p <0.01, see step 2 in Table 3), which strongly supported hypothesis 2, stating that ST may enhance MH. Such a finding echoes the results in previous studies which focus on the effects of ST in traditional classroom context. For instance, a study demonstrated that tangible support in classroom teaching, such as teachers dedicating time to help students improve their skills, was predictive of subjective well-being among students [63]. Another survey found that teacher support within schools predicted fewer depressive symptoms among adolescent students [64]. The finding of this study suggests that supportive teaching behaviors, both online and offline, can yield positive mental health outcomes for students. Teacher support may influence students’ mental health through hope [65], altruistic behaviors [66], and satisfaction of psychological needs (such as caring) [9]. Students' mental health is influenced by the learning environment, which encompasses teaching styles and behaviors [67]. Online supportive teaching contributes to the creation of a positive learning atmosphere, ultimately benefiting students' mental health in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Thirdly, our data analysis revealed that MH could significantly and positively predict OLE ( β =0.151, p<0.01) when ST entered in the regression with a significant prediction effect ( β =0.313, p< 0.01; see step 3 in Table 3). Thus Hypothesis 3 is strongly supported, which states that MH may influence OLE positively. Such a finding is consistent with previous findings. For instance, a study revealed that university students with high levels of depression tend to demonstrate reduced levels of learning engagement in blended learning during the COVID-19 era [68]. Another study found that during the epidemic MH could positively influence university students’ engagement in online classes [69]. Mental health may indirectly enhance levels of learning engagement by promoting resilience [70]. Taken collectively, our model and hypotheses were fully supported, indicating that MH could mediate partially the relationship between ST and OLE among university students during the pandemic. This indicates that during the online teaching process throughout the pandemic, supportive teaching behaviors can indirectly influence students' learning attitudes and behaviors by impacting their mental health. Such a finding is very similar to the results of other prior studies. For instance, research revealed that teacher support positively influences student learning engagement, with psychological resilience and self-efficacy serving as partial mediators[71, 72]. In addition, the partial mediating role of MH suggests the potential existence of other mediating variables in the relationship between ST and OLE. For instance, prior research has demonstrated that perceived teacher support positively influences learning engagement through multiple pathways, including learning motivation, self-efficacy, and achievement goal orientation[73, 74]. In addition, our data analysis revealed significant correlations between OLE and three control variables related to socioeconomic background, mother education, family economic status, and family location. These findings highlight the impact of socioeconomic factors on student online learning behavior. Previous research conducted in China has consistently highlighted the educational disadvantages faced by students from disadvantaged families residing in rural areas with low parental education levels and limited income [75, 76]. The COVID-19 pandemic has further exacerbated these disparities in academic competition within the online education domain. Finally, our findings suggest that major choice also affects OLE, potentially due to perceived higher levels of difficulty in engineering and science courses compared to humanities courses within an online learning environment. IMPLICATIONS in practice and theory Practical Implications Enhancing student learning engagement in online education has become a formidable challenge in the pandemic era, particularly when students experience low levels of MH due to the profound impact of the crisis. Teaching behavior plays a pivotal role in establishing an academic atmosphere that influences students' psychological states, including their level of OLE [36]. Based on the measurement of ST in this study, the following teaching behaviors are recommended: (1) Demonstrating concern for students' daily lives, encompassing their psychological and physical well-being. (2) Encouraging students to exert their utmost effort during online classes, particularly in challenging engineering and science courses. (3) Providing timely feedback on students' assignments within the virtual classroom setting. (4) Delivering clear and organized lectures to ensure comprehension among students. (5) Actively engaging in online communication with students. Supportive teaching practices also have the potential to foster student psychological well-being and should be widely adopted in educational settings. Therefore, the present study could assist university instructors in enhancing student OLE during the pandemic or as part of their future online teaching. Theoretical Implications This study makes a theoretical contribution to the understanding of learning psychology in higher education by investigating the interrelations between ST, MH and OLE. First, the association between ST and OLE suggests that teacher-student relationships in online courses significantly affect academic engagement among university students. As highlighted by Hagenauer and Volet (2014), the teacher-student relationship, encompassing emotional dimensions and supportive dimensions, can be considered as a prerequisite for successful learning across all students but appears particularly relevant for at-risk students concerning their study retention or dropout decisions [77]. Second, the present study highlights the mediating role of mental health in the relationship between ST and OLE among university students, suggesting that ST has the potential to enhance the mental health of students. This finding holds significant implications given the prevalence of mental health issues among Chinese university students [78], thereby offering a novel theoretical perspective on utilizing teaching approaches within classroom settings to promote their mental health. In addition, this study presents a theoretical perspective highlighting the impact of mental health on learning behavior in university students. This not only enhances our understanding of the learning behavior of university students, but also provides a novel approach to enhance it. Namely, promoting mental health in students can enhance their learning behavior in online classes. advantages and study limitations This study has two distinct advantages. Firstly, in contrast to previous studies that primarily focus on the effects of environmental variables such as network equipment [38, 79], student relationships [80], and family factors on OLE during the pandemic [81], the present study delves into the impact of supportive teaching on students' OLE. This innovative approach holds significant implications for enhancing online teaching practices and online learning behaviors. Second, given the profound impact of the pandemic on the mental health of university students, this study investigates the role of student mental health in mediating the relationship between teaching style and online learning behavior. Such a novel perspective contributes to promoting mental health among university students in the midst of an ongoing pandemic. The present study, however, has some limitations that should be noted. First, the use of a cross-sectional survey in this study only allows for correlational rather than causal conclusions. Future studies should employ longitudinal and qualitative surveys in order to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the relationship between ST, MH, and OLE. Second, the data collection for this study relied on online questionnaires and did not employ random sampling techniques; thus, the sample may not be representative of the entire Chinese university student population. Future research should aim to obtain generalizable conclusions using representative samples. Third, both ST and OLE were measured using brief scales consisting of no more than six items, which may not adequately capture the constructions investigated in this study. Therefore, future studies should utilize more comprehensive measurements to yield more substantiated research findings. CONCLUSIONS How to increase online learning engagement while maintaining student mental health during a pandemic is a challenge. This study suggests that supportive teaching practices can help address this challenge. When students perceive higher levels of emotional and learning support during online learning, their mental health is enhanced, which indirectly increases online learning engagement levels. In online teaching, university teachers should consciously use supportive teaching strategies, including caring and encouraging students, as well as structured instruction and timely homework feedback. Declarations Ethics approval declaration The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and received approval and support from the Academic Ethics Committee of Xichang University. Human Ethics and Consent to Participate declarations Not applicable Consent for publication Not Applicable Availability of data and materials The raw data for this study is available at https://www.scidb.cn/en/anonymous/WWpBWlZm. Competing interests There is no any competing interest among them. Funding (1) This study was supported by the project "Research on the Impact of Early Adversity on the Psychological Quality of College Students" (Project No. YBS2025002). Authors' contributions Wang Xinzhu was in charge of data processing and article writing. Fu Kaixian and Lin yajun were responsible for conducting investigations and collecting samples. Acknowledgements NO. References Wei-feng Q, Wei-tong L, Man-li Q. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6516469","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":460133599,"identity":"90c05459-d0cd-4e1a-94d6-cfbece126ce2","order_by":0,"name":"xinzhu wang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Xichang University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"xinzhu","middleName":"","lastName":"wang","suffix":""},{"id":460133604,"identity":"b3a1ad4b-5f99-4f23-9760-d4b9ab733e85","order_by":1,"name":"kaixian fu","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA00lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACNvbGxgcf/9nIMTYcPkCcFj6ew4cNZ7ClGTM3HksgTouchFuaNA/b4UT25jMGRDpMgsdMgocnLYG37czHG28Y7OR0Gwhpke4xtpCQsMmT7Dm72XIOQ7Kx2QFCWmTOGN4wMEgrNpxxdps0D8OBxG0EtUjkGEgkJBxO3H//zTNitaQlSRw4cDixseEMG5FaQIHc2JBmzNhwzNhyjgERfpFvb2x8/LcBHJUPb7ypsJMjqAUFSPAQGTXIWkjVMQpGwSgYBSMCAACxekbfna7toQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Xichang University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"kaixian","middleName":"","lastName":"fu","suffix":""},{"id":460133606,"identity":"7b9595f4-c7f6-4ba6-9b1a-cd7654cac410","order_by":2,"name":"yajun lin","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Chongqing Technology and Business University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"yajun","middleName":"","lastName":"lin","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-04-24 02:53:12","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6516469/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6516469/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":83326752,"identity":"cd34d9cc-4315-4014-a5db-bbb7c9b64ad4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-23 06:48:41","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":41672,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eModel of Supportive Teaching and Online Learning Engagement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNotes: A “+” sign indicates a positive association between the two variables.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6516469/v1/bd31997c4a1f7eb3d613b2ce.jpg"},{"id":83327436,"identity":"b59cca08-4675-4b54-9ca5-b060a2f944aa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-23 06:56:41","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":43947,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ethe Mediation of Mental Health\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6516469/v1/8f2cc368c4c7129fa66b2241.jpg"},{"id":86618438,"identity":"051f0488-dc25-4d42-ba08-50a6b4a116ff","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-14 02:16:49","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1232255,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6516469/v1/c0157a6c-27ee-4715-999d-34bbd018eea3.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Mental health mediates the relationship between supportive teaching and online learning engagement among university students during the Covid-19 pandemic: a cross-sectional study","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eDuring the 2019 to 2022 COVID-19 pandemic, Chinese universities initiated the implementation of online teaching, requiring college students to conduct remote learning from home. Prior studies revealed that online learning at home leads to decreased concentration, learning motivation, and low learning efficiency [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Meanwhile, the COVID-19 pandemic has also impacted the mental health of students. The prevalence rates of mild to extreme stress, anxiety, and depression in Chinese university students during the COVID-19 pandemic were reported as 24.6%, 38.3%, and 43.6% respectively [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Decreased mental health can negatively affect learning behavior[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. How to enhance students' online learning engagement and improve their mental health became two key concerns for Chinese university teachers during the pandemic\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe school environment and classroom atmosphere can profoundly influence students' psychological well-being and learning behaviors. For instance, fostering students' academic competence and social relatedness can significantly enhance their MH, motivation, learning engagement, and overall academic achievement[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Research on traditional classroom teaching has demonstrated that supportive teaching behavior can positively impact students' mental health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e], and enhance their level of learning engagement as well [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. In Chinese higher education, instructors are expected to demonstrate supportive teaching behaviors\u0026mdash;including care, encouragement, and constructive academic feedback\u0026mdash;to foster student motivation and mitigate mental health risks. During the pandemic, these expectations were further reinforced.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, to date, there has been limited research on the specific correlation between ST, MH, and OLE among university students in pandemic settings. The present study aims to address this gap and contribute to improving the engagement of university students in online learning. We argue that supportive teaching behavior not only contributes to MH in students, but also enhances their learning engagement through the promotion of MH. This study contributes to enriching the understanding of the relationships between ST, MH, and OLE in high educational context.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Literature review","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eOnline Learning Engagement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e​\u003c/b\u003eStudent learning engagement has been well documented as a key factor associated with academic outcomes in schools. For instance, a study revealed that both in-class and pre-class engagement could significantly improve university students' academic performance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Similarly, another study involving students enrolled in online education showed a positive correlation between learning engagement and academic performance, not only for individual modules but also across the entire cohort [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. In recent years, learning engagement has emerged as a pivotal determinant of overall educational quality in the context of online learning [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrior studies have proposed that learning engagement consists of three essential components: emotional, behavioral, and cognitive involvement [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. Emotional involvement refers to students' affective attitudes toward peers, teachers, and the overall curriculum. Behavioral involvement involves students' active participation in academic activities such as completing coursework. Cognitive involvement relates to the attention and cognitive effort students invest in their course[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. Other research indicates that learning engagement involves vigor, dedication, and absorption with regard to courses or school work [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Specifically, vigor represents a positive feeling accompanied by a high level of energy during study; dedication signifies a positive cognitive attitude toward the learning process and academic outcomes. Finally, absorption entails a sense of competence, success, and accomplishment. While these three dimensions are distinct constructions in their own right, they exhibit close correlations with each other. Dixson (2010) posited that OLE comprises four key elements: online learning skills, feeling on the online learning processes, attitudes towards social interactions with peers and instructors, as well as behaviors exhibited in online courses [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e​\u003c/b\u003eTaken together, our study suggests that students exhibit greater engagement in online learning when they demonstrate high levels of activity and energy during learning. Thus, OLE encompasses the positive attitudes, active learning behaviors, and cognitive input of students into the online course. Essentially, OLE pertains to a positive mental state characterized by vigor, energy, and activity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSupportive Teaching and Online Learning Engagement\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA well-documented belief posits that teaching behavior plays a pivotal role in students' cognitive development, psychological state, learning behaviors, and academic outcomes [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR22\" citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. For instance, research revealed that teachers' emotional support and organizational behaviors in classroom have a remarkable impact on students' self-efficacy, happiness, and learning behavior [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. Positive teaching behaviors such as providing clear objectives, timely feedback, encouragement to students, and fostering strategic thinking can significantly enhance students' cognitive and metacognitive skills [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eST encompass teaching behaviors that are perceived by students as warm, caring, supportive, encouraging, and helpful. For instance, Mainhard \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e (2011) proposed that ST includes providing clear and structured instruction, monitoring students' learning progress, and motivating them to give their best effort [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. Another study indicated that timely feedback on students' homework and active communication with them regarding their learning also fall within the realm of ST in online teaching processes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. In another paper, ST was described as \"supporting students' interests, conveying a tone of care and affection, offering explanatory rationales, and employing invitational language\" [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. Additional studies have suggested that guiding students [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e], providing constructive feedback on their learning [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e], scaffolding their progress and offering assistance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e], giving explicit suggestions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e], etc., all contribute to students' learning progress.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmpirical evidence supports the positive impact of ST on student learning engagement. A study revealed that, when compared to a controlling teaching style, ST was significantly associated with higher levels of learning engagement in online courses [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Chiu (2021) proposed that encouragement, caring communication, clear lectures, and positive attitudes towards students were all conducive to enhancing their learning engagement during the pandemic-induced shift to online education [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. Notably, when students perceived supportive cues throughout the learning process, they tended to unintentionally enhance their leaning engagement [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, several other studies have consistently documented a positive correlation between ST and students' learning engagement [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR37\" citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. In terms of explaining why ST can enhance learning engagement, some studies suggest that it directly stimulates students\u0026rsquo; academic motivation, which subsequently improves their level of engagement [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, Lavy \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e (2020) found that students' self-esteem and well-being serve as co-mediators in the relationship between supportive caring teaching practices and academic engagement among students [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eThe Mediation role of Mental Health in the Relationship between Supportive Teaching and Online Learning Engagement.\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLearning engagement contributes to active engagement and persistence in the learning process, which in turn has a significant impact on learning outcomes. Consequently, identifying the psychological factors that facilitate learning engagement has been an enduring focus of scholarly interest within higher education for years [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. Research has shown a strong correlation between mental health and cognitive as well as behavioral engagement during learning. For instance, researchers discovered that school-aged youth were able to enhance their behavioral, emotional, and cognitive involvement in academic pursuits when their mental health improved through targeted psychological interventions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. Individuals with depressive symptoms often display diminished energy levels, increased distractibility, and decreased interest in academic activities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. In a Chinese study involving university students, the findings from cross-lagged analyses indicated that depressive symptoms were predictive of subsequent academic engagement, rather than the reverse [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. A study revealed that adolescents with higher levels of depressive symptoms tend to exhibit reduced engagement in learning, including decreased vigor, dedication, and absorption towards scholastic tasks [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, students' burnout and psychological well-being [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e], anxiety levels [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e], negative academic emotions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e], as well as vitality [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e] have all been empirically linked to students' level of learning engagement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSupportive teaching behaviors, such as engaging in academic interactions and providing teacher praise, have the potential to enhance the teacher-student relationship, thereby positively influencing the learning behaviors of students with emotional and behavioral disorders [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e]. A study demonstrated that the provision of emotional support by teachers, encompassing trust, love, and empathy, significantly enhanced the academic motivation of students; concurrently, instrumental support in the form of questioning and clarification during instruction could alleviate students' levels of mathematics anxiety [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e]. Supportive behaviors from teachers, encompassing emotional and practical support, have the potential to influence students' school adjustment and academic competence [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]. Curby et al. (2013) discovered a positive association between teachers' emotional support and improved academic and social outcomes in children [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, a longitudinal study spanning five years demonstrated that emotional and social support provided by teachers can yield beneficial effects on depressive symptoms among adolescent pupils [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo date, limited research has been devoted to investigating the impact of ST on MH and subsequently on OLE in the context of a pandemic. Studies revealed that supportive and caring cues in teaching behaviors can yield positive effects on students' psychological well-being, learning engagement, and academic performance[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e]. We propose that ST can have a positive effect on MH and thus on OLE levels in the COVID-19 era.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"RESEARCH Model and HypothesEs","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e​\u003c/b\u003eBased on the aforementioned literature review, we aim to develop an integrated model illustrating the interrelations between ST, MH, and OLE among university students during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2022. Our hypotheses were as follows:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eH1:ST exhibits a positive correlation with OLE;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eH2: ST may enhance MH;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eH3: MH may positively affect OLE.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn summary, this model implies that MH plays a mediating role in the relationship between ST and OLE. A visual representation of the model can be observed in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"METHODS","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclarations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe current study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and the protocol received approval from the Research Ethics Committee of Xichang University (EN20211030). Informed consent was obtained from all participants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMeasurements for Key Variables\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSupportive teaching behaviors primarily include teachers\u0026apos; emotional support for students\u0026mdash;such as encouragement and care\u0026mdash;as well as practical support during the learning process, such as structured lecturing[26-28, 31]. Drawing upon these studies on teaching behaviors, we developed a concise scale to assess ST in online classes. The scale consists of five items, encompassing clear and structured lectures, encouragement of active participation [26, 31], genuine concern for student well-being [28], meticulous feedback on assignments, and effective communication with students [27]. For instance, one item stated: \u0026ldquo;The teachers encourage us to try our best in online class.\u0026rdquo; These five items included both emotional support (e.g., care and encouragement) and practical support (e.g., clarity in lectures).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe WHO-Five Well-being Index (WHO-5) was employed in the current study to assess students\u0026rsquo; MH. WHO-5 contains five items, including being vigorous, feeling fresh when waking up in the morning, being interested in things, feeling sad, and feeling calm. One of them reads \u0026ldquo;I feel downhearted and sad. (reverse coding) \u0026rdquo; The reliability and validity of WHO-5 have been demonstrated in numerous studies across different age groups [54].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe used nine items to assess OLE adapted from a prior study[55]. These items encompassed three dimensions: emotional engagement, cognitive engagement, and behavioral engagement. Each dimension consists of three items. The measures of emotional engagement include items such as \u0026quot;I look forward to online class\u003cem\u003e,\u0026quot;\u003c/em\u003e while cognitive engagement is assessed through items like \u003cem\u003e\u0026quot;\u003c/em\u003eIn online class, I think about different ways to solve a problem.\u0026quot; Similarly, behavioral engagement is captured by items such as \u0026quot;I put effort into learning in my online class.\u0026quot;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe measurements mentioned above were assessed using a five-point Likert scale, ranging from \u0026ldquo;1 (never)\u0026rdquo; to \u0026ldquo;5 (always)\u0026rdquo;. To minimize response errors, some items are presented in reverse form and subsequently scored in reverse during the data analysis. Average scores were computed for each measurement, with higher average scores indicating higher ST levels, better MH states, and better OLE, respectively. In the current study, Cronbach\u0026apos;s alpha coefficients for ST, MH, and OLE were found to be 0.740, 0.838, and 0.770, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eControlling Variables\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe survey incorporated several common individual characteristics, including gender (female=0, male=1), age in years, university grade (a set of dummy variables indicating freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior), and university major (Science and engineering=0, humanities=1). Additionally, other social backgrounds such as family economic status (relative to neighbors: poor=0, rich=1), parental education (Low=0: Junior high school and below; High=1: high school and above), and family location (rural area=0, urban area=1) were considered. These three social variables have been consistently identified as influential factors on students\u0026apos; academic behaviors across numerous studies [56, 57], thus they are controlled for in the present investigation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSurvey Time and Respondents\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFrom February to July 2022, there was a resurgence of the epidemic, leading to the resumption of online courses at most universities. This survey was conducted in June using an online research platform（named as QUESTIONNAIRE STAR, and a convenience sampling method was adopted. Initially, we collected 2153 questionnaires and ultimately obtained a valid sample of 1998 respondents.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe respondents in the valid sample were distributed across more than 20 provinces and the 4 municipalities directly under the central government. Table 1 presents additional characteristics of this valid sample.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1. Basic Characteristics of Respondents (N=1998)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"452\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariable\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLevels\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFrequency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePercentage\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGender\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e939\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1059\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGrade\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFreshman\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e154\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSophomore\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e838\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJunior\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e680\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSenior\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e326\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMajor\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eScience and Engineering\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e895\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHumanities\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1103\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMother Education\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e830\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1168\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFather Education\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e403\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1595\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFamily Economic\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatus\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePoor\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e913\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRich\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1085\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFamily Location\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRural Area\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e838\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUrban Area\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1160\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAge\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(M=20.58, SD=1.30)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16-18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e486\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19-21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1464\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e73.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22-25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Analysis Methods\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data in this study were processed using IBM SPSS Statistics 27.0. Specifically, Harman\u0026rsquo;s single-factor test was employed to assess common method bias, followed by descriptive statistics to summarize the dataset. Pearson\u0026rsquo;s product-moment correlation analysis was conducted to examine bivariate relationships, and linear regression analysis was performed to test the mediation model.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"RESEARCH RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCommon Method Bias Test\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Harman single-factor test revealed two factors with eigenvalues exceeding 1.0 across all items measuring ST, MH, and OLE. The first factor accounted for 38.01% of the total variance for the respective constructs, below the critical threshold of 40%. This result suggested that common method bias was not a substantial concern in the present study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDescriptive Statistics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe used IBM SPSS Statistics 26.0 software for data analysis. Table 2 presents descriptive statistics, including means (M), standard deviations (SD), and Pearson\u0026rsquo;s correlations among the continuous variables.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2. Basic Descriptions of Key Variables\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"495\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eM\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eST\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMH\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOLE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eST\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.78\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.71\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMH\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.28\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.89\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.390\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOLE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.10\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.56\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.396\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.295\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNote: \u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u0026lt;0.01.\u003c/em\u003e ST=Supportive Teaching;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMH=Mental Health; OLE=Online Learning Engagement. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2 showed that during the 2022 pandemic, Chinese university students exhibited an average score of 3.78 in ST, 3.28 in MH, and a mean of 3.10 in OLE.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results presented in Table 2 demonstrate a significant positive correlation between ST and MH (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e=0.390, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.01), as well as a positive association between ST and OLE (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e=0.396, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.01). Furthermore, OLE is positively associated with MH (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e=0.295, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.01).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRegression Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn previous studies, three-step regressions have commonly been employed to investigate the mediating roles among variables [58]. Following this approach, we used the same approach to validate our research model and assumptions. In step 1, we regressed the OLE on ST. If the regression result was statistically significant, we proceeded to step 2, where MH was subsequently regressed on ST. When significant correlation between ST and MH was observed in step 2, we performed simultaneous regression of OLE on both ST and MH in step 3. Our research model and assumptions were considered valid when obtaining saliency regression results for ST, MH, and OLE simultaneously. The three-step regression procedure consisted of controlling for all relevant variables. Table 3 presented the full set of regression results.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3. Results of the Three-step Regression Analysis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStep 1: OLE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStep 2: MH\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStep 3: OLE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Constant)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.601\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.064\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.035\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAge\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.010\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.388\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.012\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.477\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.012\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.466\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGender\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.027\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.328\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.026\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.259\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.535\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGrade\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003esophomore\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.013\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.065\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.565\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.003\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.074\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eJunior\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.015\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.042\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.993\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.021\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.507\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSenior\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.005\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.116\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.082\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.045\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.017\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.430\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMajor\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.040\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.952\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.029\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.422\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.044\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.191\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMother Education\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.088\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.965\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.060\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.690\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.079\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.591\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFather Education\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.107\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.028\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.276\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.020\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.923\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFamily Economic Status\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.064\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.137\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.118\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.735\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.047\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.275\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFamily Location \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.116\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.690\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.057\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.786\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.108\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.318\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eST\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.366\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.429\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.354\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.753\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.313\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.097\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMH\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.151\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.831\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e=40.066\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e=38.479\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e=42.018\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj. R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e=0.179\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e=0.171\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e=0.198\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNotes: (1) reference groups are female, freshman, science and engineering,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003elow education, poor, and rural area. (2) \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u0026lt;0.05\u003c/em\u003e, \u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u0026lt;0.01\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe regression analysis in step 1 demonstrated a significant and positive association between ST and levels of OLE (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;=\u003c/em\u003e0.366, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.01). Thus, our first hypothesis, which posits a positive correlation between ST and OLE among university students, is robustly supported.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe regression analysis in step 2 demonstrated a significant and positive association between ST and levels of MH (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;=\u003c/em\u003e0.354, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.01). Therefore, our second hypothesis, which posits that ST can enhance MH, is strongly supported.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn step 3, the results revealed that OLE was positively and significantly predicted by both ST (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;=\u003c/em\u003e0.313,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.01) and MH (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;=\u003c/em\u003e0.151, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.01) simultaneously. These findings suggest that the relationship between ST and OLE among university students is partially mediated by MH. As a result, the third hypothesis receives substantial support.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe relationships among ST, MH, and OLE were visually depicted in Fig.2, with specific regression coefficients assigned to each route connecting them. It is evident that our research model has been effectively validated, demonstrating the mediating role of MH between ST and OLE among university students during the pandemic.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results of Step 3 indicated significant associations between major (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e=0.044,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.05), mother education (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;=\u003c/em\u003e0.079, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.01), family economic status (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;=\u003c/em\u003e0.047, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.05), and family location (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;=\u003c/em\u003e0.108, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.01) with levels of OLE. In summary, humanities majors exhibited higher levels of OLE than those in science and engineering disciplines. The students whose mothers had higher levels of education showed greater OLE than those whose mothers had lower levels of education. Individuals from wealthy families showed higher OLE than their counterparts from poorer families. Students from urban families showed higher levels of OLE compared to their rural counterparts.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDescriptions on Supportive Teaching, Mental Health, and Online Learning Engagement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe current study utilized a 5-point Likert scale ranging from \u0026ldquo;1=never\u0026rdquo; to \u0026ldquo;5=always\u0026rdquo; to assess ST, MH, and OLE. It was suggested that when interpreting the composite scores using averages in a 5-point Likert scale, an interval of \u0026ldquo;2.62-3.42\u0026rdquo; indicates a moderate level, while \u0026ldquo;3.43-4.23\u0026rdquo; indicates a high level [59]. Therefore, during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2022, Chinese university students exhibited a moderate level of mental health (M=3.28), perceived a high level of ST (M=3.78), and demonstrated a moderate level of OLE (M=3.10). These findings are consistent with previous research indicating that university students\u0026apos; mental health was adversely affected during the pandemic [4, 60], and that online learning at home led to decreased concentration and low learning efficiency in the pandemic [1]. The high level of ST indicated that during the COVID-19 pandemic, Chinese university teachers demonstrated numerous supportive teaching behaviors during online teaching.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResearch Model and Hypotheses\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe present study employed a three-step regression technique to validate the proposed mediation model. Firstly, the regression analysis demonstrated that ST could significantly predict OLE (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e =0.366, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.01; see step 1 in Table 3), providing strong support for Hypothesis 1, which states that ST exhibits a positive correlation with OLE. This suggests that students who perceive higher levels of supportive cues in online classes tend to be more engaged in online learning compared to students who perceive lower levels of supportive cues. Such a finding aligns with previous findings. For instance, Gray (2016) demonstrated that supportive teaching behaviors such as clear instruction, active feedback, and communication in forums can enhance students\u0026apos; learning engagement and satisfaction in online courses [61]. Similarly, Yates et al. (2021) revealed that caring and supportive cues from teachers were beneficial for promoting students\u0026rsquo; learning engagement during the pandemic-induced shift to online classes [62]. It is clear that during the COVID-19 pandemic, students enrolled in online courses needed increased care, assistance, and support to foster positive online learning behaviors. Teaching behaviors in class are a crucial component of the learning environment, and a supportive teaching environment can positively influence students\u0026apos; cognition, emotions, and behaviors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSecondly, our data analysis showed that ST could predict MH positively (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e=0.354, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.01, see step 2 in Table 3), which strongly supported hypothesis 2, stating that ST may enhance MH. Such a finding echoes the results in previous studies which focus on the effects of ST in traditional classroom context. For instance, a study demonstrated that tangible support in classroom teaching, such as teachers dedicating time to help students improve their skills, was predictive of subjective well-being among students [63]. Another survey found that teacher support within schools predicted fewer depressive symptoms among adolescent students [64]. The finding of this study suggests that supportive teaching behaviors, both online and offline, can yield positive mental health outcomes for students. Teacher support may influence students\u0026rsquo; mental health through hope [65], altruistic behaviors [66], and satisfaction of psychological needs (such as caring) [9]. Students\u0026apos; mental health is influenced by the learning environment, which encompasses teaching styles and behaviors [67]. Online supportive teaching contributes to the creation of a positive learning atmosphere, ultimately benefiting students\u0026apos; mental health in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThirdly, our data analysis revealed that MH could significantly and positively predict OLE (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e=0.151, p\u0026lt;0.01) when ST entered in the regression with a significant prediction effect (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e=0.313, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026lt;\u003c/em\u003e0.01; see step 3 in Table 3). Thus Hypothesis 3 is strongly supported, which states that MH may influence OLE positively. Such a finding is consistent with previous findings. For instance, a study revealed that university students with high levels of depression tend to demonstrate reduced levels of learning engagement in blended learning during the COVID-19 era [68]. Another study found that during the epidemic MH could positively influence university students\u0026rsquo; engagement in online classes [69]. Mental health may indirectly enhance levels of learning engagement by promoting resilience [70].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTaken collectively, our model and hypotheses were fully supported, indicating that MH could mediate partially the relationship between ST and OLE among university students during the pandemic. This indicates that during the online teaching process throughout the pandemic, supportive teaching behaviors can indirectly influence students\u0026apos; learning attitudes and behaviors by impacting their mental health. Such a finding is very similar to the results of other prior studies. For instance, research revealed that teacher support positively influences student learning engagement, with psychological resilience and self-efficacy serving as partial mediators[71, 72]. In addition, the partial mediating role of MH suggests the potential existence of other mediating variables in the relationship between ST and OLE. For instance, prior research has demonstrated that perceived teacher support positively influences learning engagement through multiple pathways, including learning motivation, self-efficacy, and achievement goal orientation[73, 74]. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn addition, our data analysis revealed significant correlations between OLE and three control variables related to socioeconomic background, mother education, family economic status, and family location. These findings highlight the impact of socioeconomic factors on student online learning behavior. Previous research conducted in China has consistently highlighted the educational disadvantages faced by students from disadvantaged families residing in rural areas with low parental education levels and limited income [75, 76]. The COVID-19 pandemic has further exacerbated these disparities in academic competition within the online education domain. Finally, our findings suggest that major choice also affects OLE, potentially due to perceived higher levels of difficulty in engineering and science courses compared to humanities courses within an online learning environment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIMPLICATIONS in practice and theory\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePractical Implications\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEnhancing student learning engagement in online education has become a formidable challenge in the pandemic era, particularly when students experience low levels of MH due to the profound impact of the crisis. Teaching behavior plays a pivotal role in establishing an academic atmosphere that influences students\u0026apos; psychological states, including their level of OLE [36]. Based on the measurement of ST in this study, the following teaching behaviors are recommended:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(1) Demonstrating concern for students\u0026apos; daily lives, encompassing their psychological and physical well-being. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(2) Encouraging students to exert their utmost effort during online classes, particularly in challenging engineering and science courses. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(3) Providing timely feedback on students\u0026apos; assignments within the virtual classroom setting.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(4) Delivering clear and organized lectures to ensure comprehension among students. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(5) Actively engaging in online communication with students. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSupportive teaching practices also have the potential to foster student psychological well-being and should be widely adopted in educational settings. Therefore, the present study could assist university instructors in enhancing student OLE during the pandemic or as part of their future online teaching.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTheoretical Implications\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study makes a theoretical contribution to the understanding of learning psychology in higher education by investigating the interrelations between ST, MH and OLE. First, the association between ST and OLE suggests that teacher-student relationships in online courses significantly affect academic engagement among university students. As highlighted by Hagenauer and Volet (2014), the teacher-student relationship, encompassing emotional dimensions and supportive dimensions, can be considered as a prerequisite for successful learning across all students but appears particularly relevant for at-risk students concerning their study retention or dropout decisions [77].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSecond, the present study highlights the mediating role of mental health in the relationship between ST and OLE among university students, suggesting that ST has the potential to enhance the mental health of students. This finding holds significant implications given the prevalence of mental health issues among Chinese university students [78], thereby offering a novel theoretical perspective on utilizing teaching approaches within classroom settings to promote their mental health. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn addition, this study presents a theoretical perspective highlighting the impact of mental health on learning behavior in university students. This not only enhances our understanding of the learning behavior of university students, but also provides a novel approach to enhance it. Namely, promoting mental health in students can enhance their learning behavior in online classes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eadvantages and study limitations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study has two distinct advantages. Firstly, in contrast to previous studies that primarily focus on the effects of environmental variables such as network equipment [38, 79], student relationships [80], and family factors on OLE during the pandemic [81], the present study delves into the impact of supportive teaching on students\u0026apos; OLE. This innovative approach holds significant implications for enhancing online teaching practices and online learning behaviors. Second, given the profound impact of the pandemic on the mental health of university students, this study investigates the role of student mental health in mediating the relationship between teaching style and online learning behavior. Such a novel perspective contributes to promoting mental health among university students in the midst of an ongoing pandemic.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe present study, however, has some limitations that should be noted. First, the use of a cross-sectional survey in this study only allows for correlational rather than causal conclusions. Future studies should employ longitudinal and qualitative surveys in order to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the relationship between ST, MH, and OLE. Second, the data collection for this study relied on online questionnaires and did not employ random sampling techniques; thus, the sample may not be representative of the entire Chinese university student population. Future research should aim to obtain generalizable conclusions using representative samples. Third, both ST and OLE were measured using brief scales consisting of no more than six items, which may not adequately capture the constructions investigated in this study. Therefore, future studies should utilize more comprehensive measurements to yield more substantiated research findings.\u003c/p\u003e\n"},{"header":"CONCLUSIONS","content":"\u003cp\u003eHow to increase online learning engagement while maintaining student mental health during a pandemic is a challenge. This study suggests that supportive teaching practices can help address this challenge. When students perceive higher levels of emotional and learning support during online learning, their mental health is enhanced, which indirectly increases online learning engagement levels. In online teaching, university teachers should consciously use supportive teaching strategies, including caring and encouraging students, as well as structured instruction and timely homework feedback.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and received approval and support from the Academic Ethics Committee of Xichang University.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHuman Ethics and Consent to Participate declarations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe raw data for this study is available at\u0026nbsp;https://www.scidb.cn/en/anonymous/WWpBWlZm.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere is no any competing interest among them.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(1)\u0026nbsp;This study was supported by the project \"Research on the Impact of Early Adversity on the Psychological Quality of College Students\" (Project No. YBS2025002).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors' contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWang Xinzhu was in charge of data processing and article writing.\u0026nbsp;Fu Kaixian and Lin yajun\u0026nbsp;were responsible for conducting investigations and collecting samples.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNO.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWei-feng Q, Wei-tong L, Man-li Q. 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Sustainable Cities and Society. 2022;83:103958. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2022.103958.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Supportive teaching, Mental health, Online learning engagement, Mediating role, the COVID-19 pandemic","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6516469/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6516469/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIn the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, significant focus has been directed towards the effectiveness of online learning. However, there exists a paucity of research examining the relationship between online teaching behaviors during this period and the corresponding online learning behaviors. The objective of this study was to analyze the influence of supportive teaching (ST) on online learning engagement (OLE) and to elucidate the underlying mechanisms involved. In 2022, during the pandemic in China, convenience sampling was used to select 1,998 university students. Data were collected through an online survey, with ST, OLE, and mental health (MH) assessed using a 5-point Likert scale. Descriptive and regression analyses were performed to examine the role of MH in mediating the association between ST and OLE. We found high levels of ST (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.78), moderate levels of MH (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.28) and OLE (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.10) in Chinese university students during the epidemic. There was a positive association between ST and both OLE (\u003cem\u003eβ\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.366) and MH (\u003cem\u003eβ\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.354). MH exhibited a positive correlation with OLE (\u003cem\u003eβ\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.151), and it mediated the relationship between ST and OLE. Additionally, OLE was associated with a variety of factors including major choice, mother education level, family economic status, and family location. The findings of this study demonstrate that ST can positively impact the OLE of university students with the mediation of MT. Therefore, university educators should demonstrate increased supportive teaching behavior in online instruction to positively impact student learning engagement during the pandemic lockdown.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Mental health mediates the relationship between supportive teaching and online learning engagement among university students during the Covid-19 pandemic: a cross-sectional study","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-05-23 06:48:36","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6516469/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"092e4e11-8b2f-46ee-b761-96739b7e45ba","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 23rd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-07-14T02:08:42+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-05-23 06:48:36","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6516469","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6516469","identity":"rs-6516469","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}