Microplastics Build-Up in Soils- Spatial Distribution Patterns across different Land uses and Associated Health Risks

Microplastics Build-Up in Soils- Spatial Distribution Patterns across different Land uses and Associated Health Risks | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Microplastics Build-Up in Soils- Spatial Distribution Patterns across different Land uses and Associated Health Risks Amna Zia, Zulfiqar Ahmad Saqib, Muhammad Anwar ul Haq, Zubair Aslam This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7323836/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 13 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Microplastics (MPs) pollution in soil is a growing concern due to extensive plastic use and its persistence in soil, which degrade soil health, and can enter human body through ingestion, however its extent and effects in soil are largely unknown. This study aimed to assess the extent, composition, distribution patterns and potential hazards of MPs in major land use and soils to build knowledge of MPs as emerging containment when designing policy for environmental sustainability. MPs levels ranged from 120 to 4500 MPs/kg, while highest in greenhouse soil (3350 MPs/kg), followed by residential areas (2341 MPs/kg), and lowest in fish farm soil (128 MPs/kg). The geo-accumulation index in residential and greenhouse soils was extremely contaminated (Igeo ~ 4.7). Estimated Daily Intake shows infants have ~ 20 times higher exposure than adults in highly contaminated sites. Polymer types varied by land use types as HDPE dominated roadside (30%) and greenhouse soils (26%), while polyethylene (PE) in sewage-irrigated and PVC peaked in landfill (26%). White, fiber-shaped MPs sized 1–5 mm was most common. This study confirmed the abundance and spatial variability of MPs across various land uses indicating the potential risks of MPs pollution, especially the residential and agricultural soils which act both source and sink of MPs pollution. It also highlights the need for further comprehensive research on implications of MPs contamination on soil ecology under different land use, environmental conditions, and agricultural practices. Microplastics Soil Pollution Human Exposure Risk Land Use Types Geo-accumulation Index Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 1. Introduction Microplastics (MPs) is now a global threat due to its harmful impact on human health, such as stillbirth, neurodevelopmental disorders and lung cancers because of their toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic nature (Landrigan et al., 2023 ; Gallagher et al., 2016 ). The global plastic production in 2023 is estimated to be nearly 413.8 million tons (Ainyanbhor et al., 2025 ). The lack of proper monitoring and management of plastic waste has resulted in numerous environmental challenges, leading to an increase in plastic. Waste into oceans(Ateia and Karanfil 2020) and soil (Zhang et al. 2021 ; Tun et al., 2022 ). MPs enter the environment through various channels, including waste management processes and urban storm runoff and urban landfills (Kabir et al., 2023 ) Modern agricultural practices, such as mulching, soil amendments, sewage irrigation, and atmospheric deposition, contribute to plastic contamination in soil (Yang et al., 2021 ). Plastic films used in tunnel farming and mulching are major sources of MPs in agricultural soils. Annually, Europe produces 54 million tons of plastic, with 0.083 million tons used for mulching films (Kim et al., 2015 ). Different countries like, China, Japan, and South Korea produce 700,000 tons HDPE annually (Huang et al., 2020). These plastic residues degrade into small particles under UV light, high temperatures, and oxygen, becoming MPs (Zhao et al., 2022 ). According to a 2021 report from UNDP, about 3 million tons of solid plastic is ends up in landfills, dump openly across the country’s land and water bodies in Pakistan. In developing countries, mulching is mainly used for specific crops, with farmers relying on organic inputs like compost, manure, and chemical fertilizers (Singh et al., 2024 ). Plastic irrigation pipes and agricultural equipment also contribute to soil plastic waste (Van et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2023 ). Tillage operations and infiltration integrate MPs into the soil, increasing plastic residues (Steinmetz et al., 2016 ; Kader et al., 2017 ). Ramos et al., ( 2015 ) found that PE residues polluted 10% of agricultural land in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Biowastes such as household waste and energy crops also contribute to MPs in agricultural soils (Weithmann et al., 2018 ). Harsh temperatures and microbial activity further fragment MPs (Braun et al., 2021 ). Additionally, the textile industry releases MPs into the air, which eventually deposits in soil (Napper et al., 2020 ). Around 65% of MPs are emitted during the drying and wearing of garments (Munhoz et al. 2022 ).The number of MPs varies depending on population density, land use, and sewage treatment levels in a specific area (Desforges et al., 2014 ). MPs pose significant ecotoxicological threats to soil organisms, altering behaviour and impairing ecosystem functions (Wu et al., 2020 ). Their small size and large surface area enhance mobility with soil properties like ionic strength and organic matter influencing their fate ( (Falco et al., 2020 ; Li et al., 2020 ). Soil organisms, such as earthworms, can transport MPs to groundwater (Rillig, 2012), and MPs can bioaccumulate in plants, entering the food chain and posing health risks. Wind, road traffic, and human activities further exacerbate MPs mobility, worsening environmental pollution (Nor and Obbard, 2014). Agriculture workers are particularly vulnerable to MPs exposure due to excessive use of agro-plastic techniques and lack of appropriate safety measures. MPs break into smaller particles due to wind, temperature fluctuations, and UV light (Wang et al. 2021 ;). Studies show MPs in agricultural and natural soils are often smaller than 500 µm (Ding et al., 2021 ;Yu et al., 2021 ). MPs can be ingested by humans from dust and may adsorb pollutants like heavy metals, posing additional health risks (Wang et al. 2020 ). Though various factors contribute to MPs accumulation in urban and peri-urban soils, data on their distribution across different land-use types remains limited (Zhang et al., 2022 ). Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) of PET and PC MPs from roadside dust did not consider diverse MPs sizes, polymer types in different land use types (Van et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020 ). This study was planned with objectives to access the extent, composition, distribution patterns and associated potential hazards of MPs from various land use and soils in Pakistan which may lead to effective measures to control MPs pollution. This would be first of its kind work in this area and will provide an understanding to build knowledge for future policy and to set regulatory standards for MPs as emerging containment throughout the global as well in Pakistan. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Sampling Sites and Collection Pakistan generates almost 3.9 million tons of plastic waste every year (Europa Publications, 2022 ). This study was conducted in five major districts of Punjab i.e. Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Multan and Bahawalpur (Figure-1). The districts were selected due to larger cities or urban areas as four out of five big cities are included. The study area has a hot semi-arid climate, where annual temperature varies from 15°C in winter to 40°C in summer. A total of 220 samples from six distinct land-use types from each district were collected including both urban and agricultural areas (Table-1) Depicts the geographic location of the sampling sites. These samples were collected from a depth of 15 cm within the area of 0.5 × 0.5 m 2 with the help of stainless-steel shovel. About 1kg of soil was collected and packed in with aluminum foil and stored at 25 ◦ C. After soil sampling, samples were taken to laboratory. About 200 g portion of the soil sample was dried at 60°C and sieved through 5 mm and 0.1 mm mesh sizes to remove large debris and unwanted particles (Rafique et al., 2020 ). To remove organic debris, 35% hydrogen peroxide and 0.5 M ferrous sulphate were added to the soil, and the mixture was placed on a hotplate set to 60°C for 72 hours. Then, density separation was performed by adding 600 mL of ZnCl2 solution (30% w/v) to the sample and placed in a density separator, operated at a controlled RPM (typically 150–200 RPM) to ensure effective mixing. The soil mixture was allowed to settle in the separator for 12 hours, allowing the MPs, which are less dense, to float to the top, while heavier particles such as minerals settled at the bottom. The supernatant was carefully collected and filtered using a vacuum filtration system (Song et al., 2017 ) with a 0.45 µm filter (Sartorius, Germany) to isolate the MPs from the solution (Coppock et al. 2017 ;Rafique et al. 2020 ) Table-1: Land Use Land Cover (LULC) of sampling sites and MPs sources Land Cover Land use Description and MPs Source Agriculture Crops Compost, fertilizer bag, plastic films, packing bag, pesticide bottle etc Mulched Soils Agriculture soils using mulching for more than five years Composted Soils Soils which are frequently using commercial composts and organic waste as amendment Greenhouses Using white/green plastic sheet for greenhouse effect with or without mulching practice Sewage Irrigated soils Peri-urban areas where wastewater having both municipal and industrial effluents is used for irrigation Fish Farms Agricultural areas converted into Fishponds Urban Areas Landfills Area used for dumping solid waste having bags, plastic bottles, construction material having plastic etc. Residential areas/Parks Plastic bags, plastic bottles, toys and other common household garbage Roadsides Plastic from tyres abrasion, plastic bags, plastic bottles Industrial Soils Industrial deposits through air, Solid waste deposits 2.3. MPs Identification and Quantification After filtration, the filter papers were immediately stored in clean glass petri dishes and examined by using stereomicroscope (IRMECO GmbH, Model IM-SZ-500), and a hot needle test was also done to confirm the presence of plastic particles (Rafique et al., 2020 )as plastic particles melt while non-plastics either do not melt or burn to ashes. Visual characteristics such as size, colour, and shape were noted, and MPs were categorized based on colour (white, black, red, blue, etc.), shape (fibres or elongated, fragmented, films, and beads) (Jabeen et al., 2017 ). The MPs were also categorized into three size ranges: 0.1–0.3 mm, 0.3-1.0 mm, and 1–5 mm (M. Liu et al. 2018 ; Yu et al. 2021 ). The 0.3-5mm MPs size, shape and color was determined by stereotype microscope. The microplastic (MP) polymers were identified using a Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectrometer (Thermo Nicolet 380, Thermo Scientific) equipped with a diamond Attenuated Total Reflectance (ATR) accessory, spectral range of 4000–400 cm⁻¹ (Syakti, 2017). Spectra were acquired in absorbance mode with 64 scans per sample at a resolution of 4 cm⁻¹ to ensure optimal spectral clarity. Data analysis and polymer identification were performed using OMNIC software version 9.1. 2.4. Human Exposure Analysis Human exposure to microplastics (MPs) through soil ingestion was assessed by estimating the daily intake (EDI) for different age groups, specifically infants (1–5 years) and adults (≥ 20 years), using Eq. ( 1 ). $$\:{\text{E}\text{D}\text{I}}_{\text{i}\text{n}\text{g}\text{e}\text{s}\text{t}\text{i}\text{o}\text{n}}=\frac{\text{C}\:\times\:\:\text{A}\text{M}\text{I}\text{M}\text{P}\:\times\:{\text{m}}_{\text{i}\text{n}\text{g}\text{e}\text{s}\text{t}\text{i}\text{o}\text{n}}\:}{\text{B}\text{W}}$$ 1 m(ingestion) showed the soil and dust ingestion rate (g/day), with values of 55 mg/day for infants and 30 mg/day for toddlers (USEPA, 2017), BW denotes body weight in kilograms, with average values for infants and adults in Pakistan reported as 5 kg and 63 kg, respectively C refers to the concentration of microplastics (MPs) in the soil. The average mass of an individual microplastic particle (AMIMP) was estimated for the size ranges of 0.1–0.3 mm, 0.3–1.0 mm, and 1–5 mm, based on established calculation methods described by Senathirajah et al. (2021). 2.5. The geo-accumulation index (Igeo) The geo-accumulation index (I geo ), a metric originally introduced by Müller in 1969 for evaluating soil pollution. The formula for calculating I geo is given (Feng et al., 2019 ) \(\:{\text{I}}_{\text{g}\text{e}\text{o}}={\text{l}\text{o}\text{g}}_{2}(\frac{\text{C}\text{ᵢ}\:}{1.5\times\:\text{C}₀\text{C}\text{ᵢ}}\) ) (2) Where C ₀ is the concentration of MPs (items/kg or g/kg) which is taken as background. Ideally, C ₀ represents MPs levels in soil samples from before the significant increase in synthetic plastic pollution. Due to the unavailability of historical data, S12 having least MPs abundance of 120 items/kg was considered as C ₀ . Where C i represents the concentration of various polymer types of MPs (items/kg). Based on I geo values, MPs pollution was categorized into four levels, Uncontaminated (I geo ≤ 0), moderately contaminated (0 < I geo ≤ 2), heavily contaminated (2 4) (Feng et al., 2019 ). 3. Results 3.1 Abundance and distribution characteristics of MPs MPs concentration ranged from 120 to 4500 MPs/kg due to different land use types. The highest MPs concentration was found in greenhouse soil (3350 ± 437 MPs/kg), followed by residential area soil (2341 ± 522 MPs/kg) and lowest in fish farm soil (128 ± 13 MPs/kg). MPs sized between 1 mm and 5 mm were most prevalent in landfills, roadside, crops, and mulching soils, accounting for approximately 50–60% of the total MPs. Conversely, fish farm soil had only 25% of MPs in this size range, with the majority being in the 0.3 to 0.1 mm category. Sewage-irrigated, industrial, and residential soils displayed 40–60% of MPs in the 1 to 0.3 mm size range. Notably, fish farm and greenhouse soils contained 50% of MPs in the 0.3 to 0.1 mm size range, whereas industrial soils had no MPs in this size category (Figure-2). Regarding the color of MPs, white MPs were most dominant in fish farm (75%) and sewage-irrigated soils (60%). Red and blue MPs were less common, with less than 26% detected in all soil types, and were absent in fish farms. However, red MPs were most prevalent in greenhouse soils (33%), and blue MPs were most common in industrial soils (40%). Most of the detected MPs were fibers predominantly in fish farms, crops, roadside, sewage-irrigated, and industrial soils (Figure-3). Expect that, only 8% of MPs were fibers in greenhouse soils. Film-shaped MPs were most prevalent in mulching and greenhouse soils, accounting for 50% of the MPs. Bead-shaped MPs were generally less common across all soil types, with the highest proportion (33%) observed in greenhouse soils. 3.3. Characteristics and chemical composition of MPs Microplastic (MP) polymer types were identified using Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy. Spectra were collected over 4000–600 cm⁻¹ using 64 scans at a 4 cm⁻¹ resolution (Figure-4). Dried MP particles were analyzed directly, and their spectra were matched against a reference library for polymer identification. Only matches with ≥ 70% similarity was accepted, enabling reliable classification of common polymers such as PE, PP, PS, PVC, PET, nylon, PU, and ABS based on their distinct vibrational bands (Fig. 4). The FTIR spectra of MPs extracted from drinking water samples revealed distinct vibrational bands corresponding to various polymer types, confirming their identity and composition. Characteristic peaks were observed in the range of 4000–600 cm⁻¹, with each polymer exhibiting unique spectral fingerprints. High-density polyethylene (HDPE) showed prominent C–H stretching vibrations around 2915 and 2849 cm⁻¹, CH₂ bending at ~ 1470 cm⁻¹, and CH₂ rocking vibrations near 730–720 cm⁻¹, confirming its linear aliphatic structure and non-polar nature. Similarly, polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) displayed strong C–H stretching in the same range and bending vibrations near 1463 and 1375 cm⁻¹, indicative of aliphatic hydrocarbon chains. Polystyrene (PS) and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) exhibited prominent aromatic C = C stretching near 1600 cm⁻¹ and complex deformation bands in the fingerprint region (900–600 cm⁻¹), typical of aromatic ring structures. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyurethane (PU), nylon, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) showed distinct carbonyl (C = O) stretching vibrations between 1730–1630 cm⁻¹. Notably, PVC also displayed a strong C–Cl stretching band near 600 cm⁻¹, while nylon and PU were further identified by broad N–H stretching bands around 3300 cm⁻¹. HDPE accounted for the highest share in roadside areas (29.8%) and greenhouses (26.3%), followed by Nylon was dominant in industrial zones (27.7%) and greenhouses (20.2%), In sewage-irrigated and compost-amended soils, PE and PS together made up over 30%.While, PVC peaked in landfill sites (26.3%) and residential areas (17.1%), PP was notably high in crop fields (26.4%). 3.3. Human exposure to MPs Due to increasing concerns about the impact of MPs on human health, it is necessary to focus on monitoring the average amount of MPs taken up by a person through ingestion or food. The Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) values for MPs reveal key exposure patterns for infants and adults (Table-2). In residential areas, infants ingest up to 23.57 mg/day of MPs in the 0.3 mm to 1 mm size range, far exceeding the adult intake of 0.6480 mg/day for the same size. This heightened vulnerability in infants is largely due to their hand-to-mouth behaviors and lower body weight, which amplify the effects of MP exposure. Additionally, 1 mm to 5 mm MPs are the most prevalent and contribute the highest intake across all land use types, with infants in greenhouses ingesting up to 5.54 mg/day in this size range, compared to smaller particles. Table-2: Average EDI (mg/kg body weight/day) of different size MPs at various locations. Land Use Type Age Group MP Size 0.1–0.3 mm 0.3–1 mm 1.0–5.0 mm Residential Area Infants 0.0189 0.6480 1.6200 Adults 0.2376 23.100 5.4310 Crops Infants 0.0038 0.1315 0.3288 Adults 0.0482 4.6889 1.1024 Fish Farm Infants 0.0010 0.0357 0.0891 Adults 0.0131 1.2709 0.2988 Landfill Infants 0.0151 0.5202 1.3005 Adults 0.1907 18.544 4.3599 Roadside Infants 0.0057 0.1973 0.4932 Adults 0.0723 7.0334 1.6536 Greenhouse Infants 0.0192 0.6612 1.6531 Adults 0.2424 23.571 5.5419 Sewage Irrigated Crops Infants 0.0016 0.0543 0.1357 Adults 0.0199 1.9348 0.4549 Compost Infants 0.0045 0.1554 0.3885 Adults 0.0570 5.5403 1.3026 Mulching Soil Infants 0.0099 0.3404 0.8511 Adults 0.1248 12.135 2.8532 Industrial Soil Infants 0.0017 0.0601 0.1502 Adults 0.0220 2.1421 0.5036 3.4. The I geo and human exposure to MPs The I geo values indicated significant levels of MP contamination soils across all the study districts (Figure-5). Residential and greenhouse, mulched and landfill soils were found to be extremely contaminated, with I geo values ranging from 4.4−4.7, while, roadsides, sewage water irrigated and compost soils showed moderate contamination, with I geo values ranging from 0.4−2.9. The crop, fish farm soils and certain industrial areas were observed having comparatively lower contamination levels, with I geo values upto 0.6. However, MPs levels in industrial areas soils were not consistent and varies with location from lower levels to extremely contaminated soils in industrial zones. 4. Discussion 4.1. Sources and occurrence of MPs in different types of soils These small-sized plastic particles or MPs are a serious concern and risk not only for human health, but other living organisms and both of our terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems (Huang et al., 2020). A study by the WWF and the University of Newcastle found that on average every person ingests 5 grams in one week, which is equal to the weight as a standard credit card (Senathirajah et al., 2021). These particles pose a higher ecological risk because of their high surface area, which attracts heavy metals, organic pollutants, and pathogenic bacteria from atmosphere (Wu et al., 2019 ;Yang et al., 2022 ). Hence, agricultural and urban soils in Pakistan are emerging as key sinks of MP pollution, particularly influenced by industrial activities and unsustainable plastic management practices. In Pakistan 90% of solid waste is dumped in open places (Rashid et al., 2025 ), majority of which is due to excessive use of one time used plastic material (half of the total plastic waste), waste management issues, and environmental factors along with the lack of plastic recycling facilities. There is 14%recycling (Iqbal et al., 2023 ) compared to Europe's 47% recycling rate(Filho et al., 2021 ) exacerbates MPs pollution in the country. Other sources of plastic in Pakistani’s soil are the high use of sewage and industrial effluent for irrigation and as well as use of mulch sheets and polymer fertilizers which introduced plastic in soils. Farmers especially in per-urban areas use untreated, but nutrient-rich wastewater for irrigation before dropping in riverbed, containing MPs along with other contaminants (Jiang et al., 2023 ). Similarly, surface water resources. i.e. Ravi River water contained 768 ± 869 MPs/m³ in July and 1324 ± 1925 MPs/m³ before monsoon, while soil samples averaged 672 ± 235 MPs/kg, likely from urban runoff and land-based plastic waste (Luqman et al., 2023 ). This underscores the significance of the current study, which compares microplastic (MP) contamination levels across soils from ten different land-use types in five distinct regions of the country. Globally, a strong relationship has been found between the concentration of MPs (MPs) and the GDP per capita of various countries(Zhang et al., 2020 ) and such trend were also obvious in this study as high level of MPs were found around high standard dwellings in urban residential areas compared to rural areas, also confirming anthropogenic activities directly related to plastic level as higher consumption and use of packing materials for food, water and other usage especially single use plastic. This study also observed a relatively higher levels of MPs ranged from 120 to 4500 MPs/kg and spatial heterogeneity in MPs abundance was evident across different land use types in the study area as observed in other studies conducted around the globe like China(Zhang et al., 2022 a); Zhang et al., 2022 b), Japan (Tian et al., 2023 )and China (Wen et al., 2018 ). The variability in MPs size and shape was also found in observed samples in the study area. Overall fibrous shaped MPs with the size of between 1 to 5 mm were the most prevalent across the study area. Size of the MPs is an important factor to consider as smaller particles have a larger surface area, which allows them to interact with other organic pollutants like metals or pesticides, increasing their toxicity. While Zhang et al., ( 2020 ) found that MP sizes < 1 mm account for about 65% in the upper and lower layers of agricultural soils. Therefore, small-sized particles are more dangerous for the environment and should be removed by all water treatment plants. The excess of fibrous shape MPs could be due to multiple reasons, including diverse sources like synthetic fibre textiles, atmospheric deposition, and wastewater, impacting soil structure, fertility, and biodiversity (Browne et al., 2011 ). Synthetic fibres, particularly microfibers, are the most dominant type of MP, surpassing other forms like fragments and beads, however, their long-term persistence and ability to bioaccumulate increase environmental concerns, demanding efficient treatment methods and sustainable alternatives (Huang et al., 2020; Zhou et al., 2020 ). The colour variation in MPs found in soil is influenced by multiple factors, including the source of the plastic, degradation processes and additive chemicals. The polymer composition like polyethylene used in plastic bottles and white mulch films in agriculture and as water sealant in fish farms could be major sources of these high levels of white MPs. 4.2. Identification and Composition of MPs in Soil This study also analysed MPs polymers across different land use categories and revealed heterogeneity in MPs based on its polymer type. Most common plastic such as PE, PS, and HDPE are widely used in various industries, contributing significantly to soil pollution, while HDPE is found in containers, bottles, and pipes. Polystyrene (PS) (Browne et al. 2011 ; Xu et al. 2022 ). PE is also used in mulch film and greenhouse film, which is used in agricultural soils. The results of this study indicated that HDPE was the most dominant polymer (34%) across various land use types in Lahore, Faisalabad, Multan, Bahawalpur, and Rawalpindi. This was also observed by Massaccesi et al. ( 2025 ), who reported that agricultural mulching films contribute over 90% of HDPE in MPs from farm soils. Similarly, (Nizzetto et al., 2016 ) estimated that biosolid application alone could introduce 63,000–430,000 tons of MPs annually to European soils. Polypropylene (PP) was also highly present in cropland soils (28%), consistent with reports by Zhang et al. ( 2020 ) from China and (Machado et al., 2018), which noted PP from irrigation materials and packaging as a major contributor in intensive farming systems. In industrial zones of our study, nylon was the dominant MPs type (26%). who identified synthetic fiber fallout from textile manufacturing as a key source of Nylon and PET MPs in urban and semi-urban soils(Deng et al., 2020 ). This is particularly relevant to Faisalabad and Lahore, known textile hubs, where atmospheric deposition and industrial effluents likely elevate MPs concentrations. Our observed PET levels in roadside and sewage-irrigated fields (14 %) also align withCorradini et al. (2019), who found PET fibres dominant in agricultural soils exposed to wastewater and plastic littering. ABS appeared in low to moderate quantities in all soil samples, where consistent amount (10%) of ABS found in compost and sewage-irrigated areas mostly sourced from the electronic waste and weather quickly as compared to PP and PE (Ankit et al., 2021 ). Compared to European and East Asian studies, our results indicate comparable or higher MPs concentrations, particularly for HDPE and Nylon, likely due to unregulated waste disposal, lack of plastic recycling infrastructure, and intense agro-industrial activities in peri-urban Pakistan. As significant amount of Nylon and ABS which is used for cloths found in all types of soil samples reflect this fact as textile industry effluent could be the source of this. Overall, this study contributes important regional evidence of land use-driven plastic contamination, highlighting the urgent need for plastic waste management policies in agricultural and industrial regions. 4.3 Assessment of Pollution and Human Exposure for MPs Pollution risk assessment of MPs was calculated based on the I geo which exhibited higher contamination levels, with I geo values above 2, indicating moderate to high pollution. However, in this study, we consider a wide range of MPs (0.3-5 mm) and calculate the EDI by converting the number of MPs item per kilogram to concentrations (mg/kg), represent the size fraction which is expected to be ingested by human during different land use activities. MPs have the potential to threaten human due to their small ingestible size and high affinity for other pollutants (Feng et al., 2019 ). Soil ingestion is one of the major pathways to human exposure to MPs in the environment (van et al., 2020), with higher possibilities of ingestion of MPs with sizes 1 mm (Senathirajah et al. 2021). The EDI values showed similar trend in urban roadside soil, but higer values for infants and low values to adults, because of difference in ingestion rate and body weight ( Liu et al., 2019 ). The comparison of I geo values across various soil types in Pakistan reveals significant regional disparities in contamination levels. Park and landfill soils show extreme contamination, like findings of (Nor and Obbard, 2014), while greenhouse soils are heavily contaminated due to the extensive use of tunnel and mulching sheets. WHO also identified plastic mulching and sludge use as key contributors to higher MPs levels. The wide range of I geo values underscores the significant impact of local agricultural practices on soil contamination. According to EDI values, humans are at high risk from MPs, especially infants who are more vulnerable. Studies have reported that MPs are now found in human blood and even in the placental membrane. Therefore, plastic should be considered a pollutant and removed to ensure a sustainable future for the next generation (Ragusa et al., 2021 ). The higher estimated daily intake (EDI) values MPs were observed in infants and toddlers compared to adults may be due to high interaction with plastic items such as toys and feeding bottles, and exposure to MP-contaminated dust through activities like playing on the floor. Liu et al. ( 2019 ) reported that in Shanghai, China, potentially human can inhale around 21 MP/day, due to atmospheric pollution. Moreover, particles size plays vital role in MP ingestion (Jeong et al., 2016 ). To enhance the precision of EDI assessments, future studies should be done for both the size distribution and polymer composition of MPs. In the present study, infants exhibited the highest EDI values, mostly due to their lower body weight, longer indoor exposure durations, and higher dust ingestion rates highlighting the critical need to address MP exposure risks in early childhood. 5. Conclusions Plastic pollution significantly impacts human health, while humans are both contributors and victims. Humans are exposed to microplastics (MPs) through multiple pathways, including inhalation, ingestion via food and beverages, and dermal contact. In Pakistan, plastics currently make up 65% of all trash and this percentage was predicted to rise by 15% a year. This study was conducted to assess MPs levels in various land covers and impact of various land uses or anthropogenic activities as well its nature and compositional changes in MPs across different soils and what could be possible sources of this contamination. While urbanization levels seem to affect MP levels on a small scale, the frequency and use of spaces high number of people may influence the MP concentrations. Agricultural soils, residential areas, and landfills have higher amounts of MPs. Fish farms, which have less human influence, where wind and water erosion are major source of pollution. HDPE and PE are the most abundant polymers in all soil types. Littering and mulching sheets are significant sources of MPs, could be sourced from industrial activities and tire wear. This situation demands urgent action both globally and nationally, especially a ban on plastic use in agricultural lands, where it can directly have potential to affect human health. 6. Future Prospective Future studies should focus on understanding the pollution of MPs in various urban and peri lands. Researchers should examine MP possible routes to identify their possible sources, fate and long-term impact and interaction with other environmental sectors. Moreover, during this study, the upper layer of soil was sampled; thus, further investigation of MPs in deeper soil layers a possibility of movement of MPs through these layers to groundwater aquifer and risk of contamination could add valuable information on this aspect. Declarations Funding: The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript. Competing Interests: The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. Author Contributions: All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Amna Zia and Zulfiqar Ahmad Saqib. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Amna Zia and Zubair Aslam, while initial review and statistical improvements were done by Anwar Ul Haq. All authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. 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17:43:02","extension":"xml","order_by":11,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":168222,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"5ccbf08822664d089d9caff0144ad2781structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7323836/v1/2c1cc16e7d66cc91555fc18e.xml"},{"id":92021408,"identity":"97721cc0-eec2-4b58-9224-ce706136ae85","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-23 17:51:02","extension":"html","order_by":12,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":175502,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7323836/v1/fe9adc3cf73e59dfb8d33de3.html"},{"id":92021401,"identity":"f817c3d9-80a8-44b7-8c61-110dc5b8a281","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-23 17:51:02","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1423417,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStudy area map showing urban and peri-urban soil sample sites (Top). Overview of sampling locations of different land-use types in study areas (Bottom, a-f).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7323836/v1/6d11ed6335e0bbc424966633.png"},{"id":92021147,"identity":"2ee2235e-ca52-47e2-9d4d-ae072daa6374","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-23 17:43:02","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":405135,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAbundance (a), shape distribution (b), color distribution (c), and size distribution (d) of microplastics in five cities of Pakistan.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7323836/v1/29b1689d3d0796f14a8b3e23.png"},{"id":92022401,"identity":"d7e313d2-a75b-455c-9a8f-4d1e1960705b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-23 18:07:02","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":929729,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eImages of MPs of various shapes observed under stereomicroscope, namely pellets(a-d), fiber(e-h), film(i), fragment (j-l)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7323836/v1/988eb5dbc8a2a274643bef9d.png"},{"id":92021400,"identity":"9b54f4b7-1d07-46a6-b173-c205b3c4ee7e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-23 17:51:02","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":112113,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFTIR-ATR spectra of the MPs (a) and proportion of various types of MPs in samples (n=56) collected from different land used type soil samples (b)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7323836/v1/f374e640e451a6fab2c02d4d.png"},{"id":92021152,"identity":"69b917ff-2a2f-4e56-a8f2-764c9a8aba53","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-23 17:43:02","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":61975,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eIgeo Classification of MP Contamination under different soil/land uses in study Districts\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7323836/v1/26199ec8c4b39db24f7f7b69.png"},{"id":92023341,"identity":"52cc6dd3-a9dc-4462-9ea7-7610f4ef29ce","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-23 18:15:04","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":4329949,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7323836/v1/ace2deee-39d3-4249-a1a1-2c15c61c1960.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Microplastics Build-Up in Soils- Spatial Distribution Patterns across different Land uses and Associated Health Risks","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eMicroplastics (MPs) is now a global threat due to its harmful impact on human health, such as stillbirth, neurodevelopmental disorders and lung cancers because of their toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic nature (Landrigan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Gallagher et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The global plastic production in 2023 is estimated to be nearly 413.8\u0026nbsp;million tons (Ainyanbhor et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). The lack of proper monitoring and management of plastic waste has resulted in numerous environmental challenges, leading to an increase in plastic. Waste into oceans(Ateia and Karanfil 2020) and soil (Zhang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Tun et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). MPs enter the environment through various channels, including waste management processes and urban storm runoff and urban landfills (Kabir et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) Modern agricultural practices, such as mulching, soil amendments, sewage irrigation, and atmospheric deposition, contribute to plastic contamination in soil (Yang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Plastic films used in tunnel farming and mulching are major sources of MPs in agricultural soils.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnnually, Europe produces 54\u0026nbsp;million tons of plastic, with 0.083\u0026nbsp;million tons used for mulching films (Kim et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Different countries like, China, Japan, and South Korea produce 700,000 tons HDPE annually (Huang et al., 2020). These plastic residues degrade into small particles under UV light, high temperatures, and oxygen, becoming MPs (Zhao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). According to a 2021 report from UNDP, about 3\u0026nbsp;million tons of solid plastic is ends up in landfills, dump openly across the country\u0026rsquo;s land and water bodies in Pakistan. In developing countries, mulching is mainly used for specific crops, with farmers relying on organic inputs like compost, manure, and chemical fertilizers (Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Plastic irrigation pipes and agricultural equipment also contribute to soil plastic waste (Van et al., 2020; Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Tillage operations and infiltration integrate MPs into the soil, increasing plastic residues (Steinmetz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Kader et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Ramos et al., (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) found that PE residues polluted 10% of agricultural land in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Biowastes such as household waste and energy crops also contribute to MPs in agricultural soils (Weithmann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Harsh temperatures and microbial activity further fragment MPs (Braun et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, the textile industry releases MPs into the air, which eventually deposits in soil (Napper et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Around 65% of MPs are emitted during the drying and wearing of garments (Munhoz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).The number of MPs varies depending on population density, land use, and sewage treatment levels in a specific area (Desforges et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). MPs pose significant ecotoxicological threats to soil organisms, altering behaviour and impairing ecosystem functions (Wu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Their small size and large surface area enhance mobility with soil properties like ionic strength and organic matter influencing their fate ( (Falco et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Li et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Soil organisms, such as earthworms, can transport MPs to groundwater (Rillig, 2012), and MPs can bioaccumulate in plants, entering the food chain and posing health risks. Wind, road traffic, and human activities further exacerbate MPs mobility, worsening environmental pollution (Nor and Obbard, 2014). Agriculture workers are particularly vulnerable to MPs exposure due to excessive use of agro-plastic techniques and lack of appropriate safety measures. MPs break into smaller particles due to wind, temperature fluctuations, and UV light (Wang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e;). Studies show MPs in agricultural and natural soils are often smaller than 500 \u0026micro;m (Ding et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e;Yu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). MPs can be ingested by humans from dust and may adsorb pollutants like heavy metals, posing additional health risks (Wang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Though various factors contribute to MPs accumulation in urban and peri-urban soils, data on their distribution across different land-use types remains limited (Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) of PET and PC MPs from roadside dust did not consider diverse MPs sizes, polymer types in different land use types (Van et al., 2020; Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This study was planned with objectives to access the extent, composition, distribution patterns and associated potential hazards of MPs from various land use and soils in Pakistan which may lead to effective measures to control MPs pollution. This would be first of its kind work in this area and will provide an understanding to build knowledge for future policy and to set regulatory standards for MPs as emerging containment throughout the global as well in Pakistan.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Sampling Sites and Collection\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePakistan generates almost 3.9\u0026nbsp;million tons of plastic waste every year (Europa Publications, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This study was conducted in five major districts of Punjab i.e. Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Multan and Bahawalpur (Figure-1). The districts were selected due to larger cities or urban areas as four out of five big cities are included. The study area has a hot semi-arid climate, where annual temperature varies from 15\u0026deg;C in winter to 40\u0026deg;C in summer. A total of 220 samples from six distinct land-use types from each district were collected including both urban and agricultural areas (Table-1) Depicts the geographic location of the sampling sites. These samples were collected from a depth of 15 cm within the area of 0.5 \u0026times; 0.5 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e with the help of stainless-steel shovel. About 1kg of soil was collected and packed in with aluminum foil and stored at 25\u003csup\u003e◦\u003c/sup\u003eC.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter soil sampling, samples were taken to laboratory. About 200 g portion of the soil sample was dried at 60\u0026deg;C and sieved through 5 mm and 0.1 mm mesh sizes to remove large debris and unwanted particles (Rafique et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). To remove organic debris, 35% hydrogen peroxide and 0.5 M ferrous sulphate were added to the soil, and the mixture was placed on a hotplate set to 60\u0026deg;C for 72 hours. Then, density separation was performed by adding 600 mL of ZnCl2 solution (30% w/v) to the sample and placed in a density separator, operated at a controlled RPM (typically 150\u0026ndash;200 RPM) to ensure effective mixing. The soil mixture was allowed to settle in the separator for 12 hours, allowing the MPs, which are less dense, to float to the top, while heavier particles such as minerals settled at the bottom. The supernatant was carefully collected and filtered using a vacuum filtration system (Song et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) with a 0.45 \u0026micro;m filter (Sartorius, Germany) to isolate the MPs from the solution (Coppock et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e ;Rafique et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTable-1: Land Use Land Cover (LULC) of sampling sites and MPs sources\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLand Cover\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLand use\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescription and MPs Source\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgriculture\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCrops\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCompost, fertilizer bag, plastic films, packing bag, pesticide bottle etc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMulched Soils\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgriculture soils using mulching for more than five years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eComposted Soils\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSoils which are frequently using commercial composts and organic waste as amendment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGreenhouses\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsing white/green plastic sheet for greenhouse effect with or without mulching practice\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSewage Irrigated soils\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeri-urban areas where wastewater having both municipal and industrial effluents is used for irrigation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFish Farms\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgricultural areas converted into Fishponds\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUrban Areas\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLandfills\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArea used for dumping solid waste having bags, plastic bottles, construction material having plastic etc.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResidential areas/Parks\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlastic bags, plastic bottles, toys and other common household garbage\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRoadsides\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlastic from tyres abrasion, plastic bags, plastic bottles\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndustrial Soils\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndustrial deposits through air, Solid waste deposits\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3. MPs Identification and Quantification\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter filtration, the filter papers were immediately stored in clean glass petri dishes and examined by using stereomicroscope (IRMECO GmbH, Model IM-SZ-500), and a hot needle test was also done to confirm the presence of plastic particles (Rafique et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e)as plastic particles melt while non-plastics either do not melt or burn to ashes. Visual characteristics such as size, colour, and shape were noted, and MPs were categorized based on colour (white, black, red, blue, etc.), shape (fibres or elongated, fragmented, films, and beads) (Jabeen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The MPs were also categorized into three size ranges: 0.1\u0026ndash;0.3 mm, 0.3-1.0 mm, and 1\u0026ndash;5 mm (M. Liu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Yu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The 0.3-5mm MPs size, shape and color was determined by stereotype microscope. The microplastic (MP) polymers were identified using a Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectrometer (Thermo Nicolet 380, Thermo Scientific) equipped with a diamond Attenuated Total Reflectance (ATR) accessory, spectral range of 4000\u0026ndash;400 cm⁻\u0026sup1; (Syakti, 2017). Spectra were acquired in absorbance mode with 64 scans per sample at a resolution of 4 cm⁻\u0026sup1; to ensure optimal spectral clarity. Data analysis and polymer identification were performed using OMNIC software version 9.1.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4. Human Exposure Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eHuman exposure to microplastics (MPs) through soil ingestion was assessed by estimating the daily intake (EDI) for different age groups, specifically infants (1\u0026ndash;5 years) and adults (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;20 years), using Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ1\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:{\\text{E}\\text{D}\\text{I}}_{\\text{i}\\text{n}\\text{g}\\text{e}\\text{s}\\text{t}\\text{i}\\text{o}\\text{n}}=\\frac{\\text{C}\\:\\times\\:\\:\\text{A}\\text{M}\\text{I}\\text{M}\\text{P}\\:\\times\\:{\\text{m}}_{\\text{i}\\text{n}\\text{g}\\text{e}\\text{s}\\text{t}\\text{i}\\text{o}\\text{n}}\\:}{\\text{B}\\text{W}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e1\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003em(ingestion) showed the soil and dust ingestion rate (g/day), with values of 55 mg/day for infants and 30 mg/day for toddlers (USEPA, 2017), BW denotes body weight in kilograms, with average values for infants and adults in Pakistan reported as 5 kg and 63 kg, respectively C refers to the concentration of microplastics (MPs) in the soil. The average mass of an individual microplastic particle (AMIMP) was estimated for the size ranges of 0.1\u0026ndash;0.3 mm, 0.3\u0026ndash;1.0 mm, and 1\u0026ndash;5 mm, based on established calculation methods described by Senathirajah et al. (2021).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.5. The geo-accumulation index (Igeo)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe geo-accumulation index (I\u003csub\u003egeo\u003c/sub\u003e), a metric originally introduced by M\u0026uuml;ller in 1969 for evaluating soil pollution. The formula for calculating I\u003csub\u003egeo\u003c/sub\u003e is given (Feng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{\\text{I}}_{\\text{g}\\text{e}\\text{o}}={\\text{l}\\text{o}\\text{g}}_{2}(\\frac{\\text{C}\\text{ᵢ}\\:}{1.5\\times\\:\\text{C}₀\\text{C}\\text{ᵢ}}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e) (2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhere C\u003csub\u003e₀\u003c/sub\u003e is the concentration of MPs (items/kg or g/kg) which is taken as background. Ideally, C\u003csub\u003e₀\u003c/sub\u003e represents MPs levels in soil samples from before the significant increase in synthetic plastic pollution. Due to the unavailability of historical data, S12 having least MPs abundance of 120 items/kg was considered as C\u003csub\u003e₀\u003c/sub\u003e. Where C\u003csub\u003e\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e represents the concentration of various polymer types of MPs (items/kg). Based on I\u003csub\u003egeo\u003c/sub\u003e values, MPs pollution was categorized into four levels, Uncontaminated (I\u003csub\u003egeo\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026le; 0), moderately contaminated (0\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;I\u003csub\u003egeo\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026le; 2), heavily contaminated (2\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;I\u003csub\u003egeo\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026le; 4) and extremely contaminated (I\u003csub\u003egeo\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026gt;4) (Feng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Abundance and distribution characteristics of MPs\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMPs concentration ranged from 120 to 4500 MPs/kg due to different land use types. The highest MPs concentration was found in greenhouse soil (3350\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;437 MPs/kg), followed by residential area soil (2341\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;522 MPs/kg) and lowest in fish farm soil (128\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13 MPs/kg). MPs sized between 1 mm and 5 mm were most prevalent in landfills, roadside, crops, and mulching soils, accounting for approximately 50\u0026ndash;60% of the total MPs. Conversely, fish farm soil had only 25% of MPs in this size range, with the majority being in the 0.3 to 0.1 mm category. Sewage-irrigated, industrial, and residential soils displayed 40\u0026ndash;60% of MPs in the 1 to 0.3 mm size range. Notably, fish farm and greenhouse soils contained 50% of MPs in the 0.3 to 0.1 mm size range, whereas industrial soils had no MPs in this size category (Figure-2). Regarding the color of MPs, white MPs were most dominant in fish farm (75%) and sewage-irrigated soils (60%). Red and blue MPs were less common, with less than 26% detected in all soil types, and were absent in fish farms. However, red MPs were most prevalent in greenhouse soils (33%), and blue MPs were most common in industrial soils (40%).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMost of the detected MPs were fibers predominantly in fish farms, crops, roadside, sewage-irrigated, and industrial soils (Figure-3). Expect that, only 8% of MPs were fibers in greenhouse soils. Film-shaped MPs were most prevalent in mulching and greenhouse soils, accounting for 50% of the MPs. Bead-shaped MPs were generally less common across all soil types, with the highest proportion (33%) observed in greenhouse soils.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.3. Characteristics and chemical composition of MPs\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMicroplastic (MP) polymer types were identified using Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy. Spectra were collected over 4000\u0026ndash;600 cm⁻\u0026sup1; using 64 scans at a 4 cm⁻\u0026sup1; resolution (Figure-4). Dried MP particles were analyzed directly, and their spectra were matched against a reference library for polymer identification. Only matches with \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;70% similarity was accepted, enabling reliable classification of common polymers such as PE, PP, PS, PVC, PET, nylon, PU, and ABS based on their distinct vibrational bands (Fig.\u0026nbsp;4). The FTIR spectra of MPs extracted from drinking water samples revealed distinct vibrational bands corresponding to various polymer types, confirming their identity and composition. Characteristic peaks were observed in the range of 4000\u0026ndash;600 cm⁻\u0026sup1;, with each polymer exhibiting unique spectral fingerprints. High-density polyethylene (HDPE) showed prominent C\u0026ndash;H stretching vibrations around 2915 and 2849 cm⁻\u0026sup1;, CH₂ bending at ~\u0026thinsp;1470 cm⁻\u0026sup1;, and CH₂ rocking vibrations near 730\u0026ndash;720 cm⁻\u0026sup1;, confirming its linear aliphatic structure and non-polar nature. Similarly, polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) displayed strong C\u0026ndash;H stretching in the same range and bending vibrations near 1463 and 1375 cm⁻\u0026sup1;, indicative of aliphatic hydrocarbon chains. Polystyrene (PS) and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) exhibited prominent aromatic C\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;C stretching near 1600 cm⁻\u0026sup1; and complex deformation bands in the fingerprint region (900\u0026ndash;600 cm⁻\u0026sup1;), typical of aromatic ring structures. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyurethane (PU), nylon, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) showed distinct carbonyl (C\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;O) stretching vibrations between 1730\u0026ndash;1630 cm⁻\u0026sup1;. Notably, PVC also displayed a strong C\u0026ndash;Cl stretching band near 600 cm⁻\u0026sup1;, while nylon and PU were further identified by broad N\u0026ndash;H stretching bands around 3300 cm⁻\u0026sup1;.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHDPE accounted for the highest share in roadside areas (29.8%) and greenhouses (26.3%), followed by Nylon was dominant in industrial zones (27.7%) and greenhouses (20.2%), In sewage-irrigated and compost-amended soils, PE and PS together made up over 30%.While, PVC peaked in landfill sites (26.3%) and residential areas (17.1%), PP was notably high in crop fields (26.4%).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.3. Human exposure to MPs\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDue to increasing concerns about the impact of MPs on human health, it is necessary to focus on monitoring the average amount of MPs taken up by a person through ingestion or food. The Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) values for MPs reveal key exposure patterns for infants and adults (Table-2). In residential areas, infants ingest up to 23.57 mg/day of MPs in the 0.3 mm to 1 mm size range, far exceeding the adult intake of 0.6480 mg/day for the same size. This heightened vulnerability in infants is largely due to their hand-to-mouth behaviors and lower body weight, which amplify the effects of MP exposure. Additionally, 1 mm to 5 mm MPs are the most prevalent and contribute the highest intake across all land use types, with infants in greenhouses ingesting up to 5.54 mg/day in this size range, compared to smaller particles.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable-2: Average EDI (mg/kg body weight/day) of different size MPs at various locations.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tabc\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLand Use Type\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAge Group\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMP Size\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.1\u0026ndash;0.3 mm\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.3\u0026ndash;1 mm\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.0\u0026ndash;5.0 mm\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResidential Area\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInfants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0189\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.6480\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.6200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdults\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2376\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.4310\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCrops\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInfants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0038\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1315\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3288\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdults\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0482\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.6889\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.1024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFish Farm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInfants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0010\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0357\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0891\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdults\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0131\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.2709\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2988\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLandfill\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInfants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0151\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.5202\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.3005\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdults\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1907\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.544\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.3599\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRoadside\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInfants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0057\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1973\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4932\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdults\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0723\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.0334\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.6536\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGreenhouse\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInfants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0192\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.6612\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.6531\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdults\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2424\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.571\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.5419\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSewage Irrigated Crops\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInfants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0016\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0543\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1357\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdults\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0199\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.9348\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4549\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompost\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInfants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0045\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1554\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3885\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdults\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0570\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.5403\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.3026\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMulching Soil\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInfants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0099\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3404\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8511\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdults\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1248\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.135\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.8532\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIndustrial Soil\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInfants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0017\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0601\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1502\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdults\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0220\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.1421\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.5036\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.4. The I\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003egeo\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e and human exposure to MPs\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe I\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003egeo\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e values indicated significant levels of MP contamination soils across all the study districts (Figure-5). Residential and greenhouse, mulched and landfill soils were found to be extremely contaminated, with I\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003egeo\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e values ranging from 4.4\u0026minus;4.7, while, roadsides, sewage water irrigated and compost soils showed moderate contamination, with I\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003egeo\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e values ranging from 0.4\u0026minus;2.9. The crop, fish farm soils and certain industrial areas were observed having comparatively lower contamination levels, with I\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003egeo\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e values upto 0.6. However, MPs levels in industrial areas soils were not consistent and varies with location from lower levels to extremely contaminated soils in industrial zones.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.1. Sources and occurrence of MPs in different types of soils\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese small-sized plastic particles or MPs are a serious concern and risk not only for human health, but other living organisms and both of our terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems (Huang et al., 2020). A study by the WWF and the University of Newcastle found that on average every person ingests 5 grams in one week, which is equal to the weight as a standard credit card (Senathirajah et al., 2021). These particles pose a higher ecological risk because of their high surface area, which attracts heavy metals, organic pollutants, and pathogenic bacteria from atmosphere (Wu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e;Yang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Hence, agricultural and urban soils in Pakistan are emerging as key sinks of MP pollution, particularly influenced by industrial activities and unsustainable plastic management practices.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Pakistan 90% of solid waste is dumped in open places (Rashid et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), majority of which is due to excessive use of one time used plastic material (half of the total plastic waste), waste management issues, and environmental factors along with the lack of plastic recycling facilities. There is 14%recycling (Iqbal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) compared to Europe's 47% recycling rate(Filho et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) exacerbates MPs pollution in the country. Other sources of plastic in Pakistani\u0026rsquo;s soil are the high use of sewage and industrial effluent for irrigation and as well as use of mulch sheets and polymer fertilizers which introduced plastic in soils. Farmers especially in per-urban areas use untreated, but nutrient-rich wastewater for irrigation before dropping in riverbed, containing MPs along with other contaminants (Jiang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, surface water resources. i.e. Ravi River water contained 768\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;869 MPs/m\u0026sup3; in July and 1324\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1925 MPs/m\u0026sup3; before monsoon, while soil samples averaged 672\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;235 MPs/kg, likely from urban runoff and land-based plastic waste (Luqman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This underscores the significance of the current study, which compares microplastic (MP) contamination levels across soils from ten different land-use types in five distinct regions of the country. Globally, a strong relationship has been found between the concentration of MPs (MPs) and the GDP per capita of various countries(Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) and such trend were also obvious in this study as high level of MPs were found around high standard dwellings in urban residential areas compared to rural areas, also confirming anthropogenic activities directly related to plastic level as higher consumption and use of packing materials for food, water and other usage especially single use plastic.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study also observed a relatively higher levels of MPs ranged from 120 to 4500 MPs/kg and spatial heterogeneity in MPs abundance was evident across different land use types in the study area as observed in other studies conducted around the globe like China(Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003ea); Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e b), Japan (Tian et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e)and China (Wen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The variability in MPs size and shape was also found in observed samples in the study area. Overall fibrous shaped MPs with the size of between 1 to 5 mm were the most prevalent across the study area. Size of the MPs is an important factor to consider as smaller particles have a larger surface area, which allows them to interact with other organic pollutants like metals or pesticides, increasing their toxicity. While Zhang et al., (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) found that MP sizes\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1 mm account for about 65% in the upper and lower layers of agricultural soils. Therefore, small-sized particles are more dangerous for the environment and should be removed by all water treatment plants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe excess of fibrous shape MPs could be due to multiple reasons, including diverse sources like synthetic fibre textiles, atmospheric deposition, and wastewater, impacting soil structure, fertility, and biodiversity (Browne et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Synthetic fibres, particularly microfibers, are the most dominant type of MP, surpassing other forms like fragments and beads, however, their long-term persistence and ability to bioaccumulate increase environmental concerns, demanding efficient treatment methods and sustainable alternatives (Huang et al., 2020; Zhou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The colour variation in MPs found in soil is influenced by multiple factors, including the source of the plastic, degradation processes and additive chemicals. The polymer composition like polyethylene used in plastic bottles and white mulch films in agriculture and as water sealant in fish farms could be major sources of these high levels of white MPs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e\u003cem\u003e4.2.\u003c/em\u003e Identification and Composition of MPs in Soil\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study also analysed MPs polymers across different land use categories and revealed heterogeneity in MPs based on its polymer type. Most common plastic such as PE, PS, and HDPE are widely used in various industries, contributing significantly to soil pollution, while HDPE is found in containers, bottles, and pipes. Polystyrene (PS) (Browne et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Xu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). PE is also used in mulch film and greenhouse film, which is used in agricultural soils. The results of this study indicated that HDPE was the most dominant polymer (34%) across various land use types in Lahore, Faisalabad, Multan, Bahawalpur, and Rawalpindi. This was also observed by Massaccesi et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), who reported that agricultural mulching films contribute over 90% of HDPE in MPs from farm soils. Similarly, (Nizzetto et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) estimated that biosolid application alone could introduce 63,000\u0026ndash;430,000 tons of MPs annually to European soils. Polypropylene (PP) was also highly present in cropland soils (28%), consistent with reports by Zhang et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) from China and (Machado et al., 2018), which noted PP from irrigation materials and packaging as a major contributor in intensive farming systems.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn industrial zones of our study, nylon was the dominant MPs type (26%). who identified synthetic fiber fallout from textile manufacturing as a key source of Nylon and PET MPs in urban and semi-urban soils(Deng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This is particularly relevant to Faisalabad and Lahore, known textile hubs, where atmospheric deposition and industrial effluents likely elevate MPs concentrations. Our observed PET levels in roadside and sewage-irrigated fields (14 %) also align withCorradini et al. (2019), who found PET fibres dominant in agricultural soils exposed to wastewater and plastic littering. ABS appeared in low to moderate quantities in all soil samples, where consistent amount (10%) of ABS found in compost and sewage-irrigated areas mostly sourced from the electronic waste and weather quickly as compared to PP and PE (Ankit et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Compared to European and East Asian studies, our results indicate comparable or higher MPs concentrations, particularly for HDPE and Nylon, likely due to unregulated waste disposal, lack of plastic recycling infrastructure, and intense agro-industrial activities in peri-urban Pakistan. As significant amount of Nylon and ABS which is used for cloths found in all types of soil samples reflect this fact as textile industry effluent could be the source of this. Overall, this study contributes important regional evidence of land use-driven plastic contamination, highlighting the urgent need for plastic waste management policies in agricultural and industrial regions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.3 Assessment of Pollution and Human Exposure for MPs\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePollution risk assessment of MPs was calculated based on the I\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003egeo\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e which exhibited higher contamination levels, with I\u003csub\u003egeo\u003c/sub\u003e values above 2, indicating moderate to high pollution. However, in this study, we consider a wide range of MPs (0.3-5 mm) and calculate the EDI by converting the number of MPs item per kilogram to concentrations (mg/kg), represent the size fraction which is expected to be ingested by human during different land use activities. MPs have the potential to threaten human due to their small ingestible size and high affinity for other pollutants (Feng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Soil ingestion is one of the major pathways to human exposure to MPs in the environment (van et al., 2020), with higher possibilities of ingestion of MPs with sizes\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1 mm compared to particles\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1 mm (Senathirajah et al. 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe EDI values showed similar trend in urban roadside soil, but higer values for infants and low values to adults, because of difference in ingestion rate and body weight ( Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The comparison of I\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003egeo\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e values across various soil types in Pakistan reveals significant regional disparities in contamination levels. Park and landfill soils show extreme contamination, like findings of (Nor and Obbard, 2014), while greenhouse soils are heavily contaminated due to the extensive use of tunnel and mulching sheets. WHO also identified plastic mulching and sludge use as key contributors to higher MPs levels. The wide range of I\u003csub\u003egeo\u003c/sub\u003e values underscores the significant impact of local agricultural practices on soil contamination.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to EDI values, humans are at high risk from MPs, especially infants who are more vulnerable. Studies have reported that MPs are now found in human blood and even in the placental membrane. Therefore, plastic should be considered a pollutant and removed to ensure a sustainable future for the next generation (Ragusa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The higher estimated daily intake (EDI) values MPs were observed in infants and toddlers compared to adults may be due to high interaction with plastic items such as toys and feeding bottles, and exposure to MP-contaminated dust through activities like playing on the floor. Liu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) reported that in Shanghai, China, potentially human can inhale around 21 MP/day, due to atmospheric pollution. Moreover, particles size plays vital role in MP ingestion (Jeong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). To enhance the precision of EDI assessments, future studies should be done for both the size distribution and polymer composition of MPs. In the present study, infants exhibited the highest EDI values, mostly due to their lower body weight, longer indoor exposure durations, and higher dust ingestion rates highlighting the critical need to address MP exposure risks in early childhood.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003ePlastic pollution significantly impacts human health, while humans are both contributors and victims. Humans are exposed to microplastics (MPs) through multiple pathways, including inhalation, ingestion via food and beverages, and dermal contact. In Pakistan, plastics currently make up 65% of all trash and this percentage was predicted to rise by 15% a year. This study was conducted to assess MPs levels in various land covers and impact of various land uses or anthropogenic activities as well its nature and compositional changes in MPs across different soils and what could be possible sources of this contamination. While urbanization levels seem to affect MP levels on a small scale, the frequency and use of spaces high number of people may influence the MP concentrations. Agricultural soils, residential areas, and landfills have higher amounts of MPs. Fish farms, which have less human influence, where wind and water erosion are major source of pollution. HDPE and PE are the most abundant polymers in all soil types. Littering and mulching sheets are significant sources of MPs, could be sourced from industrial activities and tire wear. This situation demands urgent action both globally and nationally, especially a ban on plastic use in agricultural lands, where it can directly have potential to affect human health.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6. Future Prospective","content":"\u003cp\u003eFuture studies should focus on understanding the pollution of MPs in various urban and peri lands. Researchers should examine MP possible routes to identify their possible sources, fate and long-term impact and interaction with other environmental sectors. Moreover, during this study, the upper layer of soil was sampled; thus, further investigation of MPs in deeper soil layers a possibility of movement of MPs through these layers to groundwater aquifer and risk of contamination could add valuable information on this aspect.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eFunding:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCompeting Interests:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAuthor Contributions:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eAll authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Amna Zia and Zulfiqar Ahmad Saqib. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Amna Zia and Zubair Aslam, while initial review and statistical improvements were done by Anwar Ul Haq. All authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAinyanbhor IE, Etaware, PM, Evuen UF, Obiebi PO, Okom SU, Eze EM, Ogwezzy P, Aruoren O, Anani OA, \u0026amp; Orogu JO (2025). The Impact of COVID-19 Lockdown on the Production and Control of Plastics. In \u003cem\u003ePlastic and the COVID-19 Pandemic\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 11\u0026ndash;26). Springer Nature Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-74769-4_2\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAnkit SL, Kumar V, Tiwari J, Sweta RS, Singh J, \u0026amp; Bauddh K (2021). 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Journal of Hazardous Materials, 388, 121814. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121814 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-earth-sciences","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"enge","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Earth Sciences](https://www.springer.com/journal/12665)","snPcode":"12665","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12665/3","title":"Environmental Earth Sciences","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Microplastics, Soil Pollution, Human Exposure Risk, Land Use Types, Geo-accumulation Index","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7323836/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7323836/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eMicroplastics (MPs) pollution in soil is a growing concern due to extensive plastic use and its persistence in soil, which degrade soil health, and can enter human body through ingestion, however its extent and effects in soil are largely unknown. This study aimed to assess the extent, composition, distribution patterns and potential hazards of MPs in major land use and soils to build knowledge of MPs as emerging containment when designing policy for environmental sustainability. MPs levels ranged from 120 to 4500 MPs/kg, while highest in greenhouse soil (3350 MPs/kg), followed by residential areas (2341 MPs/kg), and lowest in fish farm soil (128 MPs/kg). The geo-accumulation index in residential and greenhouse soils was extremely contaminated (Igeo\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;4.7). Estimated Daily Intake shows infants have ~\u0026thinsp;20 times higher exposure than adults in highly contaminated sites. Polymer types varied by land use types as HDPE dominated roadside (30%) and greenhouse soils (26%), while polyethylene (PE) in sewage-irrigated and PVC peaked in landfill (26%). White, fiber-shaped MPs sized 1\u0026ndash;5 mm was most common. This study confirmed the abundance and spatial variability of MPs across various land uses indicating the potential risks of MPs pollution, especially the residential and agricultural soils which act both source and sink of MPs pollution. It also highlights the need for further comprehensive research on implications of MPs contamination on soil ecology under different land use, environmental conditions, and agricultural practices.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Microplastics Build-Up in Soils- Spatial Distribution Patterns across different Land uses and Associated Health Risks","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-23 17:42:57","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7323836/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-10-11T12:13:40+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-08T07:33:42+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-07T10:45:11+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-30T07:51:32+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"289121311764964688527017115575218521147","date":"2025-09-14T15:06:31+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-12T02:33:33+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"257464040572898072387264115997519114329","date":"2025-09-12T01:50:41+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"4785858788025724932688769200886726139","date":"2025-09-12T01:37:59+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"92686105973527472920191342073697948184","date":"2025-09-12T01:24:26+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-09-11T18:11:55+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-08-08T11:58:03+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-08-08T11:57:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Environmental Earth Sciences","date":"2025-08-08T05:43:20+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-earth-sciences","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"enge","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Earth Sciences](https://www.springer.com/journal/12665)","snPcode":"12665","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12665/3","title":"Environmental Earth Sciences","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"42b2290c-0699-4f2f-b581-3653ea4ade40","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 23rd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-25T09:23:58+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-23 17:42:57","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7323836","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7323836","identity":"rs-7323836","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}