Integrating biodiversity-driven supply and demand sides of ecosystem services in refurbished hydropower plants: Insights from a pilot case study

Integrating biodiversity-driven supply and demand sides of ecosystem services in refurbished hydropower plants: Insights from a pilot case study | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Method Article Integrating biodiversity-driven supply and demand sides of ecosystem services in refurbished hydropower plants: Insights from a pilot case study Alberto Lucas, Jana de Ozaeta, María Ciruelos, Marta Arenas Romasanta This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9579570/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 6 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study aims to understand the relationship between the environmental and the societal systems around operating hydropower plants and, specifically, when the SHERPA Project technological innovations are incorporated: coatings, adapted rotational speed, advanced air injection and new runner designs. These operational improvements would lead to an increase in dissolved oxygen content in water, and reduced hydropeaking, while ensuring environmental flows downstream. The research is focused on a pilot case study (Tâmega system, Portugal), that provides a scenario to assess both the supply of ecosystem services and their demand from the local community. This perspective has been validated by local experts, which is the most robust way to evaluate the societal benefits that are going to be influenced by SHERPA. Dissolved oxygen ecosystem services hydropeaking hydropower SHERPA societal systems Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 1. INTRODUCTION Ecosystems and socioeconomic structures are in constant, reciprocal interactions across spatial and temporal scales (Young et al. 2006 ). Ecological components fulfil human needs through the provision of ecosystem services (ESS; Maes et al. 2013 ; IPBES 2019 ), such as energy and clean water (Botelho et al. 2017 ). Social dynamics influencing the demand for these services modify and shape the ecological integrity of ecosystems and its capacity to provide ESS (Rutting et al. 2022). Both social and ecological systems exhibit responses to a range of endogenous and exogenous drivers of change (Burkhard et al. 2012 ) and are structured through complex networks of synergies and trade-offs across scales, underscoring the necessity for integrated assessments (Hurford et al. 2020 ; Wang et al. 2024 ). Hydropower generation is a flexible form of renewable energy that relies on freshwater ecosystems and exemplifies the trade-offs between energy production and ecological conservation (Grill et al. 2019 ; Hurford et al. 2020 ; Anderson et al. 2022). Despite its significant contribution to energy security (Moran et al., 2018 ; Wagner et al., 2019 ), Hydropower Plants (HPPs) may also negatively impact terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, causing habitat fragmentation, flow modifications, and changes in species composition (Botelho et al., 2017 ; Williams-Subiza & Epele 2021 ), hydrological regimes, sediment transport, and habitat connectivity (Petts 1984 ; Nilsson et al. 2005 ; Best 2019 ). Recent studies highlight that these impacts are dynamic and highly dependent on operational regimes, which modulate ecosystem resilience and the temporal stability of EES provisioning (Moog et al. 2020 ; Belletti et al. 2022; Mo & Xiao 2026 ). These operational regimes are a consequence of rapid discharge fluctuations induced by cyclical electricity demand (i.e., hydropeaking). This operational pattern generates short-term habitat instability, increased drift of aquatic organisms and ultimately altering community structure (Cushman 1985 ; Young et al. 2011; Moog et al. 2020 ). Linked to ecological impacts, hydropeaking can also impact economic prosperity of local communities, particularly when direct use values (recreational fishing and tourism) are affected. To mitigate these impacts, European regulations, such as the Water Framework Directive, Environmental Impact Assessment Directive, require HPPs to ensure the quantity, timing, and quality of freshwater downstream flows -known as environmental flows or e-flows-. However, maintaining e-flow regime may also bring technology-based challenges. When a hydraulic turbine operates out of its design conditions, the possibility of hydraulic instability phenomena (i.e., cavitation) increases, with potential damage to its physical integrity (Gohil & Saini 2015). Thus, from an ESS valuation perspective, hydropeaking and e-flow regimen represents a socio-ecological trade-off between energy system flexibility and the temporal reliability of freshwater-derived benefits. Hence, the goal of the R&D SHERPA Project (Solutions for Hydropower plants to Enhance operational Range, Performance, and improve environmental impAct) is to expand and adapt the operational range of a given HPP to handling up lower flows without compromising their lifespan, economic viability, or environmental and social impacts. To cope with flow rate variability and avoid negative side-effects on turbines, innovations such as aerating turbine technologies and adaptive speed operation have been developed (Kantoush et al., 2011; Sari et al., 2018; Quaranta et al., 2020). From an energy perspective, enhanced oxygenation during turbine operation optimizes the hydraulic regime of hydropower systems (Bunea et al. 2021 ; Sanjeevaiah & Karn 2024), reduces mechanical wear, extends component lifespan (Howington et al. 1987; Bunea et al. 2021 ). From an ecological perspective, increased downstream dissolved oxygen levels directly affects the capacity of freshwater systems to sustain regulating ESS linked to water quality maintenance (Petts 1984 ; Nilsson et al. 2005 ; Best 2019 ). Most research on the ecological operation of HPPs under environmental e-flow regimes has primarily focused on positive impacts to river ecosystem conditions, often highlighting the benefits of increased water availability or improved dissolved oxygen concentrations (Sofi et al., 2020 ; Arthington et al., 2023 ). Contemporary approaches integrate hydropower systems within socio-ecological and ecosystem-based management frameworks that jointly consider energy production, biodiversity conservation, and human well-being (Grill et al. 2019 ; Hermoso et al. 2021 ). Understanding the overarching relationship between environmental and societal systems -and, consequently, the balance between the supply and demand of ESS- has been identified as crucial for aquatic ecosystems and related human activities (Gómez et al. 2016 ). AQUACROSS EU project advanced beyond the traditional DPSIR assessment framework (Kristensen 2004 ), introducing an innovative concept for understanding the performance of the socio-ecological system (Gómez et al. 2016 ): while ecosystems provide a broad supply of ESS to society, social processes and human-driven pressures (the “demand side”) in turn modify ecosystem structure, functions, and ESS flows (the “supply side”). Both pathways -the supply and demand sides- are intertwined through mutual feedback. However, there has been limited investigation into the critical trade-offs between implementing e-flow regimes and operational challenges, such as turbine maintenance (Kumar & Saini 2010 ). Furthermore, the relationship between these trade-offs and the potential enhancement of ESS delivery due to enhanced oxygenation remains insufficiently explored. In this context, the SHERPA project addresses the urgent challenge of modernizing existing hydropower infrastructure to enable turbines to operate efficiently under e-flow regimes. SHERPA aims to develop and validate innovative technologies for refurbishing current HPPs, specifically: 1) metallic patches and coatings to minimize damage and increase resistance to cavitation; 2) new strategies for adapting rotational speed according to flow range; 3) advanced air injection systems to improve water quality and efficiency; and 4) new runner designs tailored to e-flows to enhance performance. The aim of this research is to identify and assess the relationship between expected changes resulting from SHERPA turbine innovations and the provision of ESS -and, consequently, societal benefits- through case studies. Utilizing existing tools to account for causal links between biodiversity, ecosystem functions, and ESS (e.g., Nogueira et al. 2016), we evaluate long-term biodiversity and social impact due to ESS demand at a representative pilot study. The outcomes of the case study are intended to be replicable in other European contexts, such as Atlantic and Mediterranean regions. Moreover, if a positive linkage between HPP refurbishment and ecosystem performance is demonstrated, engineering design may be integrated into ecosystem-based management decisions (EBM; Slocombe 1993). Implemented SHERPA technological innovations in HPP turbines are expected to influence ESS provision by altering water dissolved oxygen (DO) levels and to modify the intensity and frequency of hydropeaking events. Evaluating the proposed hypotheses will provide evidence that the project has the potential to generate long-term, tangible social benefits and to establish innovative reservoir management models that effectively balance energy production with the conservation of natural capital. 2. METHODOLOGY This research employed bibliometric analysis, specifically a scientific mapping approach -a qualitative research method- to determine the relationship between changes resulting from SHERPA turbine innovations and their impact on the supply and demand sides of ESS. This method can be implemented by analyzing either the keywords assigned by the authors or the terms used within the abstracts of relevant publications. The most influential articles within this field were selected by the citation analysis methodology (Aksnes et al. 2019 ). The data collection process was divided into four distinct stages: selecting a credible database, identifying appropriate search terms, filtering data by determining inclusion and exclusion criteria to obtain a representative dataset, and compiling the final dataset for analysis. The theoretical framework was applied to the Tâmega system case study. The Tâmega Gigabattery (Portugal) encompasses the Alto Tâmega, Gouvães, and Daivões hydropower plants (HPPs) and represents one of the largest hydroelectric projects in Europe. The Alto Tâmega turbines (Vila Real, Portugal) are used for back-to-back start-up operations with the Gouvães HPP reversible pump turbines. The Daivões HPP (Ribeira de Pena, Portugal) operates two primary turbines and one auxiliary turbine, the latter designed to continuously generate the required e-flow. The Tâmega River originates near the municipality of Laza (Spain), within a Natura 2000 Network site, flows through Spain and Portugal, and ultimately discharges into the Douro River near Penafiel, Portugal. Data Collection and Extraction Due to its recent development, the Tâmega Gigabattery project and its authorization files are accessible through official public sources (Portuguese Environmental Authority, APA), providing comprehensive information to support this case study. The latest versions of the Environmental Impact Assessment Report and the Environmental Compliance Report of the Execution Projects (RECAPE, by its Portuguese acronym) were reviewed, along with periodic reports on the biotic characterization of the reservoirs. A buffer zone extending 100 meters from the main water body margins was established as the project's area of influence for the selection of biodiversity data and ESS supply and demand. This distance aligns with Portuguese water policies and regulations designed to protect water bodies, including reservoirs used for public utility purposes such as electricity production. All available environmental monitoring reports relevant to the study area were reviewed, including those on avifauna, ichthyofauna, mammals, terrestrial invertebrates, freshwater mussels, benthic invertebrates, herpetofauna, and habitats (specifically riparian vegetation). Reports on reservoir water quality and the ecological flow regime (for watercourses downstream of the hydropower plants) were also examined. These reports covered a comprehensive range of parameters, including temperature, dissolved oxygen and oxygen saturation, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total organic carbon (TOC), conductivity at 20°C, total suspended solids, pH, alkalinity, hardness, ammoniacal nitrogen, ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, and phosphate. Collectively, these documents provided essential information on species presence, ecological trends, and conservation status within the project’s area of influence, both before and after the construction of the Tâmega Project. Socioeconomic and Compensatory Measures Plans (BIOSFERA, unpublished reports) were also reviewed. These plans include 29 specific socio-economic and 28 biological compensation measures designed to mitigate the impacts of the project’s construction and operation, and to address residual impacts in accordance with the mitigation hierarchy framework. The baseline was established as the regular operation of the HPP prior to the implementation of SHERPA innovations, rather than the pre-construction status. Accordingly, ecosystem components, processes, functions, and services potentially affected by the SHERPA innovations were identified and assessed, both upstream and downstream. A multidisciplinary team -including biologists, aquatic ecologists, and engineers- evaluated the potential consequences of technological changes on physicochemical, biological, and hydromorphological parameters. For the purposes of this analysis, ESS were identified using the terminology and classification framework established by the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES, Version 5.1). CICES is an internationally recognized system developed within the context of environmental accounting initiatives commissioned by the European Environment Agency (Haines-Young, 2016). Its functional organization enables the identification of synergies and trade-offs among ESS. In line with the objectives of this project, ESS related to water quality and nutrient cycles -specifically those based on oxygen content and stratification across the water column- were identified, as well as ESS associated with the use of riverine habitats downstream, which are protected from sudden flow fluctuations and hydropeaking events. Major academic databases, including Google Scholar and ScienceDirect were consulted for this purpose. This general approach was then tailored to address both the specific effects of the SHERPA innovation and the contextual information gathered on the Tâmega system: effect of dissolved oxygen and the intensity and frequency of hydropeaking on freshwater biodiversity and the ESS supplies, and cultural aspects of citizens´ perceptions of the influence of HPPs on freshwater ecosystem. For ScienceDirect, the following keywords were used: dissolved oxygen, ecosystem services, biodiversity and hydropower for a broader search range. For Google Scholar, ecosystem services, dissolved oxygen, ichthyofauna, freshwater mussels, benthic invertebrates, herpetofauna, and riparian vegetation were used for a more detailed search. Time range was set between 2005 and 2025. Since the ESS analysis is a recent framework, these years represent a considerable sample of the research conducted on this subject. The first search returned 850 articles on ScienceDirect and 97 articles on Google Scholar. After the removal of duplicates and the first phase of exclusion, 264 papers were selected for abstract reading, and 82 articles were fully analyzed and assessed for change on ESS supply in freshwater ecosystem influenced by HPPs. In total, 46 papers were included in this literature review for analysis purposes. Additionally, the context of the project provided an opportunity to apply the supply and demand approach, facilitating the identification of synergies and trade-offs, with the pilot case study serving as a practical scenario for validating the theoretical findings with local experts. A validation workshop was held on 12 February 2026, during which experts discussed the scope of compensatory and socioeconomic measures implemented, as well as the main stakeholders’ interests. 3. RESULTS Changes driven by the implementation of SHERPA developments (coatings, adapted rotational speed, advanced air injection and new runner designs; see Project website) are expected to increase oxygen water content and to allow a flexible operation, avoiding sudden flow fluctuations and contributing to runoff regulation downstream. The bibliographic search, considering the criteria mentioned on Methodology, resulted in 24 ESS linked with HPPs operation: 6 Provisioning ESS, 5 Cultural ESS and 13 Regulation ESS (Table 1 ). The main result of the assessment is that a set of ESS, as well as related indirect effects on other ESS and societal benefits, are expected to be affected by SHERPA driven changes (increased DO and reduced hydropeaking) after the implementation of refurbished turbines. These ESS and societal benefits are shown in Fig. 2 . Table 1 Detailed identification of supply ecosystem services (following CICES), interlinkages among them and societal benefits linked to the SHERPA technological innovation (coatings, adapted rotational speed, advanced air injection and new runner designs). Simple descriptor: (P)-Provisioning, (R)-Regulating, (C)-Cultural CICES Code 5.2 ESS simple descriptor (P, R, C) CICES Group Main interlinkages between related ESS: synergies and trade-offs Impact of SHERPA changes on societal benefits Literature evidence 1.1.4.1 (P): Animals that are cultivated in fresh or salt water that we eat Reared aquatic animals for nutrition, materials or energy Synergy with Species’ Feeding Habitats (ESS 2.3.2.3) Increase in habitat capacity to support fauna and flora communities. Chen et al. 2023 1.1.6.1 (P): Food from wild animals Wild animals (terrestrial and aquatic) for nutrition, materials or energy Sinergy with quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora (ESS 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5) Increased oxygen and reduced hydropeaking support healthier flora and fauna, bolster the trophic chain, and boosts food availability across the ecosystem Fusi et al. 2023 1.2.2.2 (P): Wild animals that we can use for breeding Genetic material from animals Synergy with animals or plants that may be useful to us (ESS 1.1.4.1) Improved genetic diversity of fluvial fauna and flora, supporting their use as genetic resources for breeding and aquatic production. Surmacz et al. 2025 2.1.1.1 (R): Decomposing waste or polluting substances Reduction of nutrient loads and mediation of waste or toxic substances of anthropogenic origin by living processes Synergy with: • Chemical Water Quality (ESS 2.3.5.1) • Water Quality for Human Supply (ESS 4.1.1.1) • Water Quality for Irrigation (ESS 4.1.1.2) Enhanced oxygenation and flow stability strengthen ecosystem metabolism and pollutant decomposition, improving water quality for domestic and irrigation uses. Ferreira et al. 2020 2.1.2.1 (R): Reducing smells Mediation of nuisances of anthropogenic origin Sinergy with Chemical Water Quality (ESS 2.3.5.1) Improved river oxygenation and reduced hydropeaking limit anaerobic conditions and organic matter accumulation, reducing the generation of odours and other nuisance emissions of anthropogenic origin in fluvial systems, with direct benefits for environmental quality and human well‑being. Sutachan Cuevas et al. 2007 2.2.1.1. (R): Controlling or preventing soil or sediment loss by running water Erosion control Synergy with: • Quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora (ESS 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5) • Regulation of soil quality (ESS 2.3.4.2) • Stopping landslides and avalanches harming people (ESS 2.2.3.1) Improved oxygenation and reduced hydropeaking enhance sediment biogeochemical stability and promote the development of biofilms and macrophytes, increasing riverbed cohesion. Reduced hydropeaking lowers drag forces from abrupt Flow changes, preventing episodic bank erosion and sediment resuspension. Li et al., 2022 Liu et al., 2019 Wang, 2010 Kiraga, 2021 2.2.2.1 (R): Ecosystems controlling river and lake levels during normal conditions Hydrological cycle and water flow regulation Synergy with quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats of fauna and flora species (ESS 2.3.2.3), (ESS 2.3.2.4), (ESS 2.3.2.5) Enhanced oxygenation and flow stability regulate hydrological processes, supporting stable river and lake levels under normal conditions. Regulating ecological flow improves the habitat by reducing stress on flora and fauna Wang et al. 2010 Mendoza et al. 2011 Fu et al. 2014 Kiraga, 2021 Liu et al. 2019 Li et al., 2022 Hatamkhani et al. 2023 Boavida 2025 2.2.2.2 (R): Controlling the peaks in river levels; mitigating flood waves Hydrological cycle and water flow regulation Synergy with: • Habitat Quality for Species Refuge (ESS 2.3.2.5) • Habitats for Animals and Plants Beneficial to Humans (ESS 2.3.2.3) Enhanced oxygenation and reduced hydropeaking mitigate flood peaks, improve flow regulation, and enhance habitat quality for species refuge and feeding. Mendoza et al. 2011 Fu et al., 2014 Liu et al., 2019 Kiraga, 2021 Li et al., 2022 Hatamkhani et al. 2023 2.2.3.1. (R) Stopping landslides and avalanches harming people Hazard mitigation Synergy with: • Quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora (ESS 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5) • Regulation of soil quality (ESS 2.3.4.2) Stabilized hydrological regimes and reduced flow variability limit soil saturation and erosion, strengthening slope and bank stability and reducing the risk of landslides and flooding-related hazards affecting people. Li et al. 2022 2.3.2.3 (R): Providing habitats for wild plants and animals that can be useful to us Lifecycle maintenance, habitat and gene pool protection Synergies and trade-offs with the quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora (ESS 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5) Improved oxygen availability enhances habitat quality by sustaining aerobic conditions, supporting key biological processes such as growth, reproduction, and feeding of wild plant and animal species of human interest. While increased oxygenation generally benefits oxygen-dependent species, it may also alter ecological conditions and lead to trade-offs affecting species adapted to lower-oxygen environments. Wang et al., 2010 Hatamkhani et al. 2023 2.3.2.4 (R): Providing habitats for wild plants and animals that can be useful to us Lifecycle maintenance, habitat and gene pool protection Sinergy and trade-offs with quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora (ESS 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5) Enhanced biodiversity and expanded refuge opportunities resulting from improved oxygen conditions and reduced hydropeaking may benefit certain aquatic species, while negatively affecting others due to altered flow regimes, habitat structure, and oxygen availability, leading to ecological trade-offs. Kiraga, 2021 Liu et al. 2019 2.3.2.5 (R): Providing habitats for wild plants and animals that can be useful to us Lifecycle maintenance, habitat and gene pool protection Sinergy and trade-offs with quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora (ESS 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5) Enhanced habitat quality supports lifecycle processes and genetic diversity of wild flora and fauna of human interest, potentially increasing biodiversity and strengthening trophic interactions. However, these improvements may also alter feeding, refuge, or breeding conditions, benefiting some species while compromising others, leading to ecological trade-offs. Kiraga, 2021 Liu et al. 2019 2.3.3.1 (R): Controlling pests and invasive species Pest and disease control Trade-offs with: • Captive Breeding of Species (ESS 1.2.2.2) • Quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora (ESS 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5) Improved river oxygenation and reduced hydropeaking strengthen ecological balance and habitat stability, supporting native species and limiting conditions favorable to pests and invasive species, thereby contributing to natural pest and disease regulation. Prenda et al. 2006 2.3.4.2 (R): Ensuring the organic matter in our soils is maintained Regulation of soil quality Sinergy with quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora (ESS 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5) Oxygen enhances soil quality by facilitating aerobic organic matter decomposition and supporting vital microbial activity. Philippot et al. 2024 2.3.5.1 (R): Controlling the chemical quality of freshwater Water conditions Synergy with: • Quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora (ESS 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5) • Water quality for human supply (ESS 4.1.1.1) • Water quality for irrigation (ESS 4.1.1.2 Lower water treatment costs. Increased dissolved oxygen improves the chemical quality of freshwater by promoting aerobic biogeochemical processes that reduce nutrient concentrations, toxic compounds, and reduced substances, thereby enhancing the chemical and ecological status of rivers and reservoirs. Wang et al. 2010 Liu et al. 2019 Hatamkhani et al. 2023 3.1.1.2 (C): Watching plants and animals where they live; using nature to destress Direct, in-situ and outdoor interactions with living systems that depend on presence in the environmental setting, i.e. broad recreational activities Sinergy with Environmental education Sinergy with Environmental education (ESS 6.2.1.2) Growth in ecotourism Improved oxygenation enhances habitat quality and species health, increasing the diversity and visibility of flora and fauna. This enhances the scenic and recreational value of rivers and reservoirs, making them more attractive for nature-based recreation and tourism Pflüger et al. 2010 Ncube et al. 2021 Boavida 2025. 3.2.1.1 (C): Using the environment for sport and recreation; using nature to help stay fit Direct, in situ and outdoor interactions with living systems that depend on presence in the environmental setting, i.e. broad recreational activities • Synergy with: Researching Nature (ESS 6.2.1.1) and Environmental Education (ESS 6.2.1.2) • Synergies and trade-offs: relationships between biotic and abiotic elements that can connect the population with the culture or landscape of the surrounding environment (ESS 3.2.1.3; ESS 6.4.2.1) Socioeconomic benefits for the local community, with potential habitat impacts from mass tourism Pflüger et al. 2010 Carolli et al. 2017 Boavida 2025 4.1.1.1 (P): Drinking water from sources at the ground surface Surface water used for nutrition, materials or energy Sinergy with quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora (ESS 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5) Enhanced water quality for domestic supply, with reduced treatment costs. Improved oxygenation enhances surface water quality by supporting aerobic processes that reduce pollutants and improve chemical and biological conditions, increasing the suitability of rivers and reservoirs as sources of drinking water for human consumption. Mendoza et al. 2011 4.1.1.2 (P): Surface water that we can use for things other than drinking Surface water used for nutrition, materials or energy Synergy with wild-animal food (ESS 1.1.6.1) Improved oxygenation enhances the chemical and biological quality of surface waters, increasing their suitability for non‑potable uses such as irrigation, industrial processes, energy production, and other material uses Boavida 2025 4.1.1.3 (P): Hydropower Surface water used for nutrition, materials or energy Synergy with: • 4.1.1.2 Surface water that we can use for things other than drinking • 3.2.1.1 Using the environment for sport and recreation; using nature to help stay fit • 2.2.3.1. Stopping landslides and avalanches harming people • 2.2.2.1 Ecosystems controlling river and lake levels during normal conditions • 2.2.2.2 Controlling the peaks in river levels; mitigating flood waves • 2.2.3.1. Stopping landslides and avalanches harming people Trade-offs with: • 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5 Quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora • 1.1.6.1 Wild-animal food Enhanced integration of freshwater ecosystem with renewable energy source Reddy et al. 2006 Wang et al. 2010 Fu et al. 2014 Liu et al. 2019 Kiraga 2021 He et al. 2024 Boavida 2025 5.1.1.3 (R): Natural processing of wastes Mediation of waste, toxics and other nuisances by non-living processes Synergy with: • Quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora (ESS 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5) • Wild-animal food (ESS 1.1.6.1) Natural waste-removal processes, in which flora and fauna act as biological filters, are more efficient under elevated oxygen levels because reduced organism stress improves filtration capacity. Improved oxygenation enhances natural physico chemical processes such as oxidation, dilution, and sedimentation, supporting the breakdown, transformation, or immobilization of wastes and toxic substances, thereby reducing nuisances and improving overall water quality. Fu et al. 2014 Liu et al. 2019 6.2.1.1 (C): Researching nature Direct, in-situ and outdoor interactions with geophysical systems that depend on presence in the environmental setting Synergy with: • Environmental Education (ESS 6.2.1.2) • Captive Breeding of Species (ESS 1.2.2.2) • Quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora (ESS 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5) Enhance the environmental, ecological, economic, and social value of the reservoir environment; contribute to scientific knowledge Zini et al. 2025 6.4.2.2. (C) The things in nature that we want future generations to enjoy or use Other biophysical elements of species or ecosystems that are appreciated in their own right by people Synergy with: • Quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora (ESS 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5) • Environmental education (ESS 6.2.1.2) Protection of ecosystems and species valued for their intrinsic and legacy importance, ensuring long‑term benefits for future generations. Ncube et al., 2021 Boavida 2025 Resulting synergies and trade-offs among SEE are also showed in Table 1 . The expected increase in the provision of a given ESS might either contribute to enhance other ESS (e.g. water quality regulation and maintenance of aquatic habitats are often positively correlated) or, in contrast, impair the capacity of the ecosystem to deliver other ESS (e.g. energy supply and some recreational uses of the reservoir). Regulating and provisioning ESS are more numerous than cultural ESS. Examples of identified relevant ESS at the SHERPA context are pollutant retention and degradation, the improvement and stabilization of water and soil quality, the regulation of watercourses, and the maintenance of habitats that provide suitable conditions for reproduction, shelter, and feeding of biological communities. Provisioning services encompass functions related to maintaining and enhancing ecosystem integrity, including the genetic and population diversity of species, as well as those services linked to hydroelectric power production. Lastly, cultural services are primarily associated with socio-economic aspects, offering opportunities for environmental education, scientific research, recreational activities, nature-related tourism, and those activities that contribute to human well-being through an experiential approach to the ecosystem. 4. VALIDATION Identified societal benefits driven by the change in ESS provision because of the implementation of SHERPA developments at the given pilot (Tâmega system) are shown in Fig. 3 and Table 2 . These benefits have been prioritized through an expert validation workshop, capturing the local knowledge gathered during the stakeholder consultation permitting stage of the involved HPPs. Table 2 Driven societal benefits at Tâmega system, capturing the demand side of ecosystem services at the local level. Simple descriptor: (P)-Provisioning, (R)-Regulating, (C)-Cultural ESS/benefit demanded by the local community CICES Code Simple descriptor, P, R, C Type of relationship Practical application to the pilot case study Enhanced integration with renewable energy source 4.1.1.3 (P): Hydropower Direct Technological improvements allow the system to operate efficiently over a wider range of flow conditions, extending the number of hours during which turbine operation is possible. As a result, plant operation becomes more adaptable to variable demand and hydrological conditions, enhancing operational continuity and overall energy utilization. Viability of the Cavez fishing track 3.1.1.1 (C): Using the environment for sport and recreation; using nature to help stay fit Direct Enhancement and maintenance of the Cavez fishing track through targeted river habitat restoration, fish management, and regulated recreational use to ensure high‑quality angling conditions Improvement in Stakeholder relationships 6.4.2.2 (C): The things in nature that we want future generations to enjoy or use Indirect Elements or features of living systems whose inter-generational existence or conservation is important to people, including the importance of between and within species genetic diversity Recreational use 3.1.1.1 (C): Using the environment for sport and recreation; using nature to help stay fit Indirect Enhancement of water quality, flow conditions, and access regulations in rivers and associated environments to enable and sustain recreational activities and other nature‑based sports Improvement in local socioeconomy 6.1.1.1 (C): Using the environment for sport and recreation; using nature to help stay fit Indirect Promotion and support of nature‑based recreational activities (e.g. angling, walking, kayaking, wildlife observation) linked to healthy river and riparian ecosystems, generating socio‑economic benefits for local communities Reduction of hydropeaking generated by turbines 2.2.2.2 (R): Controlling the peaks in river levels; mitigating flood waves Direct Adjustment of hydropower turbine operation regimes (e.g. ramping rate control, minimum flow releases, and flow smoothing measures) to reduce rapid artificial fluctuations in river discharge caused by hydropeaking Flood protection 2.2.2.2 (R): Controlling the peaks in river levels; mitigating flood waves Direct Management of the river’s ecological flow regime to attenuate peak discharges and reduce flood wave intensity, while maintaining suitable hydrological conditions in downstream areas such as the Cavez fishing zone Improvement in the trophic chain 1.1.6.1 (P): Food from wild animals Direct Direct effects on improving lower trophic levels (ichthyofauna, macroinvertebrates, flora), which can enhance feeding habitats for species associated with the reservoir (mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and other fish) Improvement in fauna populations associated with the river 1.2.2.2 (P): Wild animals that we can use for breeding Direct Conservation and recovery of river‑associated fauna through habitat restoration and controlled breeding programs, supporting population reinforcement of key species such as brown trout ( Salmo trutta ), freshwater pearl mussel ( Margaritifera margaritifera ), and Pyrenean desman ( Galemys pyrenaicus ). Improvement in populations of protected flora species 1.2.1.1 (P): Seed collection Indirect Continuation and consolidation of compensatory measures associated with the reservoir aimed at improving populations of protected and sensitive flora species in the surrounding area Existing compensatory actions: -Support the regeneration and conservation of protected plant species such as Narcissus triandrus and Narcissus bulbocodium bulbocodium. -Improve habitat conditions for additional species of conservation interest, including Arnica montana and Drosera rotundifolia , present in the project’s surroundings. -Preserve seed banks and reproductive material through habitat stability and appropriate management practices Stability of river margins 2.2.3.1 (R): Stopping landslides and avalanches harming people Indirect Restoration and enhancement of riparian habitats along riverbanks (e.g. native trees, shrubs, grasses, and root‑rich vegetation) to stabilise river margins and reduce erosion Erosion prevention 2.2.1.1 (R): Controlling or preventing soil or sediment loss by running water Direct Implementation of ecological flow regimes (environmental flows) in river management to regulate water volumes and velocities, preventing excessive erosion of riverbeds and banks Drinking water supply 4.1.1.1 (P): Drinking water from sources at the ground surface Direct Protection and sustainable management of surface water bodies (e.g. lakes, reservoirs, and river sections) used for drinking water abstraction, through the establishment of safeguarded intake zones and upstream catchment management Reduction of thermal stratification in Albufera de Daivoes 2.2.2.1 (R): Ecosystems controlling river and lake levels during normal conditions Indirect Implementation and restoration of aquatic and riparian vegetation belts in the Albufera de Daivões (e.g., submerged macrophytes and strips of emergent marsh vegetation along the banks) to reduce thermal stratification of the water body Control of Invasive Species 2.3.3.1 (R): Controlling pests and invasive species Indirect Ongoing implementation of compensatory and management measures associated with the reservoir to limit the establishment and spread of invasive species in aquatic and riparian ecosystems Improvement in Habitats of Community Interest around the reservoir 1.2.1.3 (P): Genetic material from wild plants. fungi or algae that we can use Indirect / remain neutral Maintenance, monitoring, and optimisation of compensatory measures already implemented around the reservoir, aimed at improving and conserving Habitats of Community Interest and associated flora and fauna communities Research/Scientific knowledge 6.2.1.1 (C): Researching nature Direct Use of the reservoir and technological improvement such as a research and innovation platform, promoting scientific studies and technological development related to aquatic ecosystems Experience in the natural environment 3.1.1.2 (C): Watching plants and animals where they live; using nature to destress Indirect Restoration and enhancement of riparian habitats, combined with the creation of permanent ponds for fauna, to improve opportunities for people to experience nature through observation, recreation, and psychological restoration Improvement in aquatic ecosystems: Creation of permanent ponds 1.2.1.3 3.1.1.1 (P): Genetic material from wild plants. fungi or algae that we can use (C): Using the environment for sport and recreation; using nature to help stay fit Indirect Creation and maintenance of permanent ponds as compensatory measures, designed to enhance aquatic ecosystems and provide multifunctional environmental benefits. The permanent ponds: -Create specific habitats for herpetofauna, dragonflies, macroinvertebrates, and aquatic plants -Provide stable areas for breeding, feeding, and refuge, supporting population persistence -Increase the ecological complexity and attractiveness of the landscape Improvement in visual impact 6.2.1.4 (C): The beauty of nature Indirect Landscape improvement in synergy with enhancements to riparian habitats The local context provides multiple opportunities to feed in the ESS supply-demand relationship. For instance, water supply that is committed to Vilapouca de Aguiar population (Gouvaes abstraction) stands out as a service dependent on hydrological stability and the quality of the available resource. Beyond the value of drinking water as a public, basic good, one of the most demanded services in Daivões is the potential for recreational fishing. The Cavez fishing track restoration has been required by both authorities and the local community, and significant investments have been delivered to date. Its functionality and quality depend on hydrological and biological conditions to be compatible with the ecological requirements of the target ichthyofauna species. Reducing hydropeaking is considered a key coping factor, as it softens abrupt flow fluctuations and helps create a more stable hydrological regime and subsequent ecological relationships that contribute to fish sheltering and feeding, as recovery of lower trophic levels, including macroinvertebrates and aquatic plant communities. These components are fundamental for stabilizing higher trophic levels, not only ichthyofauna but mammals and birds too, which in turn improves the potential to experience the landscape and to create the sense of place for local community. Associated local businesses –fishing materials, licenses, accommodation, restaurants, nature tourism, etc.- might encounter increased opportunities on the long term. These effects are not only limited to the restoration of the Cavez fishing track, but the whole Tâmega system riverine habitats and area of influence, including the peninsula located at the Daivões reservoir (Senra village). According to the information reviewed and the local experts’ confirmation, the area is already full of hiking tracks and cultural heritage assets -religious architecture- which restoration is in some way included as part of the socioeconomic and compensatory actions required by authorities for the Tâmega system. The identified effects of SHERPA innovation on ESS, particularly those related to habitat quality and biodiversity enhancement, would help improve the scenario where all these compensatory measures are being implemented (flora and fauna conservation spots) that will encounter a more stable and resilient habitat. RECAPE empathizes with the need for riverbank stabilization. According to the site visit observations, it is especially important in areas where variations in e-flow and hydropeaking pulses could trigger erosion, leading to habitat loss and risks to associated infrastructure. In fact, some landslides were seen at river margins and slopes. The improvement of habitat maturity, including soil stabilization, driven by reduced hydropeaking and increased oxygenation at the turbine area and downstream, would contribute naturally with engineering efforts of erosion control. 5. DISCUSSION Results presented within this study allow to understand the direction and relevance of the changes in ESS supply that the implementation of SHERPA innovation in hydropower turbines and operation can bring. A thorough review of existing knowledge on the interlinkages of HPPs and ESS in complex adaptive socio-ecological systems is presented. A further expert multidisciplinary evaluation of what will be the consequences of technological changes on physico-chemical, biological and hydromorphological parameters, helped focusing upcoming assessment efforts throughout the SHERPA progress. The increased oxygenation is generated at the turbine, and thus a distance effect shall be accounted for. The concept of distance decay of value (or spatial discounting of value) is useful for interpreting the spatial distribution of these benefits. When there is a separation between where services are generated and where their benefits are perceived, they tend to be undervalued (Khan et al. 2019 ; Yamaguchi & Shah 2020 ; Choi & Ready 2021 ). Applied to hydropower systems, this approach suggests that improvements such as increased oxygenation or flow regulation may have diminishing effects downstream, both in biophysical terms and in their social valuation, reinforcing the idea that their benefits are spatially limited. According to the literature review, there are no significant knowledge gaps in the existence of these featured relationships. However, scientific evidence on valuing or measuring the ultimate benefits is heterogenous (Zini et al. 2025). Identifying changes requires addressing what happens on different spatial and temporal scales, particularly working with ecosystems that behave in a non-linear way and when there might be a distance decay of the value of these ESS that are expected to change. Small changes may lead to large-scale impacts, while larger changes may drive small-scale impacts (Costanza et al. 1997 ). The theoretical approach undertaken at this point suggests that SHERPA innovation will produce mixed effects: small changes with larger impacts in the case of increased oxygenation of water, but large changes with more localized impacts in the case of reduced hydropeaking. This hypothesis will be the starting point of next steps to take in SHERPA assessment, including sampling on the ground and modelling inputs. Beyond changes on the ESS supply, the assessment has also incorporated the demand side of ESS, the strongest way to evaluate the societal benefits that are going to be influenced by SHERPA. The pilot case study -Tâmega system, PT- has been confirmed as an adequate and representative scenario for further replication, given the scale and scope of socioeconomic and compensatory ecological measures undertaken with the HPPs development. Identifying potential benefits that evolving ecosystems would provide to the local community and underlying ecosystem functionality and processes has resulted in a set of ESS to be further evaluated, ranging from an improved access to drinking water, the restoration of the Cavez fishing track, landscape improvement and increased recreational opportunities with associated socioeconomic upliftment and community cohesion, as well as flood risk reduction, erosion control and resilience of the area of influence. Results show that technological improvements in the electro-production system, and consequently the enhancement of the structure of the biological community in the surrounding area, the ecosystem functions and the flow of services, would also contribute to gain knowledge and experience not only in HPPs management but also in ecological and socioeconomic management, working synergistically towards the same direction. This improvement is reflected in a stronger relationship with stakeholders, who may perceive greater coherence between management decisions in the surrounding area and the reservoir, as well as with conservation objectives and the associated socio-economic benefits. This creates opportunities to enforce stakeholder engagement and, again, community cohesion and sense of place (Kyle & Chick 2007 ). An underlying reflection that comes up from this study is that there is a window of opportunity to integrate natural capital assessments into technological improvements in reservoir management and turbine operation, seeking ecological conservation objectives compatible with efficiency and competitiveness ones, ensuring present and future benefits to society associated with an improved operation of HPPs. The way forward Ecosystem-based management refers to any management or policy options intended to restore, enhance and/or protect the resilience of an ecosystem. Described by MEA ( 2005 ), EBM is “ an approach to maintaining or restoring the composition, structure, function, and delivery of services of natural and modified ecosystems for the goal of achieving sustainability. It is based on an adaptive, collaboratively developed vision of desired future conditions that integrates ecological, socioeconomic and institutional perspectives, applied within a geographic framework and defined primarily by natural ecological boundaries ”. According to the theoretical approach presented in this paper, incorporating SHERPA innovations to HPPs performance might be seen as a new and additional measure of EBM, led by the HPP operators in coalition with environmental authorities: flexible operation of HPPs could contribute to resiliency of ecosystems, ESS provision and, therefore, societal benefits. The theoretical exercise provided with this paper will be ground-proofed via field work and real-data capture, as well as stakeholder engagement for a new broader validation of the results. Although this exercise has been prepared for the Tâmega system, the pilot is considered representative enough to help addressing other geographical scenarios across the EU: the watershed is located at the Mediterranean-Eurosiberian boundary and transition area; the scale and scope of socioeconomic and compensatory ecological measures undertaken at Tâmega are ultimately responding to the European regulation on environmental impact assessment (e.g. Directive 2011/92/UE and their transposing national regulations to all Member States of the EU). 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A global boom in hydropower dam construction. Aquatic Sciences, 77(1), 161–170. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 12 May, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 06 May, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 04 May, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 02 May, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 02 May, 2026 First submitted to journal 30 Apr, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9579570","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Method Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":635334115,"identity":"f68320cd-eaa1-4c3c-8801-3bfd739d71bb","order_by":0,"name":"Alberto Lucas","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"AECOM Spain DCS SLU","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Alberto","middleName":"","lastName":"Lucas","suffix":""},{"id":635334116,"identity":"3081aa5d-4c3c-482f-9d66-ca9937153b53","order_by":1,"name":"Jana de Ozaeta","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"AECOM Spain DCS SLU","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jana","middleName":"","lastName":"de Ozaeta","suffix":""},{"id":635334118,"identity":"570107d3-f75a-4492-b30a-977f37332891","order_by":2,"name":"María Ciruelos","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"AECOM Spain DCS SLU","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"María","middleName":"","lastName":"Ciruelos","suffix":""},{"id":635334123,"identity":"edf45ee2-4c13-41d7-b23d-af3e09c50170","order_by":3,"name":"Marta Arenas Romasanta","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"AECOM Spain DCS SLU","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Marta","middleName":"Arenas","lastName":"Romasanta","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-04-30 16:23:54","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9579570/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9579570/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":109119307,"identity":"7a4fc6e8-45c9-4b5e-8f0a-b6949dc0e603","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-12 16:57:09","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":54347,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOverview of the study methodology process\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9579570/v1/7098a981430d9c64c23bd2f1.png"},{"id":109119271,"identity":"2b0d7907-06d7-4349-b0da-69ff487423a9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-12 16:57:00","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":115233,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eIdentification of ecosystem services linked to the SHERPA technological innovation\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9579570/v1/55fccb5d6d57eddb39c2d754.jpg"},{"id":109119274,"identity":"197b7f4d-7c6a-4f35-99b4-7ef7e7f64f88","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-12 16:57:01","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":55974,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDriven societal benefits at Tâmega system, capturing the demand side of ESS at the local level\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9579570/v1/ecccc97357e6590470791908.png"},{"id":109119356,"identity":"3d288e84-8c4a-4a2f-9cbb-ab8903b4335d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-12 16:57:18","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":688003,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9579570/v1/bcd09725-2a9f-423f-8319-dc26c1469621.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Integrating biodiversity-driven supply and demand sides of ecosystem services in refurbished hydropower plants: Insights from a pilot case study","fulltext":[{"header":"1. INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eEcosystems and socioeconomic structures are in constant, reciprocal interactions across spatial and temporal scales (Young et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Ecological components fulfil human needs through the provision of ecosystem services (ESS; Maes et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; IPBES \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), such as energy and clean water (Botelho et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Social dynamics influencing the demand for these services modify and shape the ecological integrity of ecosystems and its capacity to provide ESS (Rutting et al. 2022). Both social and ecological systems exhibit responses to a range of endogenous and exogenous drivers of change (Burkhard et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) and are structured through complex networks of synergies and trade-offs across scales, underscoring the necessity for integrated assessments (Hurford et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Wang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHydropower generation is a flexible form of renewable energy that relies on freshwater ecosystems and exemplifies the trade-offs between energy production and ecological conservation (Grill et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Hurford et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Anderson et al. 2022). Despite its significant contribution to energy security (Moran et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Wagner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), Hydropower Plants (HPPs) may also negatively impact terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, causing habitat fragmentation, flow modifications, and changes in species composition (Botelho et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Williams-Subiza \u0026amp; Epele \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), hydrological regimes, sediment transport, and habitat connectivity (Petts \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e; Nilsson et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Best \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Recent studies highlight that these impacts are dynamic and highly dependent on operational regimes, which modulate ecosystem resilience and the temporal stability of EES provisioning (Moog et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Belletti et al. 2022; Mo \u0026amp; Xiao \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2026\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese operational regimes are a consequence of rapid discharge fluctuations induced by cyclical electricity demand (i.e., hydropeaking). This operational pattern generates short-term habitat instability, increased drift of aquatic organisms and ultimately altering community structure (Cushman \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e; Young et al. 2011; Moog et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Linked to ecological impacts, hydropeaking can also impact economic prosperity of local communities, particularly when direct use values (recreational fishing and tourism) are affected. To mitigate these impacts, European regulations, such as the Water Framework Directive, Environmental Impact Assessment Directive, require HPPs to ensure the quantity, timing, and quality of freshwater downstream flows -known as environmental flows or e-flows-. However, maintaining e-flow regime may also bring technology-based challenges. When a hydraulic turbine operates out of its design conditions, the possibility of hydraulic instability phenomena (i.e., cavitation) increases, with potential damage to its physical integrity (Gohil \u0026amp; Saini 2015). Thus, from an ESS valuation perspective, hydropeaking and e-flow regimen represents a socio-ecological trade-off between energy system flexibility and the temporal reliability of freshwater-derived benefits.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHence, the goal of the R\u0026amp;D SHERPA Project (Solutions for Hydropower plants to Enhance operational Range, Performance, and improve environmental impAct) is to expand and adapt the operational range of a given HPP to handling up lower flows without compromising their lifespan, economic viability, or environmental and social impacts. To cope with flow rate variability and avoid negative side-effects on turbines, innovations such as aerating turbine technologies and adaptive speed operation have been developed (Kantoush et al., 2011; Sari et al., 2018; Quaranta et al., 2020). From an energy perspective, enhanced oxygenation during turbine operation optimizes the hydraulic regime of hydropower systems (Bunea et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Sanjeevaiah \u0026amp; Karn 2024), reduces mechanical wear, extends component lifespan (Howington et al. 1987; Bunea et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). From an ecological perspective, increased downstream dissolved oxygen levels directly affects the capacity of freshwater systems to sustain regulating ESS linked to water quality maintenance (Petts \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e; Nilsson et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Best \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost research on the ecological operation of HPPs under environmental e-flow regimes has primarily focused on positive impacts to river ecosystem conditions, often highlighting the benefits of increased water availability or improved dissolved oxygen concentrations (Sofi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Arthington et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Contemporary approaches integrate hydropower systems within socio-ecological and ecosystem-based management frameworks that jointly consider energy production, biodiversity conservation, and human well-being (Grill et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Hermoso et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Understanding the overarching relationship between environmental and societal systems -and, consequently, the balance between the supply and demand of ESS- has been identified as crucial for aquatic ecosystems and related human activities (G\u0026oacute;mez et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). AQUACROSS EU project advanced beyond the traditional DPSIR assessment framework (Kristensen \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e), introducing an innovative concept for understanding the performance of the socio-ecological system (G\u0026oacute;mez et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e): while ecosystems provide a broad supply of ESS to society, social processes and human-driven pressures (the \u0026ldquo;demand side\u0026rdquo;) in turn modify ecosystem structure, functions, and ESS flows (the \u0026ldquo;supply side\u0026rdquo;). Both pathways -the supply and demand sides- are intertwined through mutual feedback.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, there has been limited investigation into the critical trade-offs between implementing e-flow regimes and operational challenges, such as turbine maintenance (Kumar \u0026amp; Saini \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, the relationship between these trade-offs and the potential enhancement of ESS delivery due to enhanced oxygenation remains insufficiently explored. In this context, the SHERPA project addresses the urgent challenge of modernizing existing hydropower infrastructure to enable turbines to operate efficiently under e-flow regimes. SHERPA aims to develop and validate innovative technologies for refurbishing current HPPs, specifically: 1) metallic patches and coatings to minimize damage and increase resistance to cavitation; 2) new strategies for adapting rotational speed according to flow range; 3) advanced air injection systems to improve water quality and efficiency; and 4) new runner designs tailored to e-flows to enhance performance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe aim of this research is to identify and assess the relationship between expected changes resulting from SHERPA turbine innovations and the provision of ESS -and, consequently, societal benefits- through case studies. Utilizing existing tools to account for causal links between biodiversity, ecosystem functions, and ESS (e.g., Nogueira et al. 2016), we evaluate long-term biodiversity and social impact due to ESS demand at a representative pilot study. The outcomes of the case study are intended to be replicable in other European contexts, such as Atlantic and Mediterranean regions. Moreover, if a positive linkage between HPP refurbishment and ecosystem performance is demonstrated, engineering design may be integrated into ecosystem-based management decisions (EBM; Slocombe 1993).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eImplemented SHERPA technological innovations in HPP turbines are expected to influence ESS provision by altering water dissolved oxygen (DO) levels and to modify the intensity and frequency of hydropeaking events. Evaluating the proposed hypotheses will provide evidence that the project has the potential to generate long-term, tangible social benefits and to establish innovative reservoir management models that effectively balance energy production with the conservation of natural capital.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. METHODOLOGY","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis research employed bibliometric analysis, specifically a scientific mapping approach -a qualitative research method- to determine the relationship between changes resulting from SHERPA turbine innovations and their impact on the supply and demand sides of ESS. This method can be implemented by analyzing either the keywords assigned by the authors or the terms used within the abstracts of relevant publications. The most influential articles within this field were selected by the citation analysis methodology (Aksnes et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The data collection process was divided into four distinct stages: selecting a credible database, identifying appropriate search terms, filtering data by determining inclusion and exclusion criteria to obtain a representative dataset, and compiling the final dataset for analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe theoretical framework was applied to the T\u0026acirc;mega system case study. The T\u0026acirc;mega Gigabattery (Portugal) encompasses the Alto T\u0026acirc;mega, Gouv\u0026atilde;es, and Daiv\u0026otilde;es hydropower plants (HPPs) and represents one of the largest hydroelectric projects in Europe. The Alto T\u0026acirc;mega turbines (Vila Real, Portugal) are used for back-to-back start-up operations with the Gouv\u0026atilde;es HPP reversible pump turbines. The Daiv\u0026otilde;es HPP (Ribeira de Pena, Portugal) operates two primary turbines and one auxiliary turbine, the latter designed to continuously generate the required e-flow. The T\u0026acirc;mega River originates near the municipality of Laza (Spain), within a Natura 2000 Network site, flows through Spain and Portugal, and ultimately discharges into the Douro River near Penafiel, Portugal.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eData Collection and Extraction\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDue to its recent development, the T\u0026acirc;mega Gigabattery project and its authorization files are accessible through official public sources (Portuguese Environmental Authority, APA), providing comprehensive information to support this case study. The latest versions of the Environmental Impact Assessment Report and the Environmental Compliance Report of the Execution Projects (RECAPE, by its Portuguese acronym) were reviewed, along with periodic reports on the biotic characterization of the reservoirs. A buffer zone extending 100 meters from the main water body margins was established as the project's area of influence for the selection of biodiversity data and ESS supply and demand. This distance aligns with Portuguese water policies and regulations designed to protect water bodies, including reservoirs used for public utility purposes such as electricity production.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll available environmental monitoring reports relevant to the study area were reviewed, including those on avifauna, ichthyofauna, mammals, terrestrial invertebrates, freshwater mussels, benthic invertebrates, herpetofauna, and habitats (specifically riparian vegetation). Reports on reservoir water quality and the ecological flow regime (for watercourses downstream of the hydropower plants) were also examined. These reports covered a comprehensive range of parameters, including temperature, dissolved oxygen and oxygen saturation, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total organic carbon (TOC), conductivity at 20\u0026deg;C, total suspended solids, pH, alkalinity, hardness, ammoniacal nitrogen, ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, and phosphate. Collectively, these documents provided essential information on species presence, ecological trends, and conservation status within the project\u0026rsquo;s area of influence, both before and after the construction of the T\u0026acirc;mega Project. Socioeconomic and Compensatory Measures Plans (BIOSFERA, unpublished reports) were also reviewed. These plans include 29 specific socio-economic and 28 biological compensation measures designed to mitigate the impacts of the project\u0026rsquo;s construction and operation, and to address residual impacts in accordance with the mitigation hierarchy framework.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe baseline was established as the regular operation of the HPP prior to the implementation of SHERPA innovations, rather than the pre-construction status. Accordingly, ecosystem components, processes, functions, and services potentially affected by the SHERPA innovations were identified and assessed, both upstream and downstream. A multidisciplinary team -including biologists, aquatic ecologists, and engineers- evaluated the potential consequences of technological changes on physicochemical, biological, and hydromorphological parameters.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the purposes of this analysis, ESS were identified using the terminology and classification framework established by the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES, Version 5.1). CICES is an internationally recognized system developed within the context of environmental accounting initiatives commissioned by the European Environment Agency (Haines-Young, 2016). Its functional organization enables the identification of synergies and trade-offs among ESS. In line with the objectives of this project, ESS related to water quality and nutrient cycles -specifically those based on oxygen content and stratification across the water column- were identified, as well as ESS associated with the use of riverine habitats downstream, which are protected from sudden flow fluctuations and hydropeaking events.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMajor academic databases, including Google Scholar and ScienceDirect were consulted for this purpose. This general approach was then tailored to address both the specific effects of the SHERPA innovation and the contextual information gathered on the T\u0026acirc;mega system: effect of dissolved oxygen and the intensity and frequency of hydropeaking on freshwater biodiversity and the ESS supplies, and cultural aspects of citizens\u0026acute; perceptions of the influence of HPPs on freshwater ecosystem. For ScienceDirect, the following keywords were used: dissolved oxygen, ecosystem services, biodiversity and hydropower for a broader search range. For Google Scholar, ecosystem services, dissolved oxygen, ichthyofauna, freshwater mussels, benthic invertebrates, herpetofauna, and riparian vegetation were used for a more detailed search. Time range was set between 2005 and 2025. Since the ESS analysis is a recent framework, these years represent a considerable sample of the research conducted on this subject. The first search returned 850 articles on ScienceDirect and 97 articles on Google Scholar. After the removal of duplicates and the first phase of exclusion, 264 papers were selected for abstract reading, and 82 articles were fully analyzed and assessed for change on ESS supply in freshwater ecosystem influenced by HPPs. In total, 46 papers were included in this literature review for analysis purposes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the context of the project provided an opportunity to apply the supply and demand approach, facilitating the identification of synergies and trade-offs, with the pilot case study serving as a practical scenario for validating the theoretical findings with local experts. A validation workshop was held on 12 February 2026, during which experts discussed the scope of compensatory and socioeconomic measures implemented, as well as the main stakeholders\u0026rsquo; interests.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003eChanges driven by the implementation of SHERPA developments (coatings, adapted rotational speed, advanced air injection and new runner designs; see Project website) are expected to increase oxygen water content and to allow a flexible operation, avoiding sudden flow fluctuations and contributing to runoff regulation downstream. The bibliographic search, considering the criteria mentioned on Methodology, resulted in 24 ESS linked with HPPs operation: 6 Provisioning ESS, 5 Cultural ESS and 13 Regulation ESS (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The main result of the assessment is that a set of ESS, as well as related indirect effects on other ESS and societal benefits, are expected to be affected by SHERPA driven changes (increased DO and reduced hydropeaking) after the implementation of refurbished turbines. These ESS and societal benefits are shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDetailed identification of supply ecosystem services (following CICES), interlinkages among them and societal benefits linked to the SHERPA technological innovation (coatings, adapted rotational speed, advanced air injection and new runner designs). Simple descriptor: (P)-Provisioning, (R)-Regulating, (C)-Cultural\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCICES Code 5.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eESS simple descriptor\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(P, R, C)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCICES Group\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMain interlinkages between related ESS: synergies and trade-offs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImpact of SHERPA changes on societal benefits\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiterature evidence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1.4.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(P): Animals that are cultivated in fresh or salt water that we eat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReared aquatic animals for nutrition, materials or energy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSynergy with Species\u0026rsquo; Feeding Habitats (ESS 2.3.2.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncrease in habitat capacity to support fauna and flora communities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1.6.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(P): Food from wild animals\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWild animals (terrestrial and aquatic) for nutrition, materials or energy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSinergy with quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora (ESS 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncreased oxygen and reduced hydropeaking support healthier flora and fauna, bolster the trophic chain, and boosts food availability across the ecosystem\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFusi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2.2.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(P): Wild animals that we can use for breeding\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGenetic material from animals\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSynergy with animals or plants that may be useful to us (ESS 1.1.4.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImproved genetic diversity of fluvial fauna and flora, supporting their use as genetic resources for breeding and aquatic production.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSurmacz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1.1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(R): Decomposing waste or polluting substances\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReduction of nutrient loads and mediation of waste or toxic substances of anthropogenic origin by living processes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSynergy with:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Chemical Water Quality (ESS 2.3.5.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Water Quality for Human Supply (ESS 4.1.1.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Water Quality for Irrigation (ESS 4.1.1.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnhanced oxygenation and flow stability strengthen ecosystem metabolism and pollutant decomposition, improving water quality for domestic and irrigation uses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFerreira et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1.2.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(R): Reducing smells\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMediation of nuisances of anthropogenic origin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSinergy with Chemical Water Quality (ESS 2.3.5.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImproved river oxygenation and reduced hydropeaking limit anaerobic conditions and organic matter accumulation, reducing the generation of odours and other nuisance emissions of anthropogenic origin in fluvial systems, with direct benefits for environmental quality and human well‑being.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSutachan Cuevas et al. 2007\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.1.1.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(R): Controlling or preventing soil or sediment loss by running water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eErosion control\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSynergy with:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora (ESS 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Regulation of soil quality (ESS 2.3.4.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Stopping landslides and avalanches harming people (ESS 2.2.3.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImproved oxygenation and reduced hydropeaking enhance sediment biogeochemical stability and promote the development of biofilms and macrophytes, increasing riverbed cohesion. Reduced hydropeaking lowers drag forces from abrupt Flow changes, preventing episodic bank erosion and sediment resuspension.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWang, 2010\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKiraga, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.2.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(R): Ecosystems controlling river and lake levels during normal conditions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHydrological cycle and water flow regulation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSynergy with quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats of fauna and flora species (ESS 2.3.2.3), (ESS 2.3.2.4), (ESS 2.3.2.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnhanced oxygenation and flow stability regulate hydrological processes, supporting stable river and lake levels under normal conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegulating ecological flow improves the habitat by reducing stress on flora and fauna\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e Mendoza et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKiraga, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHatamkhani et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoavida 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.2.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(R): Controlling the peaks in river levels; mitigating flood waves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHydrological cycle and water flow regulation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSynergy with:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Habitat Quality for Species Refuge (ESS 2.3.2.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Habitats for Animals and Plants Beneficial to Humans (ESS 2.3.2.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnhanced oxygenation and reduced hydropeaking mitigate flood peaks, improve flow regulation, and enhance habitat quality for species refuge and feeding.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMendoza et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKiraga, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHatamkhani et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.3.1.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(R) Stopping landslides and avalanches harming people\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHazard mitigation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSynergy with:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora (ESS 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Regulation of soil quality (ESS 2.3.4.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStabilized hydrological regimes and reduced flow variability limit soil saturation and erosion, strengthening slope and bank stability and reducing the risk of landslides and flooding-related hazards affecting people.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3.2.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(R): Providing habitats for wild plants and animals that can be useful to us\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLifecycle maintenance, habitat and gene pool protection\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSynergies and trade-offs with the quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora (ESS 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImproved oxygen availability enhances habitat quality by sustaining aerobic conditions, supporting key biological processes such as growth, reproduction, and feeding of wild plant and animal species of human interest. While increased oxygenation generally benefits oxygen-dependent species, it may also alter ecological conditions and lead to trade-offs affecting species adapted to lower-oxygen environments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHatamkhani et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3.2.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(R): Providing habitats for wild plants and animals that can be useful to us\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLifecycle maintenance, habitat and gene pool protection\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSinergy and trade-offs with quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora (ESS 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnhanced biodiversity and expanded refuge opportunities resulting from improved oxygen conditions and reduced hydropeaking may benefit certain aquatic species, while negatively affecting others due to altered flow regimes, habitat structure, and oxygen availability, leading to ecological trade-offs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKiraga, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3.2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(R): Providing habitats for wild plants and animals that can be useful to us\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLifecycle maintenance, habitat and gene pool protection\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSinergy and trade-offs with quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora (ESS 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnhanced habitat quality supports lifecycle processes and genetic diversity of wild flora and fauna of human interest, potentially increasing biodiversity and strengthening trophic interactions. However, these improvements may also alter feeding, refuge, or breeding conditions, benefiting some species while compromising others, leading to ecological trade-offs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKiraga, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3.3.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(R): Controlling pests and invasive species\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePest and disease control\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrade-offs with:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Captive Breeding of Species (ESS 1.2.2.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora (ESS 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImproved river oxygenation and reduced hydropeaking strengthen ecological balance and habitat stability, supporting native species and limiting conditions favorable to pests and invasive species, thereby contributing to natural pest and disease regulation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrenda et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3.4.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(R): Ensuring the organic matter in our soils is maintained\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegulation of soil quality\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSinergy with quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora (ESS 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOxygen enhances soil quality by facilitating aerobic organic matter decomposition and supporting vital microbial activity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhilippot et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3.5.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(R): Controlling the chemical quality of freshwater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater conditions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSynergy with:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora (ESS 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Water quality for human supply (ESS 4.1.1.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Water quality for irrigation (ESS 4.1.1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLower water treatment costs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncreased dissolved oxygen improves the chemical quality of freshwater by promoting aerobic biogeochemical processes that reduce nutrient concentrations, toxic compounds, and reduced substances, thereby enhancing the chemical and ecological status of rivers and reservoirs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHatamkhani et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(C): Watching plants and animals where they live; using nature to destress\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect, in-situ and outdoor interactions with living systems that depend on presence in the environmental setting, i.e. broad recreational activities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSinergy with Environmental education\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSinergy with Environmental education (ESS 6.2.1.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrowth in ecotourism\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eImproved oxygenation enhances habitat quality and species health, increasing the diversity and visibility of flora and fauna. This enhances the scenic and recreational value of rivers and reservoirs, making them more attractive for nature-based recreation and tourism\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePfl\u0026uuml;ger et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNcube et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoavida 2025.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(C): Using the environment for sport and recreation; using nature to help stay fit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect, in situ and outdoor interactions with living systems that depend on presence in the environmental setting, i.e. broad recreational activities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Synergy with: Researching Nature (ESS 6.2.1.1) and Environmental Education (ESS 6.2.1.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Synergies and trade-offs: relationships between biotic and abiotic elements that can connect the population with the culture or landscape of the surrounding environment (ESS 3.2.1.3; ESS 6.4.2.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocioeconomic benefits for the local community, with potential habitat impacts from mass tourism\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePfl\u0026uuml;ger et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarolli et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoavida 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.1.1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(P): Drinking water from sources at the ground surface\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSurface water used for nutrition, materials or energy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSinergy with quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora (ESS 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnhanced water quality for domestic supply, with reduced treatment costs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eImproved oxygenation enhances surface water quality by supporting aerobic processes that reduce pollutants and improve chemical and biological conditions, increasing the suitability of rivers and reservoirs as sources of drinking water for human consumption.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMendoza et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.1.1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(P): Surface water that we can use for things other than drinking\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSurface water used for nutrition, materials or energy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSynergy with wild-animal food (ESS 1.1.6.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImproved oxygenation enhances the chemical and biological quality of surface waters, increasing their suitability for non‑potable uses such as irrigation, industrial processes, energy production, and other material uses\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoavida 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.1.1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(P): Hydropower\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSurface water used for nutrition, materials or energy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSynergy with:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; 4.1.1.2 Surface water that we can use for things other than drinking\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; 3.2.1.1 Using the environment for sport and recreation; using nature to help stay fit\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; 2.2.3.1. Stopping landslides and avalanches harming people\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; 2.2.2.1 Ecosystems controlling river and lake levels during normal conditions\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; 2.2.2.2 Controlling the peaks in river levels; mitigating flood waves\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; 2.2.3.1. Stopping landslides and avalanches harming people\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrade-offs with:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5 Quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; 1.1.6.1 Wild-animal food\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnhanced integration of freshwater ecosystem with renewable energy source\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReddy et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKiraga \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHe et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoavida 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(R): Natural processing of wastes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMediation of waste, toxics and other nuisances by non-living processes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSynergy with:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora (ESS 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Wild-animal food (ESS 1.1.6.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNatural waste-removal processes, in which flora and fauna act as biological filters, are more efficient under elevated oxygen levels because reduced organism stress improves filtration capacity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eImproved oxygenation enhances natural physico chemical processes such as oxidation, dilution, and sedimentation, supporting the breakdown, transformation, or immobilization of wastes and toxic substances, thereby reducing nuisances and improving overall water quality.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2.1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(C): Researching nature\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect, in-situ and outdoor interactions with geophysical systems that depend on presence in the environmental setting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSynergy with:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Environmental Education (ESS 6.2.1.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Captive Breeding of Species (ESS 1.2.2.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora (ESS 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnhance the environmental, ecological, economic, and social value of the reservoir environment; contribute to scientific knowledge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZini et al. 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.4.2.2.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(C) The things in nature that we want future generations to enjoy or use\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther biophysical elements of species or ecosystems that are appreciated in their own right by people\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSynergy with:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Quality of feeding, refuge, and breeding habitats for fauna and flora (ESS 2.3.2.3; 2.3.2.4; 2.3.2.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Environmental education (ESS 6.2.1.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtection of ecosystems and species valued for their intrinsic and legacy importance, ensuring long‑term benefits for future generations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNcube et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoavida 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResulting synergies and trade-offs among SEE are also showed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The expected increase in the provision of a given ESS might either contribute to enhance other ESS (e.g. water quality regulation and maintenance of aquatic habitats are often positively correlated) or, in contrast, impair the capacity of the ecosystem to deliver other ESS (e.g. energy supply and some recreational uses of the reservoir).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegulating and provisioning ESS are more numerous than cultural ESS. Examples of identified relevant ESS at the SHERPA context are pollutant retention and degradation, the improvement and stabilization of water and soil quality, the regulation of watercourses, and the maintenance of habitats that provide suitable conditions for reproduction, shelter, and feeding of biological communities. Provisioning services encompass functions related to maintaining and enhancing ecosystem integrity, including the genetic and population diversity of species, as well as those services linked to hydroelectric power production. Lastly, cultural services are primarily associated with socio-economic aspects, offering opportunities for environmental education, scientific research, recreational activities, nature-related tourism, and those activities that contribute to human well-being through an experiential approach to the ecosystem.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. VALIDATION","content":"\u003cp\u003eIdentified societal benefits driven by the change in ESS provision because of the implementation of SHERPA developments at the given pilot (T\u0026acirc;mega system) are shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e and Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. These benefits have been prioritized through an expert validation workshop, capturing the local knowledge gathered during the stakeholder consultation permitting stage of the involved HPPs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDriven societal benefits at T\u0026acirc;mega system, capturing the demand side of ecosystem services at the local level. Simple descriptor: (P)-Provisioning, (R)-Regulating, (C)-Cultural\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eESS/benefit demanded by the local community\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCICES Code\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimple descriptor, P, R, C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of relationship\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePractical application to the pilot case study\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnhanced integration with renewable energy source\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.1.1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(P): Hydropower\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTechnological improvements allow the system to operate efficiently over a wider range of flow conditions, extending the number of hours during which turbine operation is possible. As a result, plant operation becomes more adaptable to variable demand and hydrological conditions, enhancing operational continuity and overall energy utilization.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eViability of the Cavez fishing track\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(C): Using the environment for sport and recreation; using nature to help stay fit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnhancement and maintenance of the Cavez fishing track through targeted river habitat restoration, fish management, and regulated recreational use to ensure high‑quality angling conditions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImprovement in Stakeholder relationships\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.4.2.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(C): The things in nature that we want future generations to enjoy or use\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndirect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElements or features of living systems whose inter-generational existence or conservation is important to people, including the importance of between and within species genetic diversity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecreational use\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(C): Using the environment for sport and recreation; using nature to help stay fit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndirect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnhancement of water quality, flow conditions, and access regulations in rivers and associated environments to enable and sustain recreational activities and other nature‑based sports\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImprovement in local socioeconomy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.1.1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(C): Using the environment for sport and recreation; using nature to help stay fit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndirect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePromotion and support of nature‑based recreational activities (e.g. angling, walking, kayaking, wildlife observation) linked to healthy river and riparian ecosystems, generating socio‑economic benefits for local communities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReduction of hydropeaking generated by turbines\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.2.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(R): Controlling the peaks in river levels; mitigating flood waves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdjustment of hydropower turbine operation regimes (e.g. ramping rate control, minimum flow releases, and flow smoothing measures) to reduce rapid artificial fluctuations in river discharge caused by hydropeaking\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlood protection\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.2.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(R): Controlling the peaks in river levels; mitigating flood waves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eManagement of the river\u0026rsquo;s ecological flow regime to attenuate peak discharges and reduce flood wave intensity, while maintaining suitable hydrological conditions in downstream areas such as the Cavez fishing zone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImprovement in the trophic chain\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1.6.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(P): Food from wild animals\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect effects on improving lower trophic levels (ichthyofauna, macroinvertebrates, flora), which can enhance feeding habitats for species associated with the reservoir (mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and other fish)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImprovement in fauna populations associated with the river\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2.2.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(P): Wild animals that we can use for breeding\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConservation and recovery of river‑associated fauna through habitat restoration and controlled breeding programs, supporting population reinforcement of key species such as brown trout (\u003cem\u003eSalmo trutta\u003c/em\u003e), freshwater pearl mussel (\u003cem\u003eMargaritifera margaritifera\u003c/em\u003e), and Pyrenean desman (\u003cem\u003eGalemys pyrenaicus\u003c/em\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImprovement in populations of protected flora species\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2.1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(P): Seed collection\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndirect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContinuation and consolidation of compensatory measures associated with the reservoir aimed at improving populations of protected and sensitive flora species in the surrounding area\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExisting compensatory actions:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-Support the regeneration and conservation of protected plant species such as \u003cem\u003eNarcissus triandrus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eNarcissus bulbocodium bulbocodium.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-Improve habitat conditions for additional species of conservation interest, including \u003cem\u003eArnica montana\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eDrosera rotundifolia\u003c/em\u003e, present in the project\u0026rsquo;s surroundings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-Preserve seed banks and reproductive material through habitat stability and appropriate management practices\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStability of river margins\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.3.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(R): Stopping landslides and avalanches harming people\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndirect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRestoration and enhancement of riparian habitats along riverbanks (e.g. native trees, shrubs, grasses, and root‑rich vegetation) to stabilise river margins and reduce erosion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eErosion prevention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(R): Controlling or preventing soil or sediment loss by running water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImplementation of ecological flow regimes (environmental flows) in river management to regulate water volumes and velocities, preventing excessive erosion of riverbeds and banks\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDrinking water supply\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.1.1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(P): Drinking water from sources at the ground surface\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtection and sustainable management of surface water bodies (e.g. lakes, reservoirs, and river sections) used for drinking water abstraction, through the establishment of safeguarded intake zones and upstream catchment management\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReduction of thermal stratification in Albufera de Daivoes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.2.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(R): Ecosystems controlling river and lake levels during normal conditions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndirect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImplementation and restoration of aquatic and riparian vegetation belts in the Albufera de Daiv\u0026otilde;es (e.g., submerged macrophytes and strips of emergent marsh vegetation along the banks) to reduce thermal stratification of the water body\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl of Invasive Species\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3.3.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(R): Controlling pests and invasive species\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndirect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOngoing implementation of compensatory and management measures associated with the reservoir to limit the establishment and spread of invasive species in aquatic and riparian ecosystems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImprovement in Habitats of Community Interest around the reservoir\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2.1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(P): Genetic material from wild plants. fungi or algae that we can use\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndirect / remain neutral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaintenance, monitoring, and optimisation of compensatory measures already implemented around the reservoir, aimed at improving and conserving Habitats of Community Interest and associated flora and fauna communities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch/Scientific knowledge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2.1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(C): Researching nature\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUse of the reservoir and technological improvement such as a research and innovation platform, promoting scientific studies and technological development related to aquatic ecosystems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperience in the natural environment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(C): Watching plants and animals where they live; using nature to destress\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndirect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRestoration and enhancement of riparian habitats, combined with the creation of permanent ponds for fauna, to improve opportunities for people to experience nature through observation, recreation, and psychological restoration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImprovement in aquatic ecosystems: Creation of permanent ponds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2.1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(P): Genetic material from wild plants. fungi or algae that we can use\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(C): Using the environment for sport and recreation; using nature to help stay fit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndirect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCreation and maintenance of permanent ponds as compensatory measures, designed to enhance aquatic ecosystems and provide multifunctional environmental benefits.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe permanent ponds:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-Create specific habitats for herpetofauna, dragonflies, macroinvertebrates, and aquatic plants\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-Provide stable areas for breeding, feeding, and refuge, supporting population persistence\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e-Increase the ecological complexity and attractiveness of the landscape\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImprovement in visual impact\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2.1.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(C): The beauty of nature\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndirect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLandscape improvement in synergy with enhancements to riparian habitats\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe local context provides multiple opportunities to feed in the ESS supply-demand relationship. For instance, water supply that is committed to Vilapouca de Aguiar population (Gouvaes abstraction) stands out as a service dependent on hydrological stability and the quality of the available resource. Beyond the value of drinking water as a public, basic good, one of the most demanded services in Daiv\u0026otilde;es is the potential for recreational fishing. The Cavez fishing track restoration has been required by both authorities and the local community, and significant investments have been delivered to date. Its functionality and quality depend on hydrological and biological conditions to be compatible with the ecological requirements of the target ichthyofauna species. Reducing hydropeaking is considered a key coping factor, as it softens abrupt flow fluctuations and helps create a more stable hydrological regime and subsequent ecological relationships that contribute to fish sheltering and feeding, as recovery of lower trophic levels, including macroinvertebrates and aquatic plant communities. These components are fundamental for stabilizing higher trophic levels, not only ichthyofauna but mammals and birds too, which in turn improves the potential to experience the landscape and to create the sense of place for local community.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssociated local businesses \u0026ndash;fishing materials, licenses, accommodation, restaurants, nature tourism, etc.- might encounter increased opportunities on the long term. These effects are not only limited to the restoration of the Cavez fishing track, but the whole T\u0026acirc;mega system riverine habitats and area of influence, including the peninsula located at the Daiv\u0026otilde;es reservoir (Senra village). According to the information reviewed and the local experts\u0026rsquo; confirmation, the area is already full of hiking tracks and cultural heritage assets -religious architecture- which restoration is in some way included as part of the socioeconomic and compensatory actions required by authorities for the T\u0026acirc;mega system.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe identified effects of SHERPA innovation on ESS, particularly those related to habitat quality and biodiversity enhancement, would help improve the scenario where all these compensatory measures are being implemented (flora and fauna conservation spots) that will encounter a more stable and resilient habitat. RECAPE empathizes with the need for riverbank stabilization. According to the site visit observations, it is especially important in areas where variations in e-flow and hydropeaking pulses could trigger erosion, leading to habitat loss and risks to associated infrastructure. In fact, some landslides were seen at river margins and slopes. The improvement of habitat maturity, including soil stabilization, driven by reduced hydropeaking and increased oxygenation at the turbine area and downstream, would contribute naturally with engineering efforts of erosion control.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eResults presented within this study allow to understand the direction and relevance of the changes in ESS supply that the implementation of SHERPA innovation in hydropower turbines and operation can bring.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA thorough review of existing knowledge on the interlinkages of HPPs and ESS in complex adaptive socio-ecological systems is presented. A further expert multidisciplinary evaluation of what will be the consequences of technological changes on physico-chemical, biological and hydromorphological parameters, helped focusing upcoming assessment efforts throughout the SHERPA progress.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe increased oxygenation is generated at the turbine, and thus a distance effect shall be accounted for. The concept of distance decay of value (or spatial discounting of value) is useful for interpreting the spatial distribution of these benefits. When there is a separation between where services are generated and where their benefits are perceived, they tend to be undervalued (Khan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Yamaguchi \u0026amp; Shah \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Choi \u0026amp; Ready \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Applied to hydropower systems, this approach suggests that improvements such as increased oxygenation or flow regulation may have diminishing effects downstream, both in biophysical terms and in their social valuation, reinforcing the idea that their benefits are spatially limited.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to the literature review, there are no significant knowledge gaps in the existence of these featured relationships. However, scientific evidence on valuing or measuring the ultimate benefits is heterogenous (Zini et al. 2025). Identifying changes requires addressing what happens on different spatial and temporal scales, particularly working with ecosystems that behave in a non-linear way and when there might be a distance decay of the value of these ESS that are expected to change. Small changes may lead to large-scale impacts, while larger changes may drive small-scale impacts (Costanza et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). The theoretical approach undertaken at this point suggests that SHERPA innovation will produce mixed effects: small changes with larger impacts in the case of increased oxygenation of water, but large changes with more localized impacts in the case of reduced hydropeaking. This hypothesis will be the starting point of next steps to take in SHERPA assessment, including sampling on the ground and modelling inputs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeyond changes on the ESS supply, the assessment has also incorporated the demand side of ESS, the strongest way to evaluate the societal benefits that are going to be influenced by SHERPA. The pilot case study -T\u0026acirc;mega system, PT- has been confirmed as an adequate and representative scenario for further replication, given the scale and scope of socioeconomic and compensatory ecological measures undertaken with the HPPs development. Identifying potential benefits that evolving ecosystems would provide to the local community and underlying ecosystem functionality and processes has resulted in a set of ESS to be further evaluated, ranging from an improved access to drinking water, the restoration of the Cavez fishing track, landscape improvement and increased recreational opportunities with associated socioeconomic upliftment and community cohesion, as well as flood risk reduction, erosion control and resilience of the area of influence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResults show that technological improvements in the electro-production system, and consequently the enhancement of the structure of the biological community in the surrounding area, the ecosystem functions and the flow of services, would also contribute to gain knowledge and experience not only in HPPs management but also in ecological and socioeconomic management, working synergistically towards the same direction. This improvement is reflected in a stronger relationship with stakeholders, who may perceive greater coherence between management decisions in the surrounding area and the reservoir, as well as with conservation objectives and the associated socio-economic benefits. This creates opportunities to enforce stakeholder engagement and, again, community cohesion and sense of place (Kyle \u0026amp; Chick \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn underlying reflection that comes up from this study is that there is a window of opportunity to integrate natural capital assessments into technological improvements in reservoir management and turbine operation, seeking ecological conservation objectives compatible with efficiency and competitiveness ones, ensuring present and future benefits to society associated with an improved operation of HPPs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eThe way forward\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEcosystem-based management refers to any management or policy options intended to restore, enhance and/or protect the resilience of an ecosystem. Described by MEA (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), EBM is \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003ean approach to maintaining or restoring the composition, structure, function, and delivery of services of natural and modified ecosystems for the goal of achieving sustainability. It is based on an adaptive, collaboratively developed vision of desired future conditions that integrates ecological, socioeconomic and institutional perspectives, applied within a geographic framework and defined primarily by natural ecological boundaries\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to the theoretical approach presented in this paper, incorporating SHERPA innovations to HPPs performance might be seen as a new and additional measure of EBM, led by the HPP operators in coalition with environmental authorities: flexible operation of HPPs could contribute to resiliency of ecosystems, ESS provision and, therefore, societal benefits. The theoretical exercise provided with this paper will be ground-proofed via field work and real-data capture, as well as stakeholder engagement for a new broader validation of the results.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough this exercise has been prepared for the T\u0026acirc;mega system, the pilot is considered representative enough to help addressing other geographical scenarios across the EU: the watershed is located at the Mediterranean-Eurosiberian boundary and transition area; the scale and scope of socioeconomic and compensatory ecological measures undertaken at T\u0026acirc;mega are ultimately responding to the European regulation on environmental impact assessment (e.g. Directive 2011/92/UE and their transposing national regulations to all Member States of the EU).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAL reviewed the analysis and wrote the manuscript; JO contributed with the literature review, analysis and drafted the manuscript; MC contributed with the literature review and drafted the manuscript; MAR wrote the manuscript and reviewed the final version\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe thank Diego Castej\u0026oacute;n (Iberdrola) for his willingness to provide documentation and to organize the workshop. 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Aquatic Sciences, 77(1), 161\u0026ndash;170.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-management","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"emvm","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Management](http://link.springer.com/journal/267)","snPcode":"267","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/267/3","title":"Environmental Management","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Dissolved oxygen, ecosystem services, hydropeaking, hydropower, SHERPA, societal systems","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9579570/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9579570/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study aims to understand the relationship between the environmental and the societal systems around operating hydropower plants and, specifically, when the SHERPA Project technological innovations are incorporated: coatings, adapted rotational speed, advanced air injection and new runner designs. 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