Evidence of selective tectonic inversion in salt bearing basins inferred from integrated interpretation of gravity and 2D seismic data (Northeastern Tunisia)

Evidence of selective tectonic inversion in salt bearing basins inferred from integrated interpretation of gravity and 2D seismic data (Northeastern Tunisia) | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Evidence of selective tectonic inversion in salt bearing basins inferred from integrated interpretation of gravity and 2D seismic data (Northeastern Tunisia) Haifa Boussiga, Adnen Amiri, Kawthar Sebei, Oussama Abidi, Marwa Ghalgaoui, and 4 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8502621/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study discusses how tectonic inversion selectively reactivated former extensional structures within the salt bearing basins of northeastern Tunisia. Our approach is based on an integrated interpretation of gravity data and regional 2D seismic profiles. The geological history of the area distinguishes two main tectonic phases: an initial period of predominant Mesozoic extension, followed by a prominent compressional regime that has persisted since the end of Cretaceous, in response to the convergence of African and Eurasian plates. As a result, five distinct episodes of tectonic inversion have been highlighted: Santonian, Late Maastrichtian-Early Paleocene, Upper Lutetian, Burdigalian-Langhian, and Upper Tortonian-Pliocene times. As a consequence, positive inversion reactivated Mesozoic rift basins, generating faulted folds, salt cored folds, and inverted grabens. Indeed, reactivation of pre-existing normal faults was spatially selective, during Cenozoic compression. In fact, the majority of the reactivated faults are located in the northwestern part of the area, and trend predominately N-S to NE-SW, orthogonal to the NW-SE-oriented compressional stress field, established since the Santonian. Therefore, among the triggering factors controlling fault reactivation, the orientation of faults relative to maximum principal paleostress and its magnitude seems to play a key role in tectonic inversion. However, closely space and similar discontinuities can react differently to tectonic inversion, probably due to variations in fault properties such as cohesion and coefficient of friction. Additionally, faults properties like permeability and healing processes must also been taken into account to improve predictions of hydrocarbon prospectivity. compression tectonic inversion differential reactivation fault kinematics petroleum prospectivity Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 1. Introduction The geometry of Inherited structures strongly influences the development of tectonic edifices during inversion (Dooley and Hudec 2020 ; kim et al. 2023 ). This influence is especially pronounced in regions affected by multiple and successive compressional phases, inducing complex and variable tectonically inverted basins (Donath and Cranwell 1981; Etheridge 1986 ; Shinn 2015 ; Dooley and Hudec 2020 ; kim et al. 2023 ). Structural complexity is particularly enhanced when a detachment level that decouples a rigid faulted basement from a deformable suprasalt cover (Alsop et al. 1996 ; Davison et al. 2000a ; Davison et al. 2000b ; Dos Reis et al. 2008 ; Dooley and Hudec 2020 ; Mianaekere and Adam 2020 ; Verges et al. 2020; Zhang and Alves 2023 ). Williams et al. ( 1989 ) demonstrated that inversion initiates when a pre-existing normal fault is tectonically reactivated under compression, resulting in a net contraction with growing fault related fold in the upper part of structural levels, while a net extension persists at depth. When shortening progressive, a complete reverse reactivation of the fault system can occur (Bonini et al. 2012 ). Commonly, reactivation of early normal faults during subsequent periods of shortening is governed by several factors including fault cohesion, coefficient of friction, orientation with respect to the main stress field and magnitudes of the principal stresses (Sibson 1985 ; Donath and Cranwell 1981; Etheridge 1986 ; buck and Lavier 2001; Rutter et al. 2001 ; Shinn 2015 ; Xu et al. 2018; Ruh and Vergès 2018; Ruh 2019 ). The potential for reactivation of a pre-inversion fault depends on the nature of the fault system (Etheridge 1986 ). It seems that the variations in the dip angle of the former fault plane influence both the style and distribution of the internal deformation during inversion (buck and Lavier 2001; Shinn 2015 ). Indeed, inversion of earlier normal faults results in shortening of the hanging-wall sequences, leading to the generation of new reverse faults and associated fault-related folds (Shinn 2015 ). Furthermore, the relationship between strain and strain-rate weakening plays a key role in the formation of rift structures and their subsequent tectonic inversion and growth (Ruh 2019 ). Therefore, tectonic inversion processes seem to be commonly localized along major bordering fault, regardless to the specific nature of crustal weakening (Ruh 2019 ). In seismic data, interpretation of fault surfaces consists on drawing breaks with offset of stratal reflectors. The continuity of the fault plane is established up-dip along seismic sections, on the basis of the recognition of seismic discontinuities and stratal terminations. Mainly, the application of calculated seismic attributes strongly enhances the delineation of seismic features. Especially, pseudo relief and cosine of phase attributes effectively outline the seismic expression of existing fault systems. The solid interpretation of fault systems in 2D seismic data requires a comprehensive understanding of the main structural events that have affected the area. In addition, high angle fractures often display chaotic seismic configuration due the complex seismic response of truncated geologic bodies whose size may be equal or smaller to the dominant signal wavelength. When salt exists, interpretation becomes more challenging delicate to decipher as chaotic configuration may result from halokinetic processes or from zones of intense fracturing. Hence, uncertainties in fault interpretation depend on data repeatability, measurement obliquity, and the nature of fault cut-off, all of which can lead to large differences in estimated throw, slip-rate and fault length (Andrews et al. 2024 ). Besides, vertical and lateral seismic resolution also represent a crucial factor in the accurate identification of fault surfaces. In salt-bearing basins, fault interpretation is further complicated in the vicinity of salt bodies, where chaotic seismic facies obscure structural relationships. Subsequently, divergent interpretations commonly arise depending on the quality of seismic imaging quality and the structural complexity of the area. Therefore, thorough understanding of the regional structural setting of the area is essential to constrain realistic fault geometries. Recent studies have integrated seismic and gravity data to provide complementary information for the complex structural architecture of the subsurface (Senchina et al. 2023 ). Finally, we point out that successive reactivation of faults orders evolvement of fault-related structures, thereby influences hydrocarbon migration along major discontinuities as well as on the formation, preservation and possible reactivation of oil traps conservation during successive deformation events. 2. Structural setting The convergence of the Africa and Eurasian plates transformed Tethyan basins from a predominately transtensional tectonic regime during the Mesozoic to a transpressional dominated tectonic style since the end of Cretaceous (Rosenbaum et al. 2002 ; Guiraud et al. 2005 , Muller et al. 2018; Van Hinsbergen et al. 2020 ; Fig. 1). This large-scale geodynamic event inverted pre-extensional structures and caused folding, thrusting, and uplift since the Santonian (Rosenbaum et al. 2002 ; Guiraud et al. 2005 ). Consequently, successive deformation phases have induced in complex geological structures in Tunisian domains, particularly along major strike-slip fault zones (Zargouni 1985 ; Ben Ayed 1986 ; Touati 1985 ; Bédir et al. 1992; Bédir 1995). The study area extends eastwards from the "North-South Axis" zone (Burollet 1956 , 1973 ) towards the Sahel domain (Fig. 2). It is delimited by the “Tunisian Dorsale”, the Cap Bon peninsula to the north, the Atlas Mountains of Central Tunisia to the west, and the Pelagian block to the east (Fig. 2). Previous studies have delineated complex geological structures in subsurface associated to main fault corridors (Haller 1983 ; Touati 1985 ; Bedir 1995 , Boussiga et al. 2003 ; Boussiga et al. 2005 ; Boussiga 2008 ; Fig. 2). Boussiga ( 2008 ) and Belkhiria et al. ( 2017 ) suggested a thick-skinned tectonic inversion affecting former extensional structures in the Sahel; formed essentially on the tip of high angle discontinuities cutting through the Paleozoic basement. Moreover, Triassic evaporites are believed to have strongly influenced in localizing tectonic deformation within the overburden, evolving complex structural architectures (Haller 1983 ; Touati 1985 ; Bedir 1995 , Boussiga et al. 2003 ; Boussiga et al. 2005 ; Boussiga 2008 ). Accordingly, the regional tectonic history can be subdivided in two main tectonic phases: (1) a predominant extension from the Triassic to the Santonian age, followed by (2) a major compression that has prevailed since the end of the Cretaceous (Fig. 3). Dominantly transtensional tectonic regimes affected the Tunisian domains from the Triassic to the Late Cretaceous (Cohen et al. 1980 ; Zargouni 1985 ; Ben Ayed 1986 ; Bouaziz et al. 2002 ; Fig. 2), in response to the opening of the Atlantic Ocean (Biju-Duval et al. 1978 ; Guiraud and Maurin 1992 ; Guiraud et al. 1992 ). Two major rifting episodes during Late Triassic and Jurassic (Fig. 3), generated a system of grabens and half-grabens bounded by active E-W, N-S, and NW-SE trending major normal faults (Ben Ayed 1986 ; Bouaziz et al. 2002 ). These rift structures controlled the deposition of the Jurassic to Late Cretaceous sediments (Bédir 1995; Ben Ayed 1986 ; Bouaziz et al. 2002 ). By the end of the Cretaceous, two main extensional periods were recorded throughout the Tethyan domain, during the Cenomanian, Coniacian, and Santonian intervals (Guiraud et al. 1992 ), characterized by ENE-WSW and NE-SW fault orientations (Haller 1983 ; Bédir 1995; Bouaziz et al. 2002 ; Fig. 3). Subsequently, an extensional phase during the Campanian-Early Maastrichtian, directed E-W to WNW-ESE (Fig. 3), led to the formation of elongated NW-SE to NNW-SSE basins, exhibiting remarkable subsidence rates within the Sahel platform and the Pelagian block (Ellouze 1984 ; Patriat et al. 2003 ). All of this reflects the result the dominant transtensive motions between the Africa and the European plates throughout the Mesozoic (Biju-Duval et al. 1978 ; Guiraud and Maurin 1992 ; Guiraud et al. 1992 ). However, the tectonic regime during the Aptian remains debated. Some authors interpret this interval as phase of continued transtension (Martinez et al. 1991 ), whereas others suggest a short-term tranpressional episode (Guiraud and Bosworth 1997 ; Bouaziz et al. 2002 ; Fig. 3). The change from a divergent to a convergent tectonic motion between the African and the Eurasian plates began during the Santonian (Biju-Duval et al. 1978 ; Guiraud et al. 2005 ; Cohen et al. 1980 ; Ben Ayed 1986 ; Bédir 1995; Bouaziz et al. 2002 ; Frizon de Lamotte et al. 2011 ). During this phase, ancient major faults were reactivated in reverse, deforming previous mesozoic extensional structures (Bouaziz et al. 2002 ; Guiraud et al. 2005 ; Frizon de Lamotte et al. 2011 ). This inversion generated growth folds, local unconformities, and thrusts in several areas including the Sahel domain (Bedir 1995 ; Boussiga et al. 2003 ; Boussiga et al. 2005 ; Boussiga 2008 ), the Pelagian block (Sebei et al. 2007 ; Abidi et al. 2016 , 2018 ; Sebei et al. 2019 ), deeper mediterranean basins such as the Ionian sea and adjacent ridges (Gallais et al. 2011 ; Tugend et al. 2019 ), the Sicily channel (Cavallaro et al. 2016 ) and the Lampedusa shelf (Torelli et al. 1995 ; Tavernelli et al. 2004 ). However, no evidence of the Santonian tectonic inversion (Guiraud and Bosworth 1997 ; Guiraud et al. 2005 ) was found in the region. It seems that the Sahel area was sheltered at that time by basins or stable platforms to the north. Later, during the Late Maastrichtian-Early Paleocene, a significant NW-SE to NNW-SSE compressional event deformed former cretaceous extensive edifices, generating folding and local gaps (Biju-Duval et al. 1978 ; Boussiga et al. 2003 : Boussiga 2008 ; Abidi et al. 2016 , 2018 ; Sebei et al. 2019 ). This compressional event was followed by a relaxation/extensional tectonic period during the Paleocene-Early Eocene, characterized by a NE-SW extensional stress field, causing the development of widespread platforms, grabens, and half-graben (Guiraud and Bosworth 1997 ; Bouaziz et al. 2002 ; Boussiga et al. 2003 ; Sebei et al. 2007 ). Subsequently, regional compression affected the Mediterranean basins during the Late Lutetian (Castany 1952 ; Biju-Duval et al. 1978 ; Letouzey 1986 ; Guiraud et al. 2005 ; Frizon de Lamotte et al. 2011 ; Tugend et al. 2019 ). This transpressional phase rejuvenated major tectonic edifices, generating box-folding, thrusts, and noticeable lateral and vertical disparities in Eocene lithofacies and thicknesses (Burollet 1996 ; Alouani et al. 1996 ; Boussiga et al. 2003 ; Boussiga 2008 ; Abidi et al. 2021 ). It likely corresponds to the "Pyrenean-Atlassic phase", recognized within the northwestern Atlassic belt and the Western European basins (Castany 1952 ; Boussiga et al. 2003 ; Guiraud et al. 2005 ; Frizon de Lamotte et al. 2011 ). During the Oligocene-Aquitanian interval, a transtensional regime existed, resulting in major NW-SE-directed grabens and troughs, bounded by regional faults that cross the Sahel and Pelagian domains (Wildi 1983 ; Ellouze 1984 ; Bédir 1995; Chihi 1995 ; Patriat et al. 2003 ). A subsequent compressional phase, directed NW–SE, developed during the Burdigalian–Langhian (Castany 1952 ; Crampon 1973 ; Bellon 1976 ; Wildi 1983 ), reactivating faults and inducing folding and thrusting within the Eastern Maghrebides and, to a lesser degree, the Atlassic provinces (Castany 1952 ). Finally, a widespread compressional regime, recognized during the Upper Tortonian–Pliocene, affected the North–South Axis, the Saharan Platform, and the Northeastern Atlas, leading to cumulative basin deformation (Castany 1952 ; Haller 1983 ; Ben Ayed 1986 ; Bédir et al. 1992, 1995, 1996; Bouaziz et al. 2002 ; Boussiga 2008 ). 3. Lithostratigraphy The Sahel region constitutes a broad coastal plain characterized by relatively low-relief Mio–Pliocene outcrops (< 200 m in elevation), interspersed with continental sabkhas (e.g., Sidi El Hani, Kelbia, Ennijila; Fig. 2) and coastal lagoons such as Halk El Menjel (Fig. 2). The modest relief in the area reflects successive Cenozoic to Quaternary compressional phases (Castany 1952 ; Ben Ayed 1986 ). The sabkhas are interpreted to have formed along major rhombohedral fault systems active during the Tyrrhenian (Ben Ayed 1986 ; Amari and Bédir 1989), following the development of a prominent fossil beach ridge that isolated them from the open sea (Brahim 2015 ). Late Miocene to Quaternary deposits blanket most of the area, except for a narrow north–south-trending structural high (46 m in elevation), known as the Draa Souatir anticline, which exposes Oligocene–Early Miocene strata (Figs. 2 and 3). The lithostratigraphic framework of the study area is compiled from published descriptions of outcrops in the Sahel and North–South Axis regions (Castany 1951 ; Burollet 1956 ; Comte et al. 1973 ; Fournié 1978; Van Houten 1981 ; Bishop 1988 ; Blondel 1991 ; Yaïch 1997 ; Rabhi 1999 ), supplemented by data from petroleum exploration wells (Fig. 3). A west–east-oriented lithostratigraphic correlation was constructed to illustrate the vertical and lateral facies variations from Triassic to Quaternary strata (Fig. 3). Within the Sahel region, lithologic details and the identification of major unconformities were constrained through well reports and wireline log interpretations. The resulting lithostratigraphic chart reveals significant vertical and lateral facies variations, major regional unconformities, and frequent stratigraphic gaps. Each unconformity marks a shift in tectonic regime or stress orientation, which may coincide with, or differ from, global sea-level fluctuations since the Triassic. In the N–S Axis zone, Triassic outcrops comprise a sedimentary succession ranging from the Ladinian to the Rhaetian stages. These deposits consist predominantly of siliciclastic facies, dolomites, and evaporitic intervals (Courel et al. 2003 ). The deepest petroleum exploration wells that penetrate Triassic strata are situated in the vicinity of the N–S Axis (P8 and P12; Fig. 2). In the P12 well, the Triassic sequence attains a thickness of 1145 m and consists of alternating evaporites and saliferous shales, with a middle member of highly radioactive dolomites. Core and cutting descriptions indicate that these Triassic units are overlain by Jurassic dolomites of the Nara Formation (Burollet 1956 ) in the P12 well (Fig. 3), or occur unconformably beneath Early or Late Cretaceous marine deposits (e.g., well P21; Fig. 2). It is overlain by the Sidi Khalif Formation (Uppermost Jurassic–Berriasian–Valanginian), identified in the P12 well. This unit comprises bioclastic marls with subordinate limestone interbeds. Above in the stratigraphic succession, deposits of Hauterivian to Albian age are absent (Fig. 3). Farther north, several wells (P1, P9, and P19; Fig. 2) intersect the Aptian Serj Formation, composed mainly of hard, non-fossiliferous dolomites with thin intercalations of anhydrite, limestone, shale, and sandstone (Fig. 3). The overlying Fahdene Formation (Albian–Cenomanian) comprises organic-rich shales that represent the principal mature source rock in the area, together with the shaly limestones of the Turonian Bahloul Formation. The Aleg Formation (Upper Turonian–Santonian) is composed of thick marls that locally include volcanic interbeds and two distinct carbonate members: the Bireno (Turonian) and the Douleb (Coniacian) members. The Abiod Formation (Campanian to Early Maastrichtian) comprises two chalky intervals separated by a marly horizon (Burolle 1956). In the P9 well, an erosional surface is observed at the top of the unit, associated with bioturbation structures, calcite recrystallization, and numerous burrows and tracks. Locally, Upper Eocene marls unconformably overlie the upper limestone member of the Abiod Formation, as documented in the P9 well (Fig. 2). The overlying El Haria Formation (Upper Maastrichtian to Paleocene; Burollet1956) consists mainly of thick successions of marls and shales with thin interbeds of bedded carbonates containing planktonic microfauna. A regional hiatus is recorded, spanning from the Late Maastrichtian to the Early Thanetian (El Karoui-Yaakoub 1999 ), where Thanetian deposits unconformably overlie Upper Maastrichtian limestones. Additional Selandian-age hiatuses have been identified locally in the Gulf of Hammamet (Abidi et al. 2016 , 2018 ). The Boudabbous Formation (Ypresian) is composed of Globigerinid limestones deposited in the northeastern part of the study area. South-westwards, it laterally interfingers with the El Garia Formation, which consists of Nummulitic buildups. Both formations thin and pinch out around local palaeohighs and structural uplifts (Figs. 8, 9, 10). The Souar Formation (Late Eocene) comprises thick marls that, in the western part of the study area, grade laterally into the Cherahil Formation, characterized by clay-rich deposits and Ostrea- and Echinoid-bearing limestones (P12 well). In places, both formations contain a middle interval of Nummulitic limestone known as the Reineche Member. Within the Fortuna–Ketatna–Salammbô Group (Oligocene–Early Miocene), the Fortuna Formation consists of clayey mudstones and fine- to coarse-grained sandstones that cover much of the study area. Towards the shelf (e.g., P19 well) and further offshore within the Pelagian Block (Sebei et al. 2007 ), this formation grades laterally into the Ketatna Formation, which is composed of limestone and dolomitic beds. The Ketatna Formation, in turn, transitions into the Salammbô Formation, made up of pelagic shales and pelites within the deeper Pelagian Block (Sebei et al. 2007 ). The Aïn Grab Formation (Langhian) consists of transgressive carbonates rich in planktonic foraminifera, corals, echinoids, and pectinids. These sediments broadly drape earlier antiforms and rim synclines and grabens, particularly across northeastern Tunisia (Ben Ismail-Latrache 1981 ; Blondel 1991 ). The formation provides a key stratigraphic marker, clearly recognizable in most seismic profiles within the area (Figs. 8–10), and locally onlaps palaeohighs (Fig. 12). In several wells, the Aïn Grab Formation unconformably overlies marls of the Souar or Cherahil formations and/or the detrital deposits of the Fortuna Formation, marking a regionally significant transgressive event (Figs. 3, 12). The overlying Oum Dhouil Group (Burollet 1956 ; Ben Ismail-Latrache 1981 ; Bismuth 1994 ; Biely et al. 1972 ; Blondel 1991 ; Tayech-Mannai 2009 ) comprises three formations: (i) the Mahmoud Formation (Upper Langhian), consisting of clays with minor sandstone intercalations; (ii) the Beglia Formation (Serravallian), composed of alternating clay and cross-bedded sand layers; and (iii) the Saouaf Formation (Upper Serravallian–Tortonian), consisting of interbedded marls, sandstones, and limestones. Finally, the continental deposits of the Segui Formation (Pliocene to Quaternary) unconformably overlie the older sequences with substantial cumulative thicknesses (Burollet 1956 ; Figs. 7–9). 4. Methods and Data This study integrates the interpretation of regional gravity data with 2D seismic reflection profiles to investigate subsurface structures and tectonic inversion patterns in the study area. Gravity data were compiled from regional Bouguer anomaly maps published in earlier studies (Midassi 1982 ; Belkhiria et al. 2017 ). Standard Euler deconvolution was performed using Geosoft software to estimate the location, trend, and depth of the principal fault systems affecting the area. Euler deconvolution is a semi-automatic technique based on the Euler homogeneity equation, used to delineate the geometry and depth of buried geological sources (Thompson 1982 ; Reid et al. 1990 ; FitzGerald et al. 2003 ; Strarev and Reid 2010 ). Each source is characterized by a specific structural index (SI) value, representing the rate of change in the potential field with respect to source location. For gravity data, SI values typically range from 0 to 2. Previous studies have shown that an SI value of 0 is most appropriate for highlighting fault contacts (Thompson 1982 ; Reid et al. 1990 , 2003 ; Ferreira de Melo and Ferreira Barbosa 2017 ). The method’s vertical resolution is limited by the sampling interval of the input data (1 × 1 km). In this study, an analysis window size of 8 and a tolerance of 20 were selected. The results provide a first-order estimation of major structural discontinuities across the study area. The seismic dataset consists of 2D multichannel, time-migrated reflection profiles acquired across the Sahel region. The seismic resolution is sufficient to identify key horizons and characterize distinct seismic facies. Available check-shot data (time–depth relationships) from petroleum wells were used to calibrate the seismic sections and improve the accuracy of horizon picking (Inoubli et al. 1990 ). Lithostratigraphic information from well logs (Gamma Ray and Sonic), cores, and outcrop observations, together with well-to-well correlations, were used to build a detailed lithostratigraphic framework. This framework was then correlated with regional tectonic phases, major unconformities, and principal petroleum systems in the surrounding areas. Seismic stratigraphic analysis was conducted to define reflection terminations (onlap, toplap, downlap, and truncation) and to interpret depositional geometries (Taner et al. 1979 ). Several post-stack seismic attributes—reflection strength, cosine of instantaneous phase, and pseudo-relief—were generated using SMT Kingdom Suite software. The envelope attribute (reflection strength) is particularly effective in delineating discontinuities, lithological variations, faults, hydrocarbon indicators, and sequence boundaries (Taner et al. 1979 ; Subrahmanyam and Rao 2008 ). The seismic trace and its Hilbert transform independently define reflection strength and instantaneous phase. The latter provides a reliable indicator of lateral bed continuity and stratigraphic boundaries. The cosine of instantaneous phase, being smoother than the raw phase, enhances the visualization of faults and subtle lateral variations (Subrahmanyam and Rao 2008 ). Additionally, the pseudo-relief attribute was applied, which combines RMS amplitude and the inverse Hilbert transform (Chopra and Marfurt 2007 , 2008 , 2011 ). This attribute produces a topography-like seismic image that enhances correlation between seismic and geological data. It also increases low-frequency spectral content and smooths spectral notches, improving the detection of subtle structures such as fault zones, high-amplitude reflectors near salt bodies, and stratigraphic pinch-outs (Chopra and Marfurt 2007 , 2008 ; Barnes et al. 2011; Lima et al. 2018). In this study, a window size of M = 1—corresponding to a half-cycle of the input waveform—was used for attribute computation. To quantify the degree of tectonic inversion, the inversion ratio (Ri) was calculated following the approach of Williams (1989) and Williams et al. (1993). Ri expresses the ratio between contractional and extensional displacements along an inverted fault, measured relative to the null point—the position along the fault that separates the extensional and contractional segments. R i = d c /d h = 1-(d e /d h ) (Eq. 1) where dh is the total syn-rift interval thickness parallel to the fault, dc the thickness of syn-rift strata above the null point (in contraction), and de the thickness below it (in extension). When Ri exceeds 1, the fault has undergone total inversion; the additional contractional displacement ( dex ) represents the excess movement beyond complete inversion. The total inversion ratio (Rt) is then calculated as (Bonini et al. 2012 ): R t = d c /d h = (d h + d ex )/d h (Eq. 2). 5. Seismic interpretation of tectonically Inverted structures Seismic interpretation reveals several inverted structural styles, including fault-related folds, salt-cored folds, and inverted grabens. 5.1. Fault-Related Folds These structures are bounded by steeply dipping, planar faults trending N–S to NNE–SSW (Fig. 5). Originally normal faults active during Mesozoic extension, they were subsequently reactivated in reverse during Cenozoic compressional phases, forming fault-related folds (Figs. 5–6, 13–14). Progressive compressional deformation resulted in cumulative folding and uplift, often accompanied by erosion at fold crests. An early reactivation phase during the Late Cretaceous produced initial folding at fault tips, resulting in growth folds that record syntectonic sedimentation and the timing of shortening (Figs. 6, 14). Subsequent compressional episodes during the Upper Lutetian, Burdigalian–Langhian, and Upper Tortonian–Pliocene further amplified folding and uplift, generating piggyback basins that accumulated thick Upper Miocene to Quaternary sediments (Figs. 6, 14). 5.2. Salt-Cored Folds Salt-cored folds are symmetric to asymmetric antiforms of variable geometry, amplitude, and wavelength (Boussiga 2008 ; Figs. 7, 10). These NE–SW to E–W trending anticlines are bounded by reverse and en echelon faults. They correspond to compressional structures formed during successive deformation phases dated Santonian, Upper Maastrichtian–Early Paleocene, Late Eocene, Burdigalian–Langhian, and Tortonian–Pliocene (Fig. 5). In the Sahel region, these folds are associated with deep-seated transcurrent faults that bound tilted Paleozoic basement blocks and facilitated the upward migration of Triassic evaporites (Fig. 7). Repeated compressional events since the Santonian induced salt movement and structural amplification, influencing Paleogene to Neogene sedimentation patterns, as evidenced by lateral thickness variations, facies changes, and local stratigraphic gaps (Figs. 7, 10). Outer-rimming unconformities and roof pinch-outs reflect episodic uplift and erosion. The dominance of salt-cored folds toward the northern part of the area suggests greater crustal shortening in that direction (Boussiga 2008 ). Comparable structures occur in the Pantelleria and Linosa regions (Cavallaro et al. 2016 ) and in buried Aptian strata offshore Mahdia within the Pelagian Block (Ben Brahim et al. 2012 ). 5.3. Inverted Grabens Large E–W to NNE–SSW trending grabens dominate the study area (Fig. 5). These structures formed along the North African margin under transtensional stress regimes active from the Late Triassic to the Late Cretaceous (Bédir et al. 1992; Bédir 1995; Bédir et al. 1996). They are part of the regional extensional system characteristic of the Pelagian domain, which extends toward the Ionian Sea (Letouzey and Trémolières 1980 ; Letouzey 1986 ; Burollet 1996 ; Guiraud et al. 2005 ). Subsequent compressional phases during the Maastrichtian–Paleocene, Late Eocene, Burdigalian–Langhian, and Tortonian–Pliocene reactivated many of these faults, leading to folding, block tilting, and differential subsidence within pre-existing grabens (Figs. 8–9). The resulting depocentres are commonly asymmetric, bounded by high-angle (> 45°) faults that locally developed into fault-related antiforms (Figs. 8–9). Not all border faults were inverted; some retained their normal sense of motion during compression, indicating incomplete inversion (Figs. 5, 9). In several grabens, normal and inverted faults coexist, with inversion localized along major NNE–SSW faults, while E–W structures remained extensional (Figs. 5, 8, 9). In the northwestern portions of seismic profiles (Figs. 8–9), uplifted footwall blocks were eroded and subsequently transgressed by Oligocene–Langhian sediments. These blocks acted as palaeohighs during the Paleocene–Oligocene, hosting onlapping successions affected by renewed faulting during later compression. 6. Fault Framework of the Study Area All the structural features described in Section 5 result from the tectonic reactivation of pre-extensional faults, expressed through various modes of deformation. The tectonically inverted structures correspond to the reactivation of earlier extensional systems that initially developed during the Triassic period as grabens, half-grabens, and tilted fault blocks. These structures were bounded by steeply dipping faults that were reactivated during compressional phases beginning in the Santonian. Our analysis integrates 2D seismic reflection data with gravity data to delineate and classify these subsurface discontinuities and to characterize their evolution through successive tectonic episodes. 6.1. 2D Seismic Interpretation Figure 5 presents a schematic map of the principal faults associated with the major structural features in the study area, inferred from the interpretation of regional 2D seismic profiles (modified from Boussiga, 2008 ). The major discontinuities exhibit multiple orientations—N–S, E–W, NW–SE, and NE–SW. Thrust faults trending N–S, NE–SW, and locally E–W are associated with regional folds oriented mainly NE–SW, E–W, and N–S. These folds are annotated in Fig. 5 according to the timing of their most recent deformation phase. In contrast, several NW–SE and some E–W-trending discontinuities have retained a predominantly normal sense of displacement and were not significantly affected by later compressional inversion. In the eastern part of the study area, the main graben-bounding faults display two distinct segments : E–W-trending extensional faults and NE–SW-oriented thrust faults that underwent compressional reactivation since the Cenozoic (Fig. 5). The orientation of these faults relative to the principal stress directions appears to have played a key role in their reactivation history. The major faults are associated with numerous minor discontinuities that affect the overburden (Figs. 8–10). Improved fault delineation required enhancement of the seismic image ; therefore, seismic attributes such as cosine of phase and pseudo-relief were employed. The pseudo-relief attribute clearly reveals individual fault planes (Fig. 10), especially those cutting the crests of salt-cored folds, where conventional seismic resolution is poor compared to envelope and cosine of phase attributes. Seismic interpretation identifies several isolated fault families (Fig. 10, highlighted in blue, red, green, and yellow), each formed during distinct tectonic episodes. These faults are high-angle en echelon to normal faults with variable displacements. The green-, blue-, and yellow-colored faults show relatively minor offsets, whereas the red-colored fault represents a major structure (also mapped in Fig. 5) that separates two distinct structural blocks (Fig. 10). Superimposed fault families are evident in the overburden. Some represent the continuation of older faults, while others are unrelated to previous structures (Fig. 10). The main interpreted fault sets include: En echelon faults at the crests of the salt-cored folds (SCF1 and SCF2), developed during the Maastrichtian compressional phase, accompanied by minor normal faults responsible for tilting of their respective mini-basins (green-colored faults). A second fault family, cutting folded strata atop both salt-cored folds, generated during the Upper Eocene Pyrenean compressional phase, again associated with normal faults tilting their mini-basins (yellow-colored faults). A third fault family, affecting previously deformed strata on top of SCF1, developed during the late Serravallian compressional stage (blue-colored faults). This structure was subsequently reactivated during the Tortonian and Pliocene compressional phases. In contrast, the corresponding faulted fold above SCF2 was sealed by the Langhian-aged carbonate platform of the Aïn Grab Formation. A pre-existing major normal fault (red-colored) that was reactivated as a reverse fault during the Tortonian to Pliocene, generating a faulted fold above SCF1. The salt-cored fold SCF1 records three major hiatuses related to non-deposition and/or erosion during the Maastrichtian, Paleocene, and Early Eocene. These interruptions suggest active salt movement and surface exposure during these intervals (Fig. 10). 6.2. Gravity Data Interpretation Because seismic resolution decreases with depth and the Triassic salt layer produces a chaotic seismic response, gravity data were integrated to better constrain deep-seated structures, particularly sub-salt faults that penetrate the Paleozoic basement. Bouguer anomaly data compiled from previous studies were used to identify deep discontinuities, especially where seismic imaging is poor due to the attenuating effects of evaporites on seismic wave propagation. Prior gravity investigations in the Sahel region (Dhifi 2002; Gabtni 2005 ; Arfaoui et al. 2015 ; Jallouli & Mickus 2000 ; Belkhiria et al. 2017 ) have delineated major lineaments oriented N–S, E–W, NE–SW, and NW–SE, interpreted as principal structural boundaries. In this study, standard Euler deconvolution was applied to map fault systems and estimate their relative depths (Fig. 11). The results reveal vertically superimposed fault systems, cutting strata at various depths ranging from approximately 2 to 8 km. The computed map shows major discontinuities trending N–S, E–W, and NNE–SSW, with subordinate NW–SE trends, particularly in the easternmost part of the area. These structures display multiple fault contacts at varying depths, grouped into four depth ranges: <2 km, 2–4 km, 4–6 km, and 6–8 km. Considering the presence of a thick Triassic evaporitic interval separating these discontinuities, three main fault orders are distinguished: First-order (deep) faults, extending from 4 to 8 km depth and likely cutting the Paleozoic basement. Intermediate faults, extending between 2 and 4 km, confined mainly above the salt level. Shallow faults, less than 1–2 km deep, developed in the Meso-Cenozoic and Quaternary cover. The Euler deconvolution map indicates that first-order faults are concentrated in the central and eastern parts of the study area, trending predominantly NW–SE, NNW–SSE, and NNE–SSW. These orientations correspond to Late Permian normal faults recognized in southern Tunisia, associated with Permo-Triassic rifting related to NE–SW to NNE–SSW-directed extension (Bishop 1975 ; Ben Ferjani et al. 1990 ; Bouaziz et al. 2002 ). Shallower faults (< 4 km) are mainly distributed in the northern and western parts of the area, corresponding to Atlassic fault-related folds similar to those observed along the N–S axis (Fig. 2). These faults are interpreted as cover faults, generally formed above and rooted in older basement discontinuities. 6.3. Discussion of Seismic and Gravity-Derived Models Seismic and gravity datasets differ in spatial coverage, resolution, and sensitivity to subsurface physical properties and geometries. However, their integration provides complementary insights and reduces interpretational uncertainty. In 2D seismic data, both vertical and lateral resolution decrease with depth, limiting the precision of subsurface imaging. Consequently, geoseismic models derived from these data depend strongly on the seismic image quality. Even when enhanced with seismic attributes, fault delineation remains challenging due to limited vertical resolution and potential confusion with noise or unrelated reflectors in low-quality zones. Closely spaced faults may also appear as single structures because the Fresnel zone width exceeds fault separation, making narrow horsts indistinguishable. Similarly, data coverage and station spacing influence gravity results. In the eastern part of the study area, some faults identified in the seismic interpretation are absent from the Euler deconvolution results, likely due to sparse or irregular gravity coverage. Thus, improved data density would yield more consistent results. Moreover, resolving individual sources in gravity data depends on resolution, coverage, quality, and the depth and geometry of overlapping sources. Therefore, combining seismic and gravity interpretations provides a more robust structural framework than either method alone. 7. Fault Kinematics Within the study area, the tectonic inversion of pre-existing normal faults exhibits several reactivation modes, depending primarily on their throw, dip, and structural position. The degree of inversion varies considerably: some faults display no or only mild reactivation, others show full inversion, and in a few cases, additional displacement has occurred following complete inversion. 7.1. Reactivation Modes of Pre-Extensional Faults 7.1.1. Inversion of Faults Bounding Former Half-Grabens and Tilted Blocks The inversion of earlier half-grabens and tilted blocks led to the development of narrow fault-propagation folds associated with subsidiary sub-basins in both foreland and hinterland settings. These depressions predominantly accumulated terrigenous sediments during the Miocene to Quaternary (Fig. 6). The dip angle of the bounding faults exerts a primary control on the geometry of the resulting fault-related folds. Reverse reactivation of steeply dipping former normal faults produces high-amplitude, short-wavelength folds, commonly associated with antithetic faults that cut through the syn-inversion sequences (Fig. 6). Two distinct stages of reverse fault reactivation are identified: An early phase above the null point, affecting the Paleocene to Burdigalian succession ; and A later phase, deforming the Upper Miocene to Quaternary sequences (Fig. 6). Conversely, several faults that bound NW–SE-trending half-grabens in the central and southeastern parts of the study area have retained their normal kinematics (Fig. 5). Similarly, N–S- and E–W-oriented faults in the southeastern sector also remain extensional (Fig. 5). 7.1.2. Inversion of Faults Bordering Major Grabens In the case of the principal graben-bounding faults, tectonic inversion has produced distinct fault-related folds and new thrusts within the hanging wall (Fig. 9). The main example is the Fs1 fault, whose reverse reactivation generated a broad fault-related fold structure. In contrast, on the northwestern side of the same profile, the Upper Miocene to Plio–Quaternary (M2, P, and Q) successions in the hanging wall are deformed only above the preserved extensional NNW-trending Fn1 fault, leading to the formation of the outcropping Zeramdine fold (Fig. 9). This structure likely formed during the major Pliocene compressional event. The limited deformation of these units suggests that their mechanical weakness relative to older, more competent strata influenced strain localization. The Fc fault, originally a normal fault, was also inverted during the Plio–Quaternary, giving rise to a small-scale fault-related fold. In contrast, the Fs1 fault underwent continuous reverse reactivation, producing a broad, regionally significant fault-propagation fold. Tilted blocks within the graben, however, remained largely undeformed since the Oligocene. Field and seismic interpretation indicate that the faults labeled Fn1 in Fig. 9 and F1 in Fig. 8 represent segments of the same major fault system. These segments exhibit contrasting kinematic responses to tectonic inversion : only the northern, slightly NE–SW-trending segment was reactivated in reverse, whereas the more E–W-oriented portions retained normal fault behavior (Fig. 5). A similar pattern is observed along other major faults bordering ancient grabens (Fig. 5). This variable response is attributed to the initial fault orientation relative to the principal compressive stress directions during subsequent tectonic phases. Despite the large original throw of the Fn1 fault, compressional reactivation during inversion generated a localized fold along its trace (Fig. 8), illustrating the strong geometric control of pre-existing structures on inversion style. 7.1.3. Role of Paleozoic Basement Fault Reactivation in the Development of Salt-Cored Folds Letouzey et al. ( 1995 ) proposed that the Tunisian Atlas resulted from the inversion of Mesozoic intracratonic basins, driven by regional contraction that shortened the Paleozoic basement (Castany 1952 ; David 1956 ; Dubourdieu 1956 ; Letouzey et al. 1995 ), the Triassic evaporites, and the Meso–Cenozoic cover (Burollet 1973 ; Letouzey et al. 1995 ). The structures described by Letouzey et al. ( 1995 ) appear to reflect the transpression of a former salt basin located on the Saharan Platform during Neogene compression. Salt acted as an effective detachment level beneath the overburden, and its ascent was governed by a combination of basement architecture, tectonic events, and sedimentary loading. Analog modelling by Panien et al. ( 2005 ) demonstrated that a basal salt interval promotes the development of asymmetric structures and facilitates their later tectonic inversion. Accordingly, the asymmetric graben shown in Fig. 11 was most likely down-built by extension or transtension acting on a thick, ductile evaporitic layer. Subsequent Middle Miocene compression and associated kinematic transfer along shear faults generated fault-related antiforms that now bound the graben. These observations support the interpretation that salt kinematics were largely tectonically driven, particularly through the reactivation of Paleozoic basement faults and deformation of the overlying Triassic evaporite package. This interpretation is consistent with the notion that “near-seated” tectonic stresses produce structures of greater amplitude, geometry, and wavelength than those formed in more distal settings (Withjack and Callaway 2000 ; Krzywiec 2002 ; Ustaszewski et al. 2005). 7.2. Selective Reactivation of Former Extensional Faults In the interpreted section, reverse reactivation of tilted blocks is limited: all faults remain normal except for a single structure that has been reactivated in reverse since the Priabonian (Pyrenean phase). This reactivation generated a localized uplift affecting the bioclastic carbonates of the Ketatna Formation, a potential reservoir unit. The reverse movement of this pre-extensional fault during the Pyrenean phase produced significant facies shifts during Oligocene–Early Miocene time, from siliciclastic deposition (Fortuna Formation) to localized carbonate buildup (Ketatna Formation at well P19) above the inverted fault. A localized discontinuity is also observed within the Upper Eocene Souar Formation. The inverted graben is analogous to the “North Sea inversion style” (Zwann et al. 2022), with the exception that the pre-Miocene tilted blocks within the graben were not reactivated in reverse and are sealed by the post-Miocene siliciclastic overburden (Figs. 8 and 9). In this case, the graben is asymmetric, bounded by a steep western pre-normal fault and a more gently dipping eastern counterpart. Successive compressional phases with varying orientations reactivated these faults, producing an asymmetrically inverted graben. The high-angle bounding faults were reactivated and propagated upward into the overburden at shallower dips (Figs. 8 and 9). These propagated structures generated high-angle reverse faults that deform the Cenozoic–Quaternary succession during the inversion. Seismic interpretation reveals minor normal faults affecting successive carbonate platforms of Jurassic, Campanian, Early Eocene, and Langhian age, which generally did not undergo reverse reactivation during subsequent convergence (Figs. 8 and 9). Repeated reverse reactivation of pre-extensional faults is evident (Figs. 8, 13, 14). The associated fold geometries vary: the first inversion phase generated tight folds, whereas later phases produced gentler structures (Fig. 14). These three inversion episodes correspond to the Pyrenean, Atlassic, and Pliocene tectonic phases, respectively. Variations in fold geometry reflect changes in stress orientation through time. Preferential reactivation occurred along the main bounding fault, which continued to respond to successive shortening phases with varying stress orientations (Fig. 5). The relative depth of the hanging wall also influenced inversion style (Fig. 8). The dip angle of the bounding fault controlled the geometry of the resulting fault-related folds: high-angle reverse reactivation produced short-wavelength, high-amplitude folds with antithetic syn-inversion faults. During later inversion, the folds became progressively gentler and longer wavelength (Figs. 6 and 14). The hanging wall remained stable and normal, in contrast to the footwall, which was repeatedly uplifted during inversion (Figs. 8, 9, 13). According to Dubois (2002), the initial rifting phase (Triassic–Jurassic; Fig. 3) generated the major bounding faults (F1 and F2 in Fig. 8; Fn and Fs in Fig. 9). Figure 5 highlights contrasting behavior of these faults during compressive reactivation, depending on their orientation relative to the stress field. In Figs. 8 and 9, the footwall block appears to have experienced greater uplift relative to the hanging wall, preventing full inversion of the graben margin. Nevertheless, termination of inversion coinciding with reduced compressive stress during the Burdigalian–Langhian interval suggests that complete inversion of the bounding fault cannot be entirely excluded. 7.3. Inversion Ratio Calculations Figure 13 illustrates how inversion of former extensional faults produced asymmetric footwall-facing antiforms that vary in geometry, wavelength, and amplitude. Null points (Cooper et al. 1989 ) are used to quantify the degree of inversion in the half-grabens. Two episodes of reverse reactivation are recognized : (1) an initial phase affecting the Paleocene–Burdigalian sequence above the null point, and (2) a later phase deforming Upper Miocene–Quaternary units. In Fig. 13d, the first inversion event produced complex internal deformation within the incompetent syn-rift strata of the hanging wall. The major inverted faults exhibit variable inversion ratios: Ri = 1 (Fig. 13a), Ri > 1 (Fig. 13b), and Ri < 1 (Figs. 13c, 13e). This variability reflects differences in structural position and the orientation of each fault relative to the maximum compressive stress. Across the study area, N–S-trending faults and their associated folds in the northern sector display higher inversion ratios than those in the eastern sector (Fig. 6). These northern structures experienced multiple inversion events during four compressional phases spanning Santonian to Pliocene time. 8. Hydrocarbon Prospectivity in the Area The study area is situated within well-established petroleum systems (Ben Ferjani et al. 1990 ; Fourati et al. 2002 ). Proven source rocks include the organic-rich black shales of the Fahdene Formation (Albian–Cenomanian), the marly limestones of the Bahloul Formation (Late Cenomanian–Turonian), and the lower unit of the Ypresian Boudabbous Formation (Bishop 1988 ; Ben Ferjani et al. 1990 ; Bédir et al. 1992; Bédir 1995; Klett 2001 ). These units are thermally mature and have generated and expelled hydrocarbons (Ben Ferjani et al., 1990 ). Reported TOC values range from 0.65–4% for the Albian shales (Abidi et al. 2014 ), 1.1–3.6% for the Bahloul Formation (Zagrarni et al. 2008 ), and 1.3–2% for the marly level of the Boudabbous Formation (Fournié 1978; Tissot et al. 1980 ; Ben Ferjani et al. 1990 ; Fourati et al. 2002 ). Additional potential source intervals occur in the uppermost Early Jurassic Nara Formation and in the marly and argillaceous limestones of Middle Jurassic age (Ben Ferjani et al. 1990 ). Since the 1950s, drilling has identified several promising reservoir intervals with significant hydrocarbon shows. The Sahel region hosts a single producing field—Sidi Kilani—which has produced since the 1990s from fractured micritic limestones of the Abiod Formation (Campanian–Early Maastrichtian). The Abiod Formation, now a primary target for regional exploration, typically exhibits low to moderate matrix porosity and permeability, but when fractured its porosity ranges from 8 to 30%, classifying it as a productive naturally fractured reservoir (ETAP). Other stratigraphic intervals have yielded oil and gas shows during production testing (ETAP). These include : (i) the carbonates of the Sidi Khalif Formation (Early Cretaceous), (ii) dolomites and reefal buildups of the Serj Formation (Aptian), (iii) Upper Cretaceous carbonates (Bireno and Douleb members), (iv) the upper Boudabbous Formation and its lateral equivalent, the El Garia Formation (Ypresian), (v) fractured carbonates of the Reineche Member (Upper Eocene), (vi) Oligocene dolomites of the Ketatna Formation, and (vii) the Langhian bioclastic limestones of the Ain Grab Formation. Regional seals are provided primarily by the shales of the Fahdène, Aleg, El Haria, Souar, and Mahmoud formations. The timing of source-rock maturation and migration is critical for successful entrapment. Fourati et al. ( 2002 ) argued that oil generation from Cretaceous source rocks began around 65 Ma, peaked at ~ 10 Ma, and culminated in major expulsion episodes during the Early Tortonian. Despite several unsuccessful wells, numerous studies identify the Bireno and Douleb members as oil-prone reservoirs (Klett 2001 ; Lansari et al. 2006 ; Lansari Zribi et al. 2010 ). Seismic interpretation has delineated several structural and stratigraphic traps (ETAP). In 2008, three large anticlinal structural leads were identified in the Chorbane region, followed in 2011 by a defined prospect in Sidi Dhaher located on an inverted faulted structure with direct hydrocarbon indicators in multiple reservoir intervals. The Boudabbous Formation and its El Garia equivalent constitute excellent Ypresian reservoirs in the Gulf of Gabes area. However, these units are absent at the top of certain positive structures (Fig. 7), owing to non-deposition and/or erosion during successive compressive phases. Where preserved, they may host hydrocarbons within tilted blocks sealed by the El Haria marls and sourced from the Fahdene Formation via faults. Int hhe area, these formations have shown poor reservoir quality but potential levels of oil prone rocks. Interpretations based on Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 suggest that tectonically inverted structures—faulted folds, salt-cored anticlines, and inverted graben margins—represent key exploration targets due to the coexistence of structural and stratigraphic trapping mechanisms. Source-rock maturation and migration were strongly influenced by rift-related subsidence and subsequent Cenozoic compressional deformation. Potential traps include: Roof closures above salt-cored and fault-related folds (Fig. 6), Pinch-out traps flanking inversion-related folds (Figs. 6, 10), Fault-bounded blocks along inverted graben margins (Figs. 8, 9), Uplifted and sealed blocks within grabens (Figs. 8, 9). Together, these features form a suite of promising petroleum plays within the region. 9. Conclusions and Discussion This study demonstrates that tectonic inversion in salt-bearing basins generates structurally complex deformation patterns. The spatial and temporal distribution of faults established during early rifting exerts a primary control on the geometry and evolution of inversion structures. These inverted systems commonly exhibit coexisting normal and reverse faults and may form significant hydrocarbon traps and, where permeable, migration conduits. In the study area, former extensional faults are steeply dipping structures that cut the Meso–Cenozoic cover. Initiated during Triassic–Jurassic rifting, they delineated grabens, half-grabens, and tilted blocks. Their subsequent Cenozoic inversion produced fault-related folds, salt-cored folds, and inverted grabens. These structures evolved in response to a series of compressive events—Santonian, Late Maastrichtian–Early Paleocene, Upper Lutetian (Pyrenean), Burdigalian–Langhian, and Upper Tortonian–Pliocene—during which many faults accommodated repeated episodes of reverse motion and cumulative inversion. Moreover, this study points out the existence of two fault families, classified as (i) Paleozoic faults that cut through subsalt basement and drove the ascent of Triassic evaporites during tectonic phases, and (ii) cover-related discontinuities ranging from the Mesozoic to the Quaternary that border extensive and inverted structures. These suprasalt, decoupled faults are grouped into (i) continuously active faults, maintaining that a normal sense of motion or inverted during compression, and (ii) second- and third-order, minor discontinuities affecting Paleogene and/or Neogene deposits. Indeed, some faults retain a normal sense of motion or become inactive or completely sealed by Neogene - Quaternary sediments. Notably, normal and en echelon faults coexist within salt cored folds, faulted crests and normal faults within the associated minibasins. Moreover, some extensional discontinuities were not inverted and continued to slip normally, particularly those oriented parallel or at small angles to the maximum compressive stress. This highlights the selective nature of fault reactivation, governed by fault orientation and proximity to the principal stress direction. Previous studies identified a long, continuous structural feature interpreted as a W–E trending tectonic corridor—the “Kairouan–Sousse–Monastir shear zone” (Bédir 1995; Gabtni 2005 ; Belkhiria et al. 2017 ). Euler deconvolution in the present study delineates only its eastern branch, also trending approximately E–W (Fig. 11). The major Atlassic compression (Tortonian–Pliocene) appears to coincide with the development of numerous petroleum traps through reverse faulting, folding, and thrusting. Proven and potential reservoirs—including the Serj, Bireno, Douleb, and Boudabbous formations—may be productive where preserved within these structural traps. Understanding fault permeability and healing processes is essential for predicting hydrocarbon migration pathways and assessing trap integrity (Gratier, 2011 ), particularly within salt-bearing systems where deformation is complex (Dos Reis et al. 2008 ; Zhang and Alves 2023 ). Although this study is based on seismic and gravity data interpretation, our structural models are substantially strengthened by integrating insights from analogue and numerical studies (Withjack and Callaway 2000 ; Dubois et al. 2002 ; Panien et al. 2005 ; Zwann et al. 2022), which provide valuable context for deformation in salt-influenced systems. However, analogue models often simplify lithologies (e.g., using homogeneous halite analogs), while natural salt provinces comprise heterogeneous mixtures of halite, anhydrite, gypsum, dolomite, and shale. Despite this, the seismic data display structural configurations broadly consistent with those predicted by controlled experiments, suggesting that these interlayered evaporites effectively behave as a coupled deformational medium at the scale of observation. Recent research emphasizes the importance of realistic fault models for reliable seismic interpretation (Alcalde et al. 2017 ). Combining seismic interpretation with non-seismic geophysical methods can produce more robust geological solutions and reduce interpretational uncertainty (Saltus and Blakely 2011 ). The inherent non-uniqueness of gravity models and the challenges of fault imaging in seismic data underscore the need for workflows that prioritize well-constrained structural observations to support the construction of geologically plausible models—an essential foundation for hydrocarbon exploration in complex settings. Improving vertical and lateral resolution in 2D seismic data requires optimized acquisition and processing, including noise attenuation, deconvolution, and accurate migration. High-resolution 3D seismic datasets, when integrated within a rigorous interpretation workflow, significantly enhance fault imaging (Robledo Carvajal et al. 2023 ). Employing specialized 3D seismic attributes for fault delineation provides more accurate three-dimensional geometries and improves assessments of hydrocarbon trap potential. The integration of artificial intelligence into geophysical interpretation is becoming increasingly important for constructing more reliable geological models and reducing exploration risk in structurally complex basins. Declarations Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Authors Contribution H. Boussiga designed and supervised the study. A. Amiri and W. Belkhiria conducted the gravity data analysis and drafted the manuscript. O. Abidi and K. Sebei supported seismic data interpretation and visualization. All authors contributed to the discussion of the results, critically revised the manuscript, and approved the final version for publication. Acknowledgments Many thanks go to the Tunisian National Oil Company (ETAP) and the National office of Mines of Tunisia for providing data. 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Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 20 Jan, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 07 Jan, 2026 Editor invited by journal 07 Jan, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 03 Jan, 2026 First submitted to journal 02 Jan, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":75112,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8502621/v1/eb3e8406ff26a2146886f31c.jpg"},{"id":99911463,"identity":"7236abec-e788-4e2a-a558-063a314ba25d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-09 18:17:57","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":108328,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8502621/v1/2fcb1be721804d6a95c54f74.jpg"},{"id":100359579,"identity":"5f397899-3669-4155-a053-c315c0104263","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 07:23:39","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":356743,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8502621/v1/c06d22206d3bc5f9fe0e7230.jpg"},{"id":100359071,"identity":"cedd3be5-b43c-4994-aeb7-72f54cc1dce0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 07:21:41","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":53279,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8502621/v1/47969da9a07a6755da865094.jpg"},{"id":100359180,"identity":"d68190fe-dd54-417a-8f17-15fbd18cc2d6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 07:21:47","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":124086,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8502621/v1/90f9757f526bc6d32227186f.jpg"},{"id":100359006,"identity":"00535591-cdf9-44e5-ae48-29cdaf000a13","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 07:21:37","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":131104,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8502621/v1/5cd5c23974335b9eb1e8f444.jpg"},{"id":99911468,"identity":"e00053a2-86fc-4af8-b729-b8ff0752be0a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-09 18:17:57","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":131021,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8502621/v1/7360b67c64bd9e4f2d9655d2.jpg"},{"id":100359701,"identity":"b341f5d4-91d2-4509-9cfe-e0b7e29f7439","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 07:24:35","extension":"jpg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":439809,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure8.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8502621/v1/e1e6b627d1633dcc49d3422e.jpg"},{"id":99911515,"identity":"6ff08de9-4267-4c67-bf75-6d8a58c7f143","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-09 18:17:58","extension":"jpg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":167389,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure9.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8502621/v1/bf89c542d84016fe9c86d818.jpg"},{"id":100359702,"identity":"9609c398-261c-4f7d-8c3e-72dbfb3a3348","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 07:24:35","extension":"jpg","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":297011,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure10.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8502621/v1/18cbe7619bb6f92e92a08efd.jpg"},{"id":99911480,"identity":"a229a47f-9f31-4de1-bf8f-cb35359d68a9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-09 18:17:57","extension":"jpg","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":152440,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure11.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8502621/v1/83e1c02b64b17622b1f3f626.jpg"},{"id":100359797,"identity":"48cb4ec1-1fc1-4bee-969d-bf330bc29c88","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 07:25:48","extension":"jpg","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":176995,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure12.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8502621/v1/2f2a3cd1d8f06b3cf54a7f87.jpg"},{"id":100359276,"identity":"f08dc4f4-df8b-4f04-9f32-d5c11dc5d382","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 07:21:56","extension":"jpg","order_by":13,"title":"Figure 13","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":128084,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure13.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8502621/v1/9e0049f7ffb88c7b2085206e.jpg"},{"id":100392773,"identity":"4f29d520-936f-492c-953e-7d31edc56dcb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 11:28:23","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3391235,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8502621/v1/0aec5453-3f0a-44f4-8faf-fdac6938c8c4.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Evidence of selective tectonic inversion in salt bearing basins inferred from integrated interpretation of gravity and 2D seismic data (Northeastern Tunisia)","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe geometry of Inherited structures strongly influences the development of tectonic edifices during inversion (Dooley and Hudec \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; kim et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This influence is especially pronounced in regions affected by multiple and successive compressional phases, inducing complex and variable tectonically inverted basins (Donath and Cranwell 1981; Etheridge \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; Shinn \u003cspan citationid=\"CR106\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Dooley and Hudec \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; kim et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Structural complexity is particularly enhanced when a detachment level that decouples a rigid faulted basement from a deformable suprasalt cover (Alsop et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Davison et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000a\u003c/span\u003e; Davison et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000b\u003c/span\u003e; Dos Reis et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Dooley and Hudec \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Mianaekere and Adam \u003cspan citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Verges et al. 2020; Zhang and Alves \u003cspan citationid=\"CR129\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Williams et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR122\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e) demonstrated that inversion initiates when a pre-existing normal fault is tectonically reactivated under compression, resulting in a net contraction with growing fault related fold in the upper part of structural levels, while a net extension persists at depth. When shortening progressive, a complete reverse reactivation of the fault system can occur (Bonini et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommonly, reactivation of early normal faults during subsequent periods of shortening is governed by several factors including fault cohesion, coefficient of friction, orientation with respect to the main stress field and magnitudes of the principal stresses (Sibson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR105\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e; Donath and Cranwell 1981; Etheridge \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; buck and Lavier 2001; Rutter et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR100\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Shinn \u003cspan citationid=\"CR106\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Xu et al. 2018; Ruh and Verg\u0026egrave;s 2018; Ruh \u003cspan citationid=\"CR98\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The potential for reactivation of a pre-inversion fault depends on the nature of the fault system (Etheridge \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e). It seems that the variations in the dip angle of the former fault plane influence both the style and distribution of the internal deformation during inversion (buck and Lavier 2001; Shinn \u003cspan citationid=\"CR106\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Indeed, inversion of earlier normal faults results in shortening of the hanging-wall sequences, leading to the generation of new reverse faults and associated fault-related folds (Shinn \u003cspan citationid=\"CR106\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, the relationship between strain and strain-rate weakening plays a key role in the formation of rift structures and their subsequent tectonic inversion and growth (Ruh \u003cspan citationid=\"CR98\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, tectonic inversion processes seem to be commonly localized along major bordering fault, regardless to the specific nature of crustal weakening (Ruh \u003cspan citationid=\"CR98\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn seismic data, interpretation of fault surfaces consists on drawing breaks with offset of stratal reflectors. The continuity of the fault plane is established up-dip along seismic sections, on the basis of the recognition of seismic discontinuities and stratal terminations. Mainly, the application of calculated seismic attributes strongly enhances the delineation of seismic features. Especially, pseudo relief and cosine of phase attributes effectively outline the seismic expression of existing fault systems. The solid interpretation of fault systems in 2D seismic data requires a comprehensive understanding of the main structural events that have affected the area.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, high angle fractures often display chaotic seismic configuration due the complex seismic response of truncated geologic bodies whose size may be equal or smaller to the dominant signal wavelength. When salt exists, interpretation becomes more challenging delicate to decipher as chaotic configuration may result from halokinetic processes or from zones of intense fracturing. Hence, uncertainties in fault interpretation depend on data repeatability, measurement obliquity, and the nature of fault cut-off, all of which can lead to large differences in estimated throw, slip-rate and fault length (Andrews et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Besides, vertical and lateral seismic resolution also represent a crucial factor in the accurate identification of fault surfaces. In salt-bearing basins, fault interpretation is further complicated in the vicinity of salt bodies, where chaotic seismic facies obscure structural relationships. Subsequently, divergent interpretations commonly arise depending on the quality of seismic imaging quality and the structural complexity of the area. Therefore, thorough understanding of the regional structural setting of the area is essential to constrain realistic fault geometries.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecent studies have integrated seismic and gravity data to provide complementary information for the complex structural architecture of the subsurface (Senchina et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR104\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Finally, we point out that successive reactivation of faults orders evolvement of fault-related structures, thereby influences hydrocarbon migration along major discontinuities as well as on the formation, preservation and possible reactivation of oil traps conservation during successive deformation events.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Structural setting","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe convergence of the Africa and Eurasian plates transformed Tethyan basins from a predominately transtensional tectonic regime during the Mesozoic to a transpressional dominated tectonic style since the end of Cretaceous (Rosenbaum et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR97\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Guiraud et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e, Muller et al. 2018; Van Hinsbergen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR118\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Fig.\u0026nbsp;1). This large-scale geodynamic event inverted pre-extensional structures and caused folding, thrusting, and uplift since the Santonian (Rosenbaum et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR97\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Guiraud et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, successive deformation phases have induced in complex geological structures in Tunisian domains, particularly along major strike-slip fault zones (Zargouni \u003cspan citationid=\"CR128\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e; Ben Ayed \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; Touati \u003cspan citationid=\"CR115\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e; B\u0026eacute;dir et al. 1992; B\u0026eacute;dir 1995).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study area extends eastwards from the \"North-South Axis\" zone (Burollet \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1956\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1973\u003c/span\u003e) towards the Sahel domain (Fig.\u0026nbsp;2). It is delimited by the \u0026ldquo;Tunisian Dorsale\u0026rdquo;, the Cap Bon peninsula to the north, the Atlas Mountains of Central Tunisia to the west, and the Pelagian block to the east (Fig.\u0026nbsp;2). Previous studies have delineated complex geological structures in subsurface associated to main fault corridors (Haller \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e; Touati \u003cspan citationid=\"CR115\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e; Bedir \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e, Boussiga et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Boussiga et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Boussiga \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Fig.\u0026nbsp;2). Boussiga (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) and Belkhiria et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) suggested a thick-skinned tectonic inversion affecting former extensional structures in the Sahel; formed essentially on the tip of high angle discontinuities cutting through the Paleozoic basement. Moreover, Triassic evaporites are believed to have strongly influenced in localizing tectonic deformation within the overburden, evolving complex structural architectures (Haller \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e; Touati \u003cspan citationid=\"CR115\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e; Bedir \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e, Boussiga et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Boussiga et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Boussiga \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Accordingly, the regional tectonic history can be subdivided in two main tectonic phases: (1) a predominant extension from the Triassic to the Santonian age, followed by (2) a major compression that has prevailed since the end of the Cretaceous (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDominantly transtensional tectonic regimes affected the Tunisian domains from the Triassic to the Late Cretaceous (Cohen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1980\u003c/span\u003e; Zargouni \u003cspan citationid=\"CR128\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e; Ben Ayed \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; Bouaziz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Fig.\u0026nbsp;2), in response to the opening of the Atlantic Ocean (Biju-Duval et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e; Guiraud and Maurin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e; Guiraud et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). Two major rifting episodes during Late Triassic and Jurassic (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3), generated a system of grabens and half-grabens bounded by active E-W, N-S, and NW-SE trending major normal faults (Ben Ayed \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; Bouaziz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). These rift structures controlled the deposition of the Jurassic to Late Cretaceous sediments (B\u0026eacute;dir 1995; Ben Ayed \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; Bouaziz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). By the end of the Cretaceous, two main extensional periods were recorded throughout the Tethyan domain, during the Cenomanian, Coniacian, and Santonian intervals (Guiraud et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e), characterized by ENE-WSW and NE-SW fault orientations (Haller \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e; B\u0026eacute;dir 1995; Bouaziz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Fig.\u0026nbsp;3). Subsequently, an extensional phase during the Campanian-Early Maastrichtian, directed E-W to WNW-ESE (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3), led to the formation of elongated NW-SE to NNW-SSE basins, exhibiting remarkable subsidence rates within the Sahel platform and the Pelagian block (Ellouze \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e; Patriat et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). All of this reflects the result the dominant transtensive motions between the Africa and the European plates throughout the Mesozoic (Biju-Duval et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e; Guiraud and Maurin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e; Guiraud et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, the tectonic regime during the Aptian remains debated. Some authors interpret this interval as phase of continued transtension (Martinez et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e), whereas others suggest a short-term tranpressional episode (Guiraud and Bosworth \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e; Bouaziz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Fig.\u0026nbsp;3).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe change from a divergent to a convergent tectonic motion between the African and the Eurasian plates began during the Santonian (Biju-Duval et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e; Guiraud et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Cohen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1980\u003c/span\u003e; Ben Ayed \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; B\u0026eacute;dir 1995; Bouaziz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Frizon de Lamotte et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). During this phase, ancient major faults were reactivated in reverse, deforming previous mesozoic extensional structures (Bouaziz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Guiraud et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Frizon de Lamotte et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). This inversion generated growth folds, local unconformities, and thrusts in several areas including the Sahel domain (Bedir \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Boussiga et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Boussiga et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Boussiga \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), the Pelagian block (Sebei et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR102\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Abidi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Sebei et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR103\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), deeper mediterranean basins such as the Ionian sea and adjacent ridges (Gallais et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Tugend et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR116\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), the Sicily channel (Cavallaro et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) and the Lampedusa shelf (Torelli et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR114\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Tavernelli et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR110\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, no evidence of the Santonian tectonic inversion (Guiraud and Bosworth \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e; Guiraud et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) was found in the region. It seems that the Sahel area was sheltered at that time by basins or stable platforms to the north. Later, during the Late Maastrichtian-Early Paleocene, a significant NW-SE to NNW-SSE compressional event deformed former cretaceous extensive edifices, generating folding and local gaps (Biju-Duval et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e; Boussiga et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e: Boussiga \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Abidi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Sebei et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR103\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). This compressional event was followed by a relaxation/extensional tectonic period during the Paleocene-Early Eocene, characterized by a NE-SW extensional stress field, causing the development of widespread platforms, grabens, and half-graben (Guiraud and Bosworth \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e; Bouaziz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Boussiga et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Sebei et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR102\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubsequently, regional compression affected the Mediterranean basins during the Late Lutetian (Castany \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1952\u003c/span\u003e; Biju-Duval et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e; Letouzey \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; Guiraud et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Frizon de Lamotte et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Tugend et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR116\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). This transpressional phase rejuvenated major tectonic edifices, generating box-folding, thrusts, and noticeable lateral and vertical disparities in Eocene lithofacies and thicknesses (Burollet \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Alouani et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Boussiga et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Boussiga \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Abidi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). It likely corresponds to the \"Pyrenean-Atlassic phase\", recognized within the northwestern Atlassic belt and the Western European basins (Castany \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1952\u003c/span\u003e; Boussiga et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Guiraud et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Frizon de Lamotte et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the Oligocene-Aquitanian interval, a transtensional regime existed, resulting in major NW-SE-directed grabens and troughs, bounded by regional faults that cross the Sahel and Pelagian domains (Wildi \u003cspan citationid=\"CR121\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e; Ellouze \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e; B\u0026eacute;dir 1995; Chihi \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Patriat et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA subsequent compressional phase, directed NW\u0026ndash;SE, developed during the Burdigalian\u0026ndash;Langhian (Castany \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1952\u003c/span\u003e; Crampon \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1973\u003c/span\u003e; Bellon \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1976\u003c/span\u003e; Wildi \u003cspan citationid=\"CR121\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e), reactivating faults and inducing folding and thrusting within the Eastern Maghrebides and, to a lesser degree, the Atlassic provinces (Castany \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1952\u003c/span\u003e). Finally, a widespread compressional regime, recognized during the Upper Tortonian\u0026ndash;Pliocene, affected the North\u0026ndash;South Axis, the Saharan Platform, and the Northeastern Atlas, leading to cumulative basin deformation (Castany \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1952\u003c/span\u003e; Haller \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e; Ben Ayed \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; B\u0026eacute;dir et al. 1992, 1995, 1996; Bouaziz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Boussiga \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Lithostratigraphy","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Sahel region constitutes a broad coastal plain characterized by relatively low-relief Mio\u0026ndash;Pliocene outcrops (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;200 m in elevation), interspersed with continental sabkhas (e.g., Sidi El Hani, Kelbia, Ennijila; Fig.\u0026nbsp;2) and coastal lagoons such as Halk El Menjel (Fig.\u0026nbsp;2). The modest relief in the area reflects successive Cenozoic to Quaternary compressional phases (Castany \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1952\u003c/span\u003e; Ben Ayed \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e). The sabkhas are interpreted to have formed along major rhombohedral fault systems active during the Tyrrhenian (Ben Ayed \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; Amari and B\u0026eacute;dir 1989), following the development of a prominent fossil beach ridge that isolated them from the open sea (Brahim \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Late Miocene to Quaternary deposits blanket most of the area, except for a narrow north\u0026ndash;south-trending structural high (46 m in elevation), known as the Draa Souatir anticline, which exposes Oligocene\u0026ndash;Early Miocene strata (Figs.\u0026nbsp;2 and 3).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe lithostratigraphic framework of the study area is compiled from published descriptions of outcrops in the Sahel and North\u0026ndash;South Axis regions (Castany \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1951\u003c/span\u003e; Burollet \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1956\u003c/span\u003e; Comte et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1973\u003c/span\u003e; Fourni\u0026eacute; 1978; Van Houten \u003cspan citationid=\"CR119\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1981\u003c/span\u003e; Bishop \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e; Blondel \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e; Ya\u0026iuml;ch \u003cspan citationid=\"CR126\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e; Rabhi \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e), supplemented by data from petroleum exploration wells (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3). A west\u0026ndash;east-oriented lithostratigraphic correlation was constructed to illustrate the vertical and lateral facies variations from Triassic to Quaternary strata (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3). Within the Sahel region, lithologic details and the identification of major unconformities were constrained through well reports and wireline log interpretations. The resulting lithostratigraphic chart reveals significant vertical and lateral facies variations, major regional unconformities, and frequent stratigraphic gaps. Each unconformity marks a shift in tectonic regime or stress orientation, which may coincide with, or differ from, global sea-level fluctuations since the Triassic.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the N\u0026ndash;S Axis zone, Triassic outcrops comprise a sedimentary succession ranging from the Ladinian to the Rhaetian stages. These deposits consist predominantly of siliciclastic facies, dolomites, and evaporitic intervals (Courel et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). The deepest petroleum exploration wells that penetrate Triassic strata are situated in the vicinity of the N\u0026ndash;S Axis (P8 and P12; Fig.\u0026nbsp;2). In the P12 well, the Triassic sequence attains a thickness of 1145 m and consists of alternating evaporites and saliferous shales, with a middle member of highly radioactive dolomites. Core and cutting descriptions indicate that these Triassic units are overlain by Jurassic dolomites of the Nara Formation (Burollet \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1956\u003c/span\u003e) in the P12 well (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3), or occur unconformably beneath Early or Late Cretaceous marine deposits (e.g., well P21; Fig.\u0026nbsp;2). It is overlain by the Sidi Khalif Formation (Uppermost Jurassic\u0026ndash;Berriasian\u0026ndash;Valanginian), identified in the P12 well. This unit comprises bioclastic marls with subordinate limestone interbeds. Above in the stratigraphic succession, deposits of Hauterivian to Albian age are absent (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3). Farther north, several wells (P1, P9, and P19; Fig.\u0026nbsp;2) intersect the Aptian Serj Formation, composed mainly of hard, non-fossiliferous dolomites with thin intercalations of anhydrite, limestone, shale, and sandstone (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3). The overlying Fahdene Formation (Albian\u0026ndash;Cenomanian) comprises organic-rich shales that represent the principal mature source rock in the area, together with the shaly limestones of the Turonian Bahloul Formation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Aleg Formation (Upper Turonian\u0026ndash;Santonian) is composed of thick marls that locally include volcanic interbeds and two distinct carbonate members: the Bireno (Turonian) and the Douleb (Coniacian) members.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Abiod Formation (Campanian to Early Maastrichtian) comprises two chalky intervals separated by a marly horizon (Burolle 1956). In the P9 well, an erosional surface is observed at the top of the unit, associated with bioturbation structures, calcite recrystallization, and numerous burrows and tracks. Locally, Upper Eocene marls unconformably overlie the upper limestone member of the Abiod Formation, as documented in the P9 well (Fig.\u0026nbsp;2). The overlying El Haria Formation (Upper Maastrichtian to Paleocene; Burollet1956) consists mainly of thick successions of marls and shales with thin interbeds of bedded carbonates containing planktonic microfauna. A regional hiatus is recorded, spanning from the Late Maastrichtian to the Early Thanetian (El Karoui-Yaakoub \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e), where Thanetian deposits unconformably overlie Upper Maastrichtian limestones. Additional Selandian-age hiatuses have been identified locally in the Gulf of Hammamet (Abidi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Boudabbous Formation (Ypresian) is composed of Globigerinid limestones deposited in the northeastern part of the study area. South-westwards, it laterally interfingers with the El Garia Formation, which consists of Nummulitic buildups. Both formations thin and pinch out around local palaeohighs and structural uplifts (Figs.\u0026nbsp;8, 9, 10). The Souar Formation (Late Eocene) comprises thick marls that, in the western part of the study area, grade laterally into the Cherahil Formation, characterized by clay-rich deposits and Ostrea- and Echinoid-bearing limestones (P12 well). In places, both formations contain a middle interval of Nummulitic limestone known as the Reineche Member.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin the Fortuna\u0026ndash;Ketatna\u0026ndash;Salammb\u0026ocirc; Group (Oligocene\u0026ndash;Early Miocene), the Fortuna Formation consists of clayey mudstones and fine- to coarse-grained sandstones that cover much of the study area. Towards the shelf (e.g., P19 well) and further offshore within the Pelagian Block (Sebei et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR102\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), this formation grades laterally into the Ketatna Formation, which is composed of limestone and dolomitic beds. The Ketatna Formation, in turn, transitions into the Salammb\u0026ocirc; Formation, made up of pelagic shales and pelites within the deeper Pelagian Block (Sebei et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR102\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). The A\u0026iuml;n Grab Formation (Langhian) consists of transgressive carbonates rich in planktonic foraminifera, corals, echinoids, and pectinids. These sediments broadly drape earlier antiforms and rim synclines and grabens, particularly across northeastern Tunisia (Ben Ismail-Latrache \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1981\u003c/span\u003e; Blondel \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e). The formation provides a key stratigraphic marker, clearly recognizable in most seismic profiles within the area (Figs.\u0026nbsp;8\u0026ndash;10), and locally onlaps palaeohighs (Fig.\u0026nbsp;12). In several wells, the A\u0026iuml;n Grab Formation unconformably overlies marls of the Souar or Cherahil formations and/or the detrital deposits of the Fortuna Formation, marking a regionally significant transgressive event (Figs.\u0026nbsp;3, 12).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe overlying Oum Dhouil Group (Burollet \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1956\u003c/span\u003e; Ben Ismail-Latrache \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1981\u003c/span\u003e; Bismuth \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e; Biely et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1972\u003c/span\u003e; Blondel \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e; Tayech-Mannai \u003cspan citationid=\"CR111\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) comprises three formations:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(i) the Mahmoud Formation (Upper Langhian), consisting of clays with minor sandstone intercalations; (ii) the Beglia Formation (Serravallian), composed of alternating clay and cross-bedded sand layers; and (iii) the Saouaf Formation (Upper Serravallian\u0026ndash;Tortonian), consisting of interbedded marls, sandstones, and limestones. Finally, the continental deposits of the Segui Formation (Pliocene to Quaternary) unconformably overlie the older sequences with substantial cumulative thicknesses (Burollet \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1956\u003c/span\u003e; Figs.\u0026nbsp;7\u0026ndash;9).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Methods and Data","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study integrates the interpretation of regional gravity data with 2D seismic reflection profiles to investigate subsurface structures and tectonic inversion patterns in the study area.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGravity data were compiled from regional Bouguer anomaly maps published in earlier studies (Midassi \u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e; Belkhiria et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Standard Euler deconvolution was performed using Geosoft software to estimate the location, trend, and depth of the principal fault systems affecting the area. Euler deconvolution is a semi-automatic technique based on the Euler homogeneity equation, used to delineate the geometry and depth of buried geological sources (Thompson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR113\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e; Reid et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e; FitzGerald et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Strarev and Reid \u003cspan citationid=\"CR107\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Each source is characterized by a specific structural index (SI) value, representing the rate of change in the potential field with respect to source location. For gravity data, SI values typically range from 0 to 2. Previous studies have shown that an SI value of 0 is most appropriate for highlighting fault contacts (Thompson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR113\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e; Reid et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Ferreira de Melo and Ferreira Barbosa \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The method\u0026rsquo;s vertical resolution is limited by the sampling interval of the input data (1 \u0026times; 1 km). In this study, an analysis window size of 8 and a tolerance of 20 were selected. The results provide a first-order estimation of major structural discontinuities across the study area.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe seismic dataset consists of 2D multichannel, time-migrated reflection profiles acquired across the Sahel region. The seismic resolution is sufficient to identify key horizons and characterize distinct seismic facies. Available check-shot data (time\u0026ndash;depth relationships) from petroleum wells were used to calibrate the seismic sections and improve the accuracy of horizon picking (Inoubli et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLithostratigraphic information from well logs (Gamma Ray and Sonic), cores, and outcrop observations, together with well-to-well correlations, were used to build a detailed lithostratigraphic framework. This framework was then correlated with regional tectonic phases, major unconformities, and principal petroleum systems in the surrounding areas.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeismic stratigraphic analysis was conducted to define reflection terminations (onlap, toplap, downlap, and truncation) and to interpret depositional geometries (Taner et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR109\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1979\u003c/span\u003e). Several post-stack seismic attributes\u0026mdash;reflection strength, cosine of instantaneous phase, and pseudo-relief\u0026mdash;were generated using SMT Kingdom Suite software.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe envelope attribute (reflection strength) is particularly effective in delineating discontinuities, lithological variations, faults, hydrocarbon indicators, and sequence boundaries (Taner et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR109\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1979\u003c/span\u003e ; Subrahmanyam and Rao \u003cspan citationid=\"CR108\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). The seismic trace and its Hilbert transform independently define reflection strength and instantaneous phase. The latter provides a reliable indicator of lateral bed continuity and stratigraphic boundaries. The cosine of instantaneous phase, being smoother than the raw phase, enhances the visualization of faults and subtle lateral variations (Subrahmanyam and Rao \u003cspan citationid=\"CR108\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the pseudo-relief attribute was applied, which combines RMS amplitude and the inverse Hilbert transform (Chopra and Marfurt \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). This attribute produces a topography-like seismic image that enhances correlation between seismic and geological data. It also increases low-frequency spectral content and smooths spectral notches, improving the detection of subtle structures such as fault zones, high-amplitude reflectors near salt bodies, and stratigraphic pinch-outs (Chopra and Marfurt \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Barnes et al. 2011; Lima et al. 2018). In this study, a window size of M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1\u0026mdash;corresponding to a half-cycle of the input waveform\u0026mdash;was used for attribute computation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo quantify the degree of tectonic inversion, the inversion ratio (Ri) was calculated following the approach of Williams (1989) and Williams et al. (1993). Ri expresses the ratio between contractional and extensional displacements along an inverted fault, measured relative to the null point\u0026mdash;the position along the fault that separates the extensional and contractional segments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e \u003csub\u003e \u003cem\u003ei\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/sub\u003e \u003cem\u003e= d\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ec\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e/d\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eh\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e \u003cem\u003e= 1-(d\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ee\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e/d\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eh\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e (Eq.\u0026nbsp;1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere \u003cem\u003edh\u003c/em\u003e is the total syn-rift interval thickness parallel to the fault, \u003cem\u003edc\u003c/em\u003e the thickness of syn-rift strata above the null point (in contraction), and \u003cem\u003ede\u003c/em\u003e the thickness below it (in extension).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen Ri exceeds 1, the fault has undergone total inversion; the additional contractional displacement (\u003cem\u003edex\u003c/em\u003e) represents the excess movement beyond complete inversion. The total inversion ratio (Rt) is then calculated as (Bonini et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e):\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e \u003csub\u003e \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/sub\u003e \u003cem\u003e= d\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ec\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e/d\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eh\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e \u003cem\u003e= (d\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eh\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e+ d\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eex\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e)/d\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eh\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e (Eq.\u0026nbsp;2).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Seismic interpretation of tectonically Inverted structures","content":"\u003cp\u003eSeismic interpretation reveals several inverted structural styles, including fault-related folds, salt-cored folds, and inverted grabens.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.1. Fault-Related Folds\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese structures are bounded by steeply dipping, planar faults trending N\u0026ndash;S to NNE\u0026ndash;SSW (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5). Originally normal faults active during Mesozoic extension, they were subsequently reactivated in reverse during Cenozoic compressional phases, forming fault-related folds (Figs.\u0026nbsp;5\u0026ndash;6, 13\u0026ndash;14). Progressive compressional deformation resulted in cumulative folding and uplift, often accompanied by erosion at fold crests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn early reactivation phase during the Late Cretaceous produced initial folding at fault tips, resulting in growth folds that record syntectonic sedimentation and the timing of shortening (Figs.\u0026nbsp;6, 14). Subsequent compressional episodes during the Upper Lutetian, Burdigalian\u0026ndash;Langhian, and Upper Tortonian\u0026ndash;Pliocene further amplified folding and uplift, generating piggyback basins that accumulated thick Upper Miocene to Quaternary sediments (Figs.\u0026nbsp;6, 14).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.2. Salt-Cored Folds\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSalt-cored folds are symmetric to asymmetric antiforms of variable geometry, amplitude, and wavelength (Boussiga \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Figs.\u0026nbsp;7, 10). These NE\u0026ndash;SW to E\u0026ndash;W trending anticlines are bounded by reverse and en echelon faults. They correspond to compressional structures formed during successive deformation phases dated Santonian, Upper Maastrichtian\u0026ndash;Early Paleocene, Late Eocene, Burdigalian\u0026ndash;Langhian, and Tortonian\u0026ndash;Pliocene (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the Sahel region, these folds are associated with deep-seated transcurrent faults that bound tilted Paleozoic basement blocks and facilitated the upward migration of Triassic evaporites (Fig.\u0026nbsp;7). Repeated compressional events since the Santonian induced salt movement and structural amplification, influencing Paleogene to Neogene sedimentation patterns, as evidenced by lateral thickness variations, facies changes, and local stratigraphic gaps (Figs.\u0026nbsp;7, 10).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOuter-rimming unconformities and roof pinch-outs reflect episodic uplift and erosion. The dominance of salt-cored folds toward the northern part of the area suggests greater crustal shortening in that direction (Boussiga \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Comparable structures occur in the Pantelleria and Linosa regions (Cavallaro et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) and in buried Aptian strata offshore Mahdia within the Pelagian Block (Ben Brahim et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.3. Inverted Grabens\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLarge E\u0026ndash;W to NNE\u0026ndash;SSW trending grabens dominate the study area (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5). These structures formed along the North African margin under transtensional stress regimes active from the Late Triassic to the Late Cretaceous (B\u0026eacute;dir et al. 1992; B\u0026eacute;dir 1995; B\u0026eacute;dir et al. 1996). They are part of the regional extensional system characteristic of the Pelagian domain, which extends toward the Ionian Sea (Letouzey and Tr\u0026eacute;moli\u0026egrave;res \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1980\u003c/span\u003e; Letouzey \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; Burollet \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Guiraud et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubsequent compressional phases during the Maastrichtian\u0026ndash;Paleocene, Late Eocene, Burdigalian\u0026ndash;Langhian, and Tortonian\u0026ndash;Pliocene reactivated many of these faults, leading to folding, block tilting, and differential subsidence within pre-existing grabens (Figs.\u0026nbsp;8\u0026ndash;9). The resulting depocentres are commonly asymmetric, bounded by high-angle (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;45\u0026deg;) faults that locally developed into fault-related antiforms (Figs.\u0026nbsp;8\u0026ndash;9).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot all border faults were inverted; some retained their normal sense of motion during compression, indicating incomplete inversion (Figs.\u0026nbsp;5, 9). In several grabens, normal and inverted faults coexist, with inversion localized along major NNE\u0026ndash;SSW faults, while E\u0026ndash;W structures remained extensional (Figs.\u0026nbsp;5, 8, 9). In the northwestern portions of seismic profiles (Figs.\u0026nbsp;8\u0026ndash;9), uplifted footwall blocks were eroded and subsequently transgressed by Oligocene\u0026ndash;Langhian sediments. These blocks acted as palaeohighs during the Paleocene\u0026ndash;Oligocene, hosting onlapping successions affected by renewed faulting during later compression.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6. Fault Framework of the Study Area","content":"\u003cp\u003eAll the structural features described in Section 5 result from the tectonic reactivation of pre-extensional faults, expressed through various modes of deformation. The tectonically inverted structures correspond to the reactivation of earlier extensional systems that initially developed during the Triassic period as grabens, half-grabens, and tilted fault blocks. These structures were bounded by steeply dipping faults that were reactivated during compressional phases beginning in the Santonian.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur analysis integrates 2D seismic reflection data with gravity data to delineate and classify these subsurface discontinuities and to characterize their evolution through successive tectonic episodes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.1. 2D Seismic Interpretation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure 5 presents a schematic map of the principal faults associated with the major structural features in the study area, inferred from the interpretation of regional 2D seismic profiles (modified from Boussiga, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). The major discontinuities exhibit multiple orientations\u0026mdash;N\u0026ndash;S, E\u0026ndash;W, NW\u0026ndash;SE, and NE\u0026ndash;SW. Thrust faults trending N\u0026ndash;S, NE\u0026ndash;SW, and locally E\u0026ndash;W are associated with regional folds oriented mainly NE\u0026ndash;SW, E\u0026ndash;W, and N\u0026ndash;S. These folds are annotated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;5 according to the timing of their most recent deformation phase.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, several NW\u0026ndash;SE and some E\u0026ndash;W-trending discontinuities have retained a predominantly normal sense of displacement and were not significantly affected by later compressional inversion. In the eastern part of the study area, the main graben-bounding faults display two distinct segments : E\u0026ndash;W-trending extensional faults and NE\u0026ndash;SW-oriented thrust faults that underwent compressional reactivation since the Cenozoic (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5). The orientation of these faults relative to the principal stress directions appears to have played a key role in their reactivation history.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe major faults are associated with numerous minor discontinuities that affect the overburden (Figs.\u0026nbsp;8\u0026ndash;10). Improved fault delineation required enhancement of the seismic image ; therefore, seismic attributes such as cosine of phase and pseudo-relief were employed. The pseudo-relief attribute clearly reveals individual fault planes (Fig.\u0026nbsp;10), especially those cutting the crests of salt-cored folds, where conventional seismic resolution is poor compared to envelope and cosine of phase attributes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeismic interpretation identifies several isolated fault families (Fig.\u0026nbsp;10, highlighted in blue, red, green, and yellow), each formed during distinct tectonic episodes. These faults are high-angle en echelon to normal faults with variable displacements. The green-, blue-, and yellow-colored faults show relatively minor offsets, whereas the red-colored fault represents a major structure (also mapped in Fig.\u0026nbsp;5) that separates two distinct structural blocks (Fig.\u0026nbsp;10).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSuperimposed fault families are evident in the overburden. Some represent the continuation of older faults, while others are unrelated to previous structures (Fig.\u0026nbsp;10). The main interpreted fault sets include:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eEn echelon faults at the crests of the salt-cored folds (SCF1 and SCF2), developed during the Maastrichtian compressional phase, accompanied by minor normal faults responsible for tilting of their respective mini-basins (green-colored faults).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eA second fault family, cutting folded strata atop both salt-cored folds, generated during the Upper Eocene Pyrenean compressional phase, again associated with normal faults tilting their mini-basins (yellow-colored faults).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eA third fault family, affecting previously deformed strata on top of SCF1, developed during the late Serravallian compressional stage (blue-colored faults). This structure was subsequently reactivated during the Tortonian and Pliocene compressional phases. In contrast, the corresponding faulted fold above SCF2 was sealed by the Langhian-aged carbonate platform of the A\u0026iuml;n Grab Formation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eA pre-existing major normal fault (red-colored) that was reactivated as a reverse fault during the Tortonian to Pliocene, generating a faulted fold above SCF1.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe salt-cored fold SCF1 records three major hiatuses related to non-deposition and/or erosion during the Maastrichtian, Paleocene, and Early Eocene. These interruptions suggest active salt movement and surface exposure during these intervals (Fig.\u0026nbsp;10).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.2. Gravity Data Interpretation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBecause seismic resolution decreases with depth and the Triassic salt layer produces a chaotic seismic response, gravity data were integrated to better constrain deep-seated structures, particularly sub-salt faults that penetrate the Paleozoic basement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBouguer anomaly data compiled from previous studies were used to identify deep discontinuities, especially where seismic imaging is poor due to the attenuating effects of evaporites on seismic wave propagation. Prior gravity investigations in the Sahel region (Dhifi 2002; Gabtni \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Arfaoui et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Jallouli \u0026amp; Mickus \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Belkhiria et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) have delineated major lineaments oriented N\u0026ndash;S, E\u0026ndash;W, NE\u0026ndash;SW, and NW\u0026ndash;SE, interpreted as principal structural boundaries.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, standard Euler deconvolution was applied to map fault systems and estimate their relative depths (Fig.\u0026nbsp;11). The results reveal vertically superimposed fault systems, cutting strata at various depths ranging from approximately 2 to 8 km. The computed map shows major discontinuities trending N\u0026ndash;S, E\u0026ndash;W, and NNE\u0026ndash;SSW, with subordinate NW\u0026ndash;SE trends, particularly in the easternmost part of the area. These structures display multiple fault contacts at varying depths, grouped into four depth ranges: \u0026lt;2 km, 2\u0026ndash;4 km, 4\u0026ndash;6 km, and 6\u0026ndash;8 km.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsidering the presence of a thick Triassic evaporitic interval separating these discontinuities, three main fault orders are distinguished:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst-order (deep) faults, extending from 4 to 8 km depth and likely cutting the Paleozoic basement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntermediate faults, extending between 2 and 4 km, confined mainly above the salt level.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eShallow faults, less than 1\u0026ndash;2 km deep, developed in the Meso-Cenozoic and Quaternary cover.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Euler deconvolution map indicates that first-order faults are concentrated in the central and eastern parts of the study area, trending predominantly NW\u0026ndash;SE, NNW\u0026ndash;SSE, and NNE\u0026ndash;SSW. These orientations correspond to Late Permian normal faults recognized in southern Tunisia, associated with Permo-Triassic rifting related to NE\u0026ndash;SW to NNE\u0026ndash;SSW-directed extension (Bishop \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1975\u003c/span\u003e ; Ben Ferjani et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e ; Bouaziz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eShallower faults (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;4 km) are mainly distributed in the northern and western parts of the area, corresponding to Atlassic fault-related folds similar to those observed along the N\u0026ndash;S axis (Fig.\u0026nbsp;2). These faults are interpreted as cover faults, generally formed above and rooted in older basement discontinuities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.3. Discussion of Seismic and Gravity-Derived Models\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeismic and gravity datasets differ in spatial coverage, resolution, and sensitivity to subsurface physical properties and geometries. However, their integration provides complementary insights and reduces interpretational uncertainty.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn 2D seismic data, both vertical and lateral resolution decrease with depth, limiting the precision of subsurface imaging. Consequently, geoseismic models derived from these data depend strongly on the seismic image quality. Even when enhanced with seismic attributes, fault delineation remains challenging due to limited vertical resolution and potential confusion with noise or unrelated reflectors in low-quality zones. Closely spaced faults may also appear as single structures because the Fresnel zone width exceeds fault separation, making narrow horsts indistinguishable.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilarly, data coverage and station spacing influence gravity results. In the eastern part of the study area, some faults identified in the seismic interpretation are absent from the Euler deconvolution results, likely due to sparse or irregular gravity coverage. Thus, improved data density would yield more consistent results.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, resolving individual sources in gravity data depends on resolution, coverage, quality, and the depth and geometry of overlapping sources. Therefore, combining seismic and gravity interpretations provides a more robust structural framework than either method alone.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"7. Fault Kinematics","content":"\u003cp\u003eWithin the study area, the tectonic inversion of pre-existing normal faults exhibits several reactivation modes, depending primarily on their throw, dip, and structural position. The degree of inversion varies considerably: some faults display no or only mild reactivation, others show full inversion, and in a few cases, additional displacement has occurred following complete inversion.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.1. Reactivation Modes of Pre-Extensional Faults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.1.1. Inversion of Faults Bounding Former Half-Grabens and Tilted Blocks\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe inversion of earlier half-grabens and tilted blocks led to the development of narrow fault-propagation folds associated with subsidiary sub-basins in both foreland and hinterland settings. These depressions predominantly accumulated terrigenous sediments during the Miocene to Quaternary (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe dip angle of the bounding faults exerts a primary control on the geometry of the resulting fault-related folds. Reverse reactivation of steeply dipping former normal faults produces high-amplitude, short-wavelength folds, commonly associated with antithetic faults that cut through the syn-inversion sequences (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwo distinct stages of reverse fault reactivation are identified:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn early phase above the null point, affecting the Paleocene to Burdigalian succession ; and\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eA later phase, deforming the Upper Miocene to Quaternary sequences (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConversely, several faults that bound NW\u0026ndash;SE-trending half-grabens in the central and southeastern parts of the study area have retained their normal kinematics (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5). Similarly, N\u0026ndash;S- and E\u0026ndash;W-oriented faults in the southeastern sector also remain extensional (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.1.2. Inversion of Faults Bordering Major Grabens\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the case of the principal graben-bounding faults, tectonic inversion has produced distinct fault-related folds and new thrusts within the hanging wall (Fig.\u0026nbsp;9). The main example is the Fs1 fault, whose reverse reactivation generated a broad fault-related fold structure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, on the northwestern side of the same profile, the Upper Miocene to Plio\u0026ndash;Quaternary (M2, P, and Q) successions in the hanging wall are deformed only above the preserved extensional NNW-trending Fn1 fault, leading to the formation of the outcropping Zeramdine fold (Fig.\u0026nbsp;9). This structure likely formed during the major Pliocene compressional event. The limited deformation of these units suggests that their mechanical weakness relative to older, more competent strata influenced strain localization.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Fc fault, originally a normal fault, was also inverted during the Plio\u0026ndash;Quaternary, giving rise to a small-scale fault-related fold. In contrast, the Fs1 fault underwent continuous reverse reactivation, producing a broad, regionally significant fault-propagation fold. Tilted blocks within the graben, however, remained largely undeformed since the Oligocene.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eField and seismic interpretation indicate that the faults labeled Fn1 in Fig.\u0026nbsp;9 and F1 in Fig.\u0026nbsp;8 represent segments of the same major fault system. These segments exhibit contrasting kinematic responses to tectonic inversion : only the northern, slightly NE\u0026ndash;SW-trending segment was reactivated in reverse, whereas the more E\u0026ndash;W-oriented portions retained normal fault behavior (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5). A similar pattern is observed along other major faults bordering ancient grabens (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis variable response is attributed to the initial fault orientation relative to the principal compressive stress directions during subsequent tectonic phases. Despite the large original throw of the Fn1 fault, compressional reactivation during inversion generated a localized fold along its trace (Fig.\u0026nbsp;8), illustrating the strong geometric control of pre-existing structures on inversion style.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.1.3. Role of Paleozoic Basement Fault Reactivation in the Development of Salt-Cored Folds\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLetouzey et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e) proposed that the Tunisian Atlas resulted from the inversion of Mesozoic intracratonic basins, driven by regional contraction that shortened the Paleozoic basement (Castany \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1952\u003c/span\u003e ; David \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1956\u003c/span\u003e ; Dubourdieu \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1956\u003c/span\u003e ; Letouzey et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e), the Triassic evaporites, and the Meso\u0026ndash;Cenozoic cover (Burollet \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1973\u003c/span\u003e ; Letouzey et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). The structures described by Letouzey et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e) appear to reflect the transpression of a former salt basin located on the Saharan Platform during Neogene compression.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSalt acted as an effective detachment level beneath the overburden, and its ascent was governed by a combination of basement architecture, tectonic events, and sedimentary loading. Analog modelling by Panien et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR92\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) demonstrated that a basal salt interval promotes the development of asymmetric structures and facilitates their later tectonic inversion. Accordingly, the asymmetric graben shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;11 was most likely down-built by extension or transtension acting on a thick, ductile evaporitic layer. Subsequent Middle Miocene compression and associated kinematic transfer along shear faults generated fault-related antiforms that now bound the graben.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese observations support the interpretation that salt kinematics were largely tectonically driven, particularly through the reactivation of Paleozoic basement faults and deformation of the overlying Triassic evaporite package. This interpretation is consistent with the notion that \u0026ldquo;near-seated\u0026rdquo; tectonic stresses produce structures of greater amplitude, geometry, and wavelength than those formed in more distal settings (Withjack and Callaway \u003cspan citationid=\"CR124\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e ; Krzywiec \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e ; Ustaszewski et al. 2005).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.2. Selective Reactivation of Former Extensional Faults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the interpreted section, reverse reactivation of tilted blocks is limited: all faults remain normal except for a single structure that has been reactivated in reverse since the Priabonian (Pyrenean phase). This reactivation generated a localized uplift affecting the bioclastic carbonates of the Ketatna Formation, a potential reservoir unit. The reverse movement of this pre-extensional fault during the Pyrenean phase produced significant facies shifts during Oligocene\u0026ndash;Early Miocene time, from siliciclastic deposition (Fortuna Formation) to localized carbonate buildup (Ketatna Formation at well P19) above the inverted fault. A localized discontinuity is also observed within the Upper Eocene Souar Formation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe inverted graben is analogous to the \u0026ldquo;North Sea inversion style\u0026rdquo; (Zwann et al. 2022), with the exception that the pre-Miocene tilted blocks within the graben were not reactivated in reverse and are sealed by the post-Miocene siliciclastic overburden (Figs.\u0026nbsp;8 and 9). In this case, the graben is asymmetric, bounded by a steep western pre-normal fault and a more gently dipping eastern counterpart. Successive compressional phases with varying orientations reactivated these faults, producing an asymmetrically inverted graben.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe high-angle bounding faults were reactivated and propagated upward into the overburden at shallower dips (Figs.\u0026nbsp;8 and 9). These propagated structures generated high-angle reverse faults that deform the Cenozoic\u0026ndash;Quaternary succession during the inversion. Seismic interpretation reveals minor normal faults affecting successive carbonate platforms of Jurassic, Campanian, Early Eocene, and Langhian age, which generally did not undergo reverse reactivation during subsequent convergence (Figs.\u0026nbsp;8 and 9).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRepeated reverse reactivation of pre-extensional faults is evident (Figs.\u0026nbsp;8, 13, 14). The associated fold geometries vary: the first inversion phase generated tight folds, whereas later phases produced gentler structures (Fig.\u0026nbsp;14). These three inversion episodes correspond to the Pyrenean, Atlassic, and Pliocene tectonic phases, respectively. Variations in fold geometry reflect changes in stress orientation through time.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePreferential reactivation occurred along the main bounding fault, which continued to respond to successive shortening phases with varying stress orientations (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5). The relative depth of the hanging wall also influenced inversion style (Fig.\u0026nbsp;8). The dip angle of the bounding fault controlled the geometry of the resulting fault-related folds: high-angle reverse reactivation produced short-wavelength, high-amplitude folds with antithetic syn-inversion faults. During later inversion, the folds became progressively gentler and longer wavelength (Figs.\u0026nbsp;6 and 14). The hanging wall remained stable and normal, in contrast to the footwall, which was repeatedly uplifted during inversion (Figs.\u0026nbsp;8, 9, 13).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to Dubois (2002), the initial rifting phase (Triassic\u0026ndash;Jurassic; Fig.\u0026nbsp;3) generated the major bounding faults (F1 and F2 in Fig.\u0026nbsp;8; Fn and Fs in Fig.\u0026nbsp;9). Figure\u0026nbsp;5 highlights contrasting behavior of these faults during compressive reactivation, depending on their orientation relative to the stress field.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Figs.\u0026nbsp;8 and 9, the footwall block appears to have experienced greater uplift relative to the hanging wall, preventing full inversion of the graben margin. Nevertheless, termination of inversion coinciding with reduced compressive stress during the Burdigalian\u0026ndash;Langhian interval suggests that complete inversion of the bounding fault cannot be entirely excluded.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.3. Inversion Ratio Calculations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure 13 illustrates how inversion of former extensional faults produced asymmetric footwall-facing antiforms that vary in geometry, wavelength, and amplitude. Null points (Cooper et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e) are used to quantify the degree of inversion in the half-grabens.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwo episodes of reverse reactivation are recognized :\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(1) an initial phase affecting the Paleocene\u0026ndash;Burdigalian sequence above the null point, and\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(2) a later phase deforming Upper Miocene\u0026ndash;Quaternary units.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Fig.\u0026nbsp;13d, the first inversion event produced complex internal deformation within the incompetent syn-rift strata of the hanging wall.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe major inverted faults exhibit variable inversion ratios: Ri\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;13a), Ri\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;13b), and Ri\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1 (Figs.\u0026nbsp;13c, 13e). This variability reflects differences in structural position and the orientation of each fault relative to the maximum compressive stress.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcross the study area, N\u0026ndash;S-trending faults and their associated folds in the northern sector display higher inversion ratios than those in the eastern sector (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6). These northern structures experienced multiple inversion events during four compressional phases spanning Santonian to Pliocene time.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"8. Hydrocarbon Prospectivity in the Area","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study area is situated within well-established petroleum systems (Ben Ferjani et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e; Fourati et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Proven source rocks include the organic-rich black shales of the Fahdene Formation (Albian\u0026ndash;Cenomanian), the marly limestones of the Bahloul Formation (Late Cenomanian\u0026ndash;Turonian), and the lower unit of the Ypresian Boudabbous Formation (Bishop \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e; Ben Ferjani et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e; B\u0026eacute;dir et al. 1992; B\u0026eacute;dir 1995; Klett \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). These units are thermally mature and have generated and expelled hydrocarbons (Ben Ferjani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e). Reported TOC values range from 0.65\u0026ndash;4% for the Albian shales (Abidi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), 1.1\u0026ndash;3.6% for the Bahloul Formation (Zagrarni et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR127\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), and 1.3\u0026ndash;2% for the marly level of the Boudabbous Formation (Fourni\u0026eacute; 1978; Tissot et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR112\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1980\u003c/span\u003e; Ben Ferjani et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e; Fourati et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Additional potential source intervals occur in the uppermost Early Jurassic Nara Formation and in the marly and argillaceous limestones of Middle Jurassic age (Ben Ferjani et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSince the 1950s, drilling has identified several promising reservoir intervals with significant hydrocarbon shows. The Sahel region hosts a single producing field\u0026mdash;Sidi Kilani\u0026mdash;which has produced since the 1990s from fractured micritic limestones of the Abiod Formation (Campanian\u0026ndash;Early Maastrichtian). The Abiod Formation, now a primary target for regional exploration, typically exhibits low to moderate matrix porosity and permeability, but when fractured its porosity ranges from 8 to 30%, classifying it as a productive naturally fractured reservoir (ETAP).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther stratigraphic intervals have yielded oil and gas shows during production testing (ETAP). These include : (i) the carbonates of the Sidi Khalif Formation (Early Cretaceous), (ii) dolomites and reefal buildups of the Serj Formation (Aptian), (iii) Upper Cretaceous carbonates (Bireno and Douleb members), (iv) the upper Boudabbous Formation and its lateral equivalent, the El Garia Formation (Ypresian), (v) fractured carbonates of the Reineche Member (Upper Eocene), (vi) Oligocene dolomites of the Ketatna Formation, and\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(vii) the Langhian bioclastic limestones of the Ain Grab Formation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegional seals are provided primarily by the shales of the Fahd\u0026egrave;ne, Aleg, El Haria, Souar, and Mahmoud formations. The timing of source-rock maturation and migration is critical for successful entrapment. Fourati et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e) argued that oil generation from Cretaceous source rocks began around 65 Ma, peaked at ~\u0026thinsp;10 Ma, and culminated in major expulsion episodes during the Early Tortonian.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite several unsuccessful wells, numerous studies identify the Bireno and Douleb members as oil-prone reservoirs (Klett \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Lansari et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Lansari Zribi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Seismic interpretation has delineated several structural and stratigraphic traps (ETAP). In 2008, three large anticlinal structural leads were identified in the Chorbane region, followed in 2011 by a defined prospect in Sidi Dhaher located on an inverted faulted structure with direct hydrocarbon indicators in multiple reservoir intervals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Boudabbous Formation and its El Garia equivalent constitute excellent Ypresian reservoirs in the Gulf of Gabes area. However, these units are absent at the top of certain positive structures (Fig.\u0026nbsp;7), owing to non-deposition and/or erosion during successive compressive phases. Where preserved, they may host hydrocarbons within tilted blocks sealed by the El Haria marls and sourced from the Fahdene Formation via faults. Int hhe area, these formations have shown poor reservoir quality but potential levels of oil prone rocks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterpretations based on Figs.\u0026nbsp;6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 suggest that tectonically inverted structures\u0026mdash;faulted folds, salt-cored anticlines, and inverted graben margins\u0026mdash;represent key exploration targets due to the coexistence of structural and stratigraphic trapping mechanisms. Source-rock maturation and migration were strongly influenced by rift-related subsidence and subsequent Cenozoic compressional deformation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePotential traps include:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoof closures above salt-cored and fault-related folds (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6),\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003ePinch-out traps flanking inversion-related folds (Figs.\u0026nbsp;6, 10),\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eFault-bounded blocks along inverted graben margins (Figs.\u0026nbsp;8, 9),\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eUplifted and sealed blocks within grabens (Figs.\u0026nbsp;8, 9).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTogether, these features form a suite of promising petroleum plays within the region.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"9. Conclusions and Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study demonstrates that tectonic inversion in salt-bearing basins generates structurally complex deformation patterns. The spatial and temporal distribution of faults established during early rifting exerts a primary control on the geometry and evolution of inversion structures. These inverted systems commonly exhibit coexisting normal and reverse faults and may form significant hydrocarbon traps and, where permeable, migration conduits.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the study area, former extensional faults are steeply dipping structures that cut the Meso\u0026ndash;Cenozoic cover. Initiated during Triassic\u0026ndash;Jurassic rifting, they delineated grabens, half-grabens, and tilted blocks. Their subsequent Cenozoic inversion produced fault-related folds, salt-cored folds, and inverted grabens. These structures evolved in response to a series of compressive events\u0026mdash;Santonian, Late Maastrichtian\u0026ndash;Early Paleocene, Upper Lutetian (Pyrenean), Burdigalian\u0026ndash;Langhian, and Upper Tortonian\u0026ndash;Pliocene\u0026mdash;during which many faults accommodated repeated episodes of reverse motion and cumulative inversion.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, this study points out the existence of two fault families, classified as (i) Paleozoic faults that cut through subsalt basement and drove the ascent of Triassic evaporites during tectonic phases, and (ii) cover-related discontinuities ranging from the Mesozoic to the Quaternary that border extensive and inverted structures. These suprasalt, decoupled faults are grouped into (i) continuously active faults, maintaining that a normal sense of motion or inverted during compression, and (ii) second- and third-order, minor discontinuities affecting Paleogene and/or Neogene deposits. Indeed, some faults retain a normal sense of motion or become inactive or completely sealed by Neogene - Quaternary sediments. Notably, normal and en echelon faults coexist within salt cored folds, faulted crests and normal faults within the associated minibasins.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, some extensional discontinuities were not inverted and continued to slip normally, particularly those oriented parallel or at small angles to the maximum compressive stress. This highlights the selective nature of fault reactivation, governed by fault orientation and proximity to the principal stress direction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrevious studies identified a long, continuous structural feature interpreted as a W\u0026ndash;E trending tectonic corridor\u0026mdash;the \u0026ldquo;Kairouan\u0026ndash;Sousse\u0026ndash;Monastir shear zone\u0026rdquo; (B\u0026eacute;dir 1995; Gabtni \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Belkhiria et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Euler deconvolution in the present study delineates only its eastern branch, also trending approximately E\u0026ndash;W (Fig.\u0026nbsp;11).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe major Atlassic compression (Tortonian\u0026ndash;Pliocene) appears to coincide with the development of numerous petroleum traps through reverse faulting, folding, and thrusting. Proven and potential reservoirs\u0026mdash;including the Serj, Bireno, Douleb, and Boudabbous formations\u0026mdash;may be productive where preserved within these structural traps.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnderstanding fault permeability and healing processes is essential for predicting hydrocarbon migration pathways and assessing trap integrity (Gratier, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), particularly within salt-bearing systems where deformation is complex (Dos Reis et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang and Alves \u003cspan citationid=\"CR129\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough this study is based on seismic and gravity data interpretation, our structural models are substantially strengthened by integrating insights from analogue and numerical studies (Withjack and Callaway \u003cspan citationid=\"CR124\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e ; Dubois et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e ; Panien et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR92\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e ; Zwann et al. 2022), which provide valuable context for deformation in salt-influenced systems. However, analogue models often simplify lithologies (e.g., using homogeneous halite analogs), while natural salt provinces comprise heterogeneous mixtures of halite, anhydrite, gypsum, dolomite, and shale. Despite this, the seismic data display structural configurations broadly consistent with those predicted by controlled experiments, suggesting that these interlayered evaporites effectively behave as a coupled deformational medium at the scale of observation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecent research emphasizes the importance of realistic fault models for reliable seismic interpretation (Alcalde et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Combining seismic interpretation with non-seismic geophysical methods can produce more robust geological solutions and reduce interpretational uncertainty (Saltus and Blakely \u003cspan citationid=\"CR101\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). The inherent non-uniqueness of gravity models and the challenges of fault imaging in seismic data underscore the need for workflows that prioritize well-constrained structural observations to support the construction of geologically plausible models\u0026mdash;an essential foundation for hydrocarbon exploration in complex settings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eImproving vertical and lateral resolution in 2D seismic data requires optimized acquisition and processing, including noise attenuation, deconvolution, and accurate migration. High-resolution 3D seismic datasets, when integrated within a rigorous interpretation workflow, significantly enhance fault imaging (Robledo Carvajal et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Employing specialized 3D seismic attributes for fault delineation provides more accurate three-dimensional geometries and improves assessments of hydrocarbon trap potential.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe integration of artificial intelligence into geophysical interpretation is becoming increasingly important for constructing more reliable geological models and reducing exploration risk in structurally complex basins.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDeclaration of competing interest\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthors Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eH. Boussiga designed and supervised the study. A. Amiri and W. Belkhiria conducted the gravity data analysis and drafted the manuscript. O. Abidi and K. Sebei supported seismic data interpretation and visualization. All authors contributed to the discussion of the results, critically revised the manuscript, and approved the final version for publication.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany thanks go to the Tunisian National Oil Company (ETAP) and the National office of Mines of Tunisia for providing data.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData availability\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo data was used for the research described in the article.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbidi O, Inoubli MH, Sebei K, Boussiga H, Amiri A, Hamdi-Nasr I (2014) Geodynamic framework and petroleum potential of Cap-Bon-Gulf of Hammamet province\u0026ndash; Tunisia: Search and Discovery Article #30368. https://doi.org/10.1190/iceg2015-073\u003cu\u003e.\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbidi O, Inoubli MH, Sebei K, Amiri A, Boussiga H, Hamdi Nasr I, Ben Salem A, and Elabed M (2016) Geodynamic evolution of Northeastern Tunisia during the Maastrichtian\u0026ndash;Paleocene time: Insights from integrated seismic stratigraphic analysis: Surveys in Geophysics, 38: 617\u0026ndash;649, https://doi:10.1007/s10712-016-9404-0.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbidi O, Inoubli MH, Sebei K, Amiri A, Boussiga H, Hamdi Nasr I, Boujamaoui M, Ben Salem A, Elabed M (2018) Integrated stratigraphic modeling of the Cap Bon province during the Maastrichtian Paleocene interval, Tunisia: Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 11: 1\u0026ndash;21, https://doi:10.1007/s12517-018-3502-x.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbidi O, Sebei K, Amiri A, Boussiga H, Hamdi Nasr I, Inoubli MH, Ben Salem A (2021) Subsurface geologic imaging of northeastern Tunisia during the Middle to the Upper Eocene: Insights from integrated geophysical interpretation Special section: Focus on Africa, Interpretation : 39-56, https://doi:10.1190/INT-2021-0020.1 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAlouani R, Ben Ismail-Latrache K, Melki F, Talbi F (1996) The Upper Eocene prograding folds in northwestern Tunisia: Stratigraphic records and geodynamic significance, proceedings of the Fifth Tunisian Petroleum Exploration Conference, Tunis, October 15th -18\u003csup\u003eth \u003c/sup\u003e: 23-34. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAlcalde J, Bond CE, Johnson G, Butler R WH, Cooper MA, Ellis JF (2017) The importance of structural model availability on seismic interpretation, Journal of Structural Geology Vol.97, April 2017 : 161-171, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2017.03.003.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAlsop GI, Blundell DJ, Davison I (1996) Salt tectonics, Geological Society of London Special Edition n\u0026deg;100. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAmari A, Bedir M (1989) Les bassins quaternaires du Sahel central de la Tunisie. 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Geol. 204, Issues 1\u0026ndash;2: 18\u0026ndash;35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2007.12.007\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZargouni F (1985) Tectonique de l\u0026apos;Atlas m\u0026eacute;ridional de Tunisie, Evolution g\u0026eacute;om\u0026eacute;trique et cin\u0026eacute;matique des structures en zone de cisaillement, Th\u0026egrave;se Sci., Universit\u0026eacute; Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg, France, 296p. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang Q, Alves T (2023) Palaeostress state around a rising salt diapir inferred from seismic reflection data, Marine and Petroleum Geology 155 (2023) 106385: 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2023.106385. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZwaan F, Schreurs G, Buiter SJH, Ferrer O, Reitano R, Rudolf M, Willingshofer E (2022) Analogue modelling of basin inversion: a review and future perspectives, Solid Earth, Vol. 13, issue 12, SE, 13: 1859\u0026ndash;1905, 2022. https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1859-2022.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"acta-geophysica","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"agph","sideBox":"Learn more about [Acta Geophysica](http://link.springer.com/journal/11600)","snPcode":"11600","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/agph/default2.aspx","title":"Acta Geophysica","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"compression, tectonic inversion, differential reactivation, fault kinematics, petroleum prospectivity","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8502621/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8502621/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study discusses how tectonic inversion selectively reactivated former extensional structures within the salt bearing basins of northeastern Tunisia. Our approach is based on an integrated interpretation of gravity data and regional 2D seismic profiles. The geological history of the area distinguishes two main tectonic phases: an initial period of predominant Mesozoic extension, followed by a prominent compressional regime that has persisted since the end of Cretaceous, in response to the convergence of African and Eurasian plates. As a result, five distinct episodes of tectonic inversion have been highlighted: Santonian, Late Maastrichtian-Early Paleocene, Upper Lutetian, Burdigalian-Langhian, and Upper Tortonian-Pliocene times. As a consequence, positive inversion reactivated Mesozoic rift basins, generating faulted folds, salt cored folds, and inverted grabens. Indeed, reactivation of pre-existing normal faults was spatially selective, during Cenozoic compression. In fact, the majority of the reactivated faults are located in the northwestern part of the area, and trend predominately N-S to NE-SW, orthogonal to the NW-SE-oriented compressional stress field, established since the Santonian. Therefore, among the triggering factors controlling fault reactivation, the orientation of faults relative to maximum principal paleostress and its magnitude seems to play a key role in tectonic inversion. However, closely space and similar discontinuities can react differently to tectonic inversion, probably due to variations in fault properties such as cohesion and coefficient of friction. Additionally, faults properties like permeability and healing processes must also been taken into account to improve predictions of hydrocarbon prospectivity.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Evidence of selective tectonic inversion in salt bearing basins inferred from integrated interpretation of gravity and 2D seismic data (Northeastern Tunisia)","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-09 18:17:52","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8502621/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2026-01-20T10:44:27+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-01-07T18:26:47+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"Acta Geophysica","date":"2026-01-07T13:04:04+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-01-03T05:24:01+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Acta Geophysica","date":"2026-01-02T12:51:41+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"acta-geophysica","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"agph","sideBox":"Learn more about [Acta Geophysica](http://link.springer.com/journal/11600)","snPcode":"11600","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/agph/default2.aspx","title":"Acta Geophysica","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"5c180cc8-8070-4286-922b-4e9f4d89e1b2","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 9th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-09T18:17:52+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-09 18:17:52","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8502621","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8502621","identity":"rs-8502621","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}