Widening gap between college students’ perceptions and abilities: The Dunning-Kruger phenomenon in critical thinking appraisal in higher education

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The development of optimal critical thinking skills better prepares students for college and their careers. The measurement of critical thinking actual abilities like inquisitiveness, open-mindedness, or systemic thinking among college students is limited. Similarly, the assessment of all types of critical thinking like creative or practical from the perspectives of students is meager. Methods This research utilizes original data collected from 803 college students between 2020 and 2021 after securing institutional review approval for the research. Self-reported data on 30 items instrument measuring students’ ratings of their analytical, creative, and practical thinking is used. Descriptive statistics, independent samples t-tests, and correlation analysis all were used to estimate the prevalence of critical thinking, and whether gender or language influence it or not. Results Results indicate that undergraduate students rated their abilities in critical thinking is very high. On all three types of critical thinking (analytical thinking, creative thinking, practical thinking), students scored between 117 and 123 on a 30-150 scale, indicating a high score. Additionally, gender and language have little to no influence over critical thinking scores. Further, analytical, creative, and practical thinking are independent from each other evident in the low correlations among all three elements. The results suggest the emergence of the Dunning-Kruger effect concerning students’ critical thinking assessment. Conclusions There is a colossal gap between students- self-reported ratings and their actual performance on critical thinking instruments. More rigorous assessments of dispositions and abilities are needed utilizing existing validated instruments in literature. 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F1000Research 2025, 14 :553 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.157874.1 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. Close Copy Citation Details Export Export Citation Sciwheel EndNote Ref. Manager Bibtex ProCite Sente EXPORT Select a format first Track Share ▬ ✚ Research Article Widening gap between college students’ perceptions and abilities: The Dunning-Kruger phenomenon in critical thinking appraisal in higher education [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations] Wael Yousef 1 , Malek Abduljaber 2 , Mehmet Onder 3 Wael Yousef 1 , Malek Abduljaber 2 , Mehmet Onder 3 PUBLISHED 03 Jun 2025 Author details Author details 1 Core Curriculum Program, Deanship of General Studies, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar 2 Saginaw Valley State University, Great Lakes, Michigan, USA 3 Political Science and International Relations, Hasan Kalyoncu University, Gaziantep, Gaziantep, Turkey Wael Yousef Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Investigation, Project Administration, Resources, Supervision, Visualization, Writing – Original Draft Preparation Malek Abduljaber Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Validation, Visualization, Writing – Review & Editing Mehmet Onder Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Validation, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing OPEN PEER REVIEW DETAILS REVIEWER STATUS This article is included in the Social Psychology gateway. Abstract Background Critical thinking is a collection of dispositions and abilities related to individuals’ analytical, creative, and practical cognitive and decision-making skills. The development of optimal critical thinking skills better prepares students for college and their careers. The measurement of critical thinking actual abilities like inquisitiveness, open-mindedness, or systemic thinking among college students is limited. Similarly, the assessment of all types of critical thinking like creative or practical from the perspectives of students is meager. Methods This research utilizes original data collected from 803 college students between 2020 and 2021 after securing institutional review approval for the research. Self-reported data on 30 items instrument measuring students’ ratings of their analytical, creative, and practical thinking is used. Descriptive statistics, independent samples t-tests, and correlation analysis all were used to estimate the prevalence of critical thinking, and whether gender or language influence it or not. Results Results indicate that undergraduate students rated their abilities in critical thinking is very high. On all three types of critical thinking (analytical thinking, creative thinking, practical thinking), students scored between 117 and 123 on a 30-150 scale, indicating a high score. Additionally, gender and language have little to no influence over critical thinking scores. Further, analytical, creative, and practical thinking are independent from each other evident in the low correlations among all three elements. The results suggest the emergence of the Dunning-Kruger effect concerning students’ critical thinking assessment. Conclusions There is a colossal gap between students- self-reported ratings and their actual performance on critical thinking instruments. More rigorous assessments of dispositions and abilities are needed utilizing existing validated instruments in literature. READ ALL READ LESS Keywords Critical thinking; dispositions; abilities; assessment; college students. Corresponding Author(s) Wael Yousef ( [email protected] ) Close Corresponding author: Wael Yousef Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information: The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work. Copyright: © 2025 Yousef W et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The author(s) is/are employees of the US Government and therefore domestic copyright protection in USA does not apply to this work. The work may be protected under the copyright laws of other jurisdictions when used in those jurisdictions. How to cite: Yousef W, Abduljaber M and Onder M. Widening gap between college students’ perceptions and abilities: The Dunning-Kruger phenomenon in critical thinking appraisal in higher education [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :553 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.157874.1 ) First published: 03 Jun 2025, 14 :553 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.157874.1 ) Latest published: 18 Sep 2025, 14 :553 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.157874.2 )  There is a newer version of this article available. Suppress this message for one day. Introduction Critical thinking is the logical evaluation of problems or situations based on evidence to create plausible actions to be taken to solve or correct a real or hypothetical dilemma ( Alsaleh, 2020 ; Liu & Pásztor, 2022 ; Sutiani, 2021 ). Sternberg argued that individuals are able to achieve their goals if they practice analytical, creative, and practical thinking, the elements of successful intelligence. Similarly, Carter and Kravits (2014) suggested that critical thinking allows students to succeed in college. In Keys to College Success , Carter and Kravits (2014) advocated for the active teaching of critical thinking to develop students’ autonomous analytical ability, nourish creative skills, and provide spaces for the exercise of decision-making. Thus, the educators constantly urge higher learning institutions to measure and improve critical thinking levels among their students ( Erikson & Erikson, 2019 ; Liu & Pásztor, 2022 ). One of the driving motivations underlying this research is the lack of thorough assessments of critical thinking among Middle Eastern college students. More specifically, much of the available research utilized Western translated instruments like the California Critical Thinking Appraisal or The Watson-Glasser Critical Thinking Appraisal. Such instruments are heavily focused on the analytical thinking ability element minimizing the creative or practical elements. Furthermore, most researchers have focused on actual critical thinking skills assessment ignoring the important role of critical thinking dispositions. The tendency to be inquisitive, open-minded, motivated and persevering are all essential ideation states required for the optimal execution of critical thinking. Self-reported measurement of students’ critical thinking ability on analytical, creative, and practical elements is missing from the literature, especially among Middle Eastern and North African college students ( Abduljaber et al., 2025 ; Al-Mahrooqi & Denman, 2020 ; Elyas & Al-Zahrani, 2019 ). The present research asks the following set of research questions. What is the prevalence of analytical, creative, and practical thinking among college students in the Middle East? To what extent do language of instruction or gender influence critical thinking self-reported ratings on analytical, creative, and practical thinking? To what degree are analytical, creative, and practical thinking independent from each other? By the same token, the purpose of the study is to estimate the levels of critical thinking among a large sample of students attending Qatar University in Doha. Similarly, the study estimates the associations between demographic factors like language and gender and critical thinking levels. Finally, the analysis examines whether the three elements of critical thinking are correlated or not. Findings conclude that Qatar University students self-reported a very high overall rating of critical thinking. Similarly, the 803 participants indicated a very high ability in all three areas of critical thinking. The independent samples t tests reported no discernible practical differences in scores between male and female students. By the same token, being instructed in Arabic or English has minimal practical effect on critical thinking self-reporting. The correlations between analytical, creative, and practical thinking were too low to conclude that all three elements measure the same underlying construct. The ongoing research contributes to the study of critical thinking in the Middle East in several respects. First, this investigation raises serious concerns about the potential emergence of a Dunning-Kruger Effect in this area of research. There is a clear contradiction between the very high self-reported ratings in this research and the poor performance on other assessments in prior studies. Future researchers are recommended to utilize other standardized assessments for measuring critical thinking dispositions like the California Critical Thinking Dispositions Appraisal. Second, this study emphasizes the importance of measuring all elements of critical thinking rather than simply focusing on analytical ability. The evidence shows that creative and practical thinking are equally important in developing students’ college and career readiness. Literature review Critical thinking conceptualization Critical thinking concerns individuals’ perceptions and abilities to define problems, formulate hypotheses pinpoint important information. Identify strategies, solve problems and use, as well as evaluate evidence to construct meaningful arguments ( Fasko & Fair, 2003 ; Hitchcock, 2018 ). On the one hand, some researchers believe in the universality of such perceptions and abilities across fields and contexts ( Heard et al., 2020a ; Hitchcock, 2018 ). On the other hand, few researchers believe that critical thinking is disciplinary specific ( Heard et al., 2020b ; Fasko & Fair, 2003 ). For instance, critical thinking perceptions and practices in the physical sciences and their applications differ from those in the social sciences ( Dellantonio & Pastore, 2021 ; Kuhn, 2019 ). In this analysis, however, it is the view of the authors that critical thinking constitutes a set of versatile universal dispositions and application of skills in a wide array of fields. Sternberg (1999) argued that critical thinking is comprised of three distinct abilities: analytical, creative, and practical. He uses a story of two boys who are faced with a bear chase. The first boy is an analytical person who calculates the amount of time needed to escape the attack. The second boy is practical since he puts on his running shoes and begins sprinting believing that if he only surpasses the other boy, he will be shared. The second boy analyzed the gravity of the situation, created a plan, and acted on it. Sternberg (1999) calls the actualization of all three types of thinking “successful intelligence” necessary for goals achievement. Analytical thinking concerns the processing of information for the purpose of solving a problem ( Sternberg, 2002 ). It involves working with relevant information by asking important questions, contrasting rival hypotheses, and evaluating alternative solutions with a causal thinking context. Creative thinking is the generation of new ideas using available information. It concerns imagining the problem in new ways to devise innovative solutions ( Warner, 2019 ). It also refers to the repackaging of already available knowledge to produce new views, models, or practices. Practical thinking is the ability to put thoughts and experiences into action. It encompasses acting based on the products of the other types of thinking ( Gardner et al., 1996 ). The combined application of the three types constitutes the best way individuals are able to achieve goals like solving a problem or making a decision. Evaluating college students critical thinking dispositions in the middle east The limited research on Arab students’ dispositions toward critical thinking points to a positive reality ( Amin et al., 2012 ). Across several studies from different countries Arab students have exhibited positive attitudes toward the scientific method, inquisitiveness, and open-mindedness. Additionally, a study from Hebron University in Palestine documented the relative positive attitudes of English majors toward writing as a tool for improving critical thinking and argumentation ( Al-Dumairi & Al-Jabari, 2016 ). Another study (i.e., Allamnakhrah, 2013 ) from Saudi Arabia noted the developing critical thinking qualities of analytical propensity and systematic organization among pre-service teaching students across two large universities (King Fahad University and Arab Open University). The research area of critical thinking dispositions among Arab students is an emerging field featuring a small number of analyses directly measuring the different facets of critical thinking attitudes/dispositions. Interestingly, Arab students have consistently scored low on critical thinking standardized assessments despite self-reporting a moderate to high level of critical thinking appreciation and ability ( Al-Husban et al., 2022 ; McLellan, 2009 ). One of the obvious explanations is that students rate their perceived abilities in performing tasks much higher than their actual observed abilities ( Dalha, 2018 ). Students to highly agree with statements pointing to a great ability in analyzing, interpreting, and constructing arguments ( McLellan, 2009 ; Suliman, 2006 ). Once put to the test, students tend to struggle applying their highly perceived abilities in practice. The measurement of critical thinking dispositions in the Middle East, and particularly the Arab World is limited ( Abduljaber & Onder, 2024 ; Onder, 2023 ). On the one hand, authors insert few items in larger surveys intended to measure other constructs. For instance, in one study, the authors desired to measure students’ attitudes toward writing at the college level ( Al-Dumairi & Al-Jabari, 2016 ). The authors inserted two to three items about the value of writing in nourishing critical thinking. This approach misses the holistic assessment of critical thinking dispositions. None of the available studies on critical thinking dispositions utilized standardized assessments like the California Critical Thinking Dispositions Inventory or the Sternberg’s three-pronged critical thinking instrument with reference to Arab or Middle Eastern college students’ populations. Evaluating college students critical thinking abilities in the middle east Past research noted the deficiency in analytical, creative, and practical thinking abilities among college students across the Middle East ( Al-Mahrooqi & Denman, 2020 ; Elyas & Al-Zahrani, 2019 ). Studies from Iraq, Lebanon, Jordan, Oman, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen all pointed to a consistent poor performance on critical thinking appraisals and tests. Students scored low on questions asking them to identify relevant information, classify types of evidence, construct written reasonable arguments, and translate ideas into actionable plans ( Abdullah et al., 2019 ; Algharaibeh & ALmomani, 2020 ; Alkharusi et al., 2019 ; Amrous & Nejmaoui, 2017 ; Basha et al., 2016 ; Merrifield, 2018 ). Students lacked the ability to assess the soundness of arguments and generate out of the box solutions presented to them ( Elyas & Al-Zahrani, 2019 ). In addition, students exhibited low levels of analytical thinking in demonstrating inadequate use of comparisons and contrasting when formulating reasonable logical written arguments. Methods This research follows a quantitative descriptive cross-sectional survey design. The quantitative methodology is selected because it offers the researcher the ability to estimate the prevalence of critical thinking among various samples ( Abduljaber, 2018a ; Abduljaber, 2018b ; Onder, 2019a ; Onder, 2019b ), one of the goals driving this research. Additionally, descriptive designs are appropriate for majoring relationships among variables like analytical, creative, and practical thinking, another primary goal for this investigation. Furthermore, a cost effective and timely measurement approach to critical thinking is to collect respondents’ self-reported ratings of their abilities. Thus, a survey of a large sample of students attending different courses across various semesters constitutes a suitable way of obtaining data to measure the level of critical thinking among college students. Prior to data collection activities, Qatar University Research Ethics committee approved the investigation. The Qatar University Institutional Review Board (QU-IRB) approval number is QU-IRB 1487-E/21, and it was approved on February 22, 2021. Participants completed written informed consent forms before taking part in the study (see the consent form) ( Yousef, W. 2025 ). Responses were anonymous to ensure confidentiality. No identifying information were collected throughout any phase during the research. Sampling The population for this research is college students in the Middle East. Currently, there are no sampling frames providing all the units for constructing probability-based samples. Therefore, a cross-sectional non-probability sample from Qatar University students is taken. The total number of observations is 803 students. The students come from a variety of colleges and demographic groups. Further, some of the students were taught in the English language while the majority were instructed in Arabic. Note that the data collection procedure lasted three consecutive semesters to guarantee sufficient variability. The data came from three distinct semesters: Spring 2020, Fall 2020, and Spring 2021. One of the noticeable trends in the data collection is that during Spring 2020, the data phase collected in a face-to-face manner while in the subsequent two semesters, it was collected virtually because of Covid-19 schools’ closure. Table 1 demonstrates some of the sample characteristics. Table 1. Sample characteristics (Source: Authors). Semester Language of instruction Gender Arabic English Female Male Spring 2020 183 63 246 0 Fall 2020 323 0 323 0 Spring 2021 234 0 0 234 Total 740 63 569 234 803 803 Measures To assess critical thinking, Sternberg’s successful intelligence three-pronged conception guided the analysis. Three types of thinking were measured, each with ten Likert statements: analytical, creative, and practical. All the statements were adopted from the Key to College Success by Carter and Kravits (2014) . Each statement is measured on a 1-5 ordinal scale where students rate each statement as resembling them or not. More specifically, the measurement categories were labeled as follows: Definitely Unlike Me (1), Somewhat Unlike Me (2), Not Sure (3), Somewhat Like Me (4), and Definitely Like Me (5). Data analysis Descriptive statistics were used to estimate the prevalence of each of the critical thinking dimensions among students. First, the means of each item, as well as the dimensions, were calculated. Second, the average score for all items were calculated and considered as the total score measuring prevalence. Since there are 30 items measured on a 1-5 ordinal scale, the prevalence score ranged between 30 and 150. Higher scores corresponded to better levels of critical thinking. Second, a series of independent t tests were performed to investigate whether gender or language of instruction carried any significant effects on observed results. Also, simple means’ comparisons were made based on the calculated averages per semester for each dimension of critical thinking. If the means’ difference between any two groups was found to be statistically significant, it was interpreted further to shed light on the potential effect of the attribute on the variable. Note that simple means’ comparisons were demonstrated using histograms and averages tables. Furthermore, a correlational analysis between the scores of each dimension across every semester was performed. The purpose of this analysis was to investigate whether the three dimensions are related. If the correlations among all of them are high, then all of the three dimensions measure the same underlying construct. On the other hand, if the correlations among the three were low, then they do not measure the same variable. In the latter scenario, each dimension is deemed to be autonomous from other dimensions measuring an independent skill. Figure 1 shows the prevalence of critical thinking among Qatar University 803 students who completed the Sternberg’s questionnaire. Overall, students have a very good self-reported rating of their critical thinking 120.37 on a 30-150 scale. Across all three dimensions, analytical, creative, and practical thinking, students self-reported their resemblance to the practice characteristics listed in the statements as Somewhat Like Me or Definitely Like Me. More specifically, the analytical thinking scores across the three semesters for all students who completed that portion of the questionnaire is 122. Similarly, the creative thinking score for all students was 117.87. By the same token, the practical thinking score for the entire sample was 121.25. Examining all such prevalence scores, one finds that Qatar University students rated themselves as very good as seen in the designated categories in Figure 1 . Figure 1. Prevalence of critical thinking among Qatar University students (Source: Authors). Results Qatar University students rated themselves high on analytical thinking. Table 2 demonstrates the means of ten items measuring students analytical thinking abilities. Note that all items possessed high means ranging between 3.9 and 4.3 (last column). Students’ self-reported perceptions about their abilities to define problems, formulate questions, use evidence, and reason with logical arguments were high regardless of gender or semester. Similarly, students self-rated themselves as creative thinkers by providing high scores on the ten items measuring various facets of innovative thinking as shown in Table 2 . All items had meanings between 3.1 and 4.2 (last column). Interestingly, Qatar University students appeared to be cautious by being less willing to rate their abilities to take risks by making mistakes as high as other creative thinking items. Overall, students believe that they generate a diversity of unique ideas in group settings and find innovative solutions by defying rules and routines. In the same vein, students rated their practical thinking abilities to be high. All means of the ten items measuring practical thinking ranged between 3.5 and 4.2 (last column). Table 3 shows summation of each critical thinking dimension (i.e., analytical thinking, creative thinking, and practical thinking). Students perceived themselves as doers, problem-solvers, disciplined and organized. In sum, Qatar University students perceive themselves as analytical, creative, and practical thinkers. Table 2. Items Averages of critical thinking dimensions (adopted from Carter & Kravits, 2014 ). Item name Spring 2021 Fall 2020 Spring 2021 Average of semesters A) Analytical Thinking Questions A-1) I recognize and define problems effectively. 4.125 4.270 4.167 4.187 A-2) I see myself as a thinker and as analytical and studious. 3.937 3.983 3.846 3.922 A-3) When working on a problem in a group setting, I like to break down the problem into its components and evaluate them. 3.887 3.991 3.923 3.934 A-4) I need to see convincing evidence before accepting information as fact. 4.300 4.452 4.167 4.306 A-5) I weigh the pros and cons of plans and ideas before taking action. 4.075 4.287 4.103 4.155 A-6) I tend to make connections among bits of information by categorizing them. 3.887 4.035 3.833 3.918 A-7) Impulsive, spontaneous decision-making worries me. 3.787 4.165 3.872 3.941 A-8) I like to analyze causes and effects when making a decision. 4.175 4.243 3.615 4.011 A-9) I monitor my progress toward goals. 4.012 4.365 4.051 4.143 A-10) Once I reach a goal, I evaluate the process to see how effective it was. 3.837 4.096 3.962 3.965 B) Creative Thinking Questions B-1) I tend to question rules and regulations. I tend to question rules and regulations. 4.025 4.223 3.987 4.078 B-2) I see myself as unique, full of ideas, and innovative. 3.914 4.202 3.857 3.991 B-3) When working on a problem in a group setting, I generate a lot of ideas. 4.210 4.266 4.078 4.185 B-4) I am energized when I have a brand-new experience. 4.259 4.436 4.208 4.301 B-5) If you say something is too risky, I’m ready to give it a shot. 3.741 3.883 3.857 3.827 B-6) I often wonder if there is a different way to do or see something. 4.185 4.287 3.974 4.149 B-7) Too much routine in my work or schedule drains my energy. 3.679 3.596 3.468 3.581 B-8) I tend to see connections among ideas that others do not. 3.815 4.064 3.909 3.929 B-9) I feel comfortable allowing myself to make mistakes as I test out ideas. 3.198 3.234 3.091 3.174 B-10) I’m willing to champion an idea even when others disagree with me. 4.025 4.213 3.831 4.023 C) Practical Thinking Questions C-1) I can find a way around any obstacle. 4.035 4.223 3.987 4.078 C-2) I see myself as a doer and the go-to person; I make things happen. 3.965 4.202 3.857 3.991 C-3) When working on a problem in a group setting, I like to figure out who will do what and when it should be done. 4.024 4.266 4.078 4.185 C-4) I apply what I learn from experience to improve my response to similar situations. 4.059 4.436 4.208 4.301 C-5) I finish what I start and don’t leave loose ends hanging. 3.776 3.883 3.857 3.827 C-6) I note my emotions about academic and social situations and use what they tell me to move toward a goal. 3.929 4.287 3.974 4.149 C-7) I can sense how people feel and use that knowledge to interact with others effectively. 4.165 3.596 3.468 3.581 C-8) I manage my time effectively. 3.365 4.064 3.909 3.929 C-9) I adjust to the teaching styles of my instructors and the communication styles of my peers. 3.906 3.234 3.091 3.174 C-10) When involved in a problem-solving process, I can shift gears as needed. 4.106 4.213 3.831 4.023 Table 3. Summation of averages for critical thinking dimensions (Source: Authors). Critical thinking dimensions Spring 2020 Fall 2020 Spring 2021 Average of summations Analytical Thinking 40.022 41.887 39.539 40.482 Creative Thinking 39.051 40.404 38.260 39.238 Practical Thinking 39.330 42.299 39.634 40.420 Figure 2 shows students self-reported critical thinking scores on the three dimensions in each semester with available data. Note that each score is out of 50 because each dimension is measured with ten items each ranging between 1 and 5. The score is the summation of the ten items. Within each semester, analytical, creative and practical thinking averages were high and not very different. Simultaneously, the differences among scores over time were minimal. The changes in scores could be caused by a wide array of factors. Regardless of the factors generating the difference, the scores have not changed much ranging from 38 to 42. Figure 2. Comparison of the dimensions of critical thinking in terms of semesters (Source: Authors). Figure 3 displays students’ scores for analytical, creative and practical thinking by language of instruction in the Spring of 2020. Note that Arabic instructed students scored slightly higher than English instructed students. The differences in scores, however, were minimal. Qatar is an Arabic speaking country and Qatar University is home to a majority of Arabic speaking students. Therefore, it would be expected to experience more difficulty in courses taught in the English language causing a miniscule drop in critical thinking scores. Figure 3. Comparison of the dimensions of critical thinking in terms of instruction language (Source: Authors). Table 4 demonstrates the results of an independent samples t-test investigating whether sex influences total scores on critical thinking. The dependent variable is the total score resulting from the summation of all 30 items per student generating a score ranging between 30 and 150. The independent variable is the self-reported student sex. Results show that females score higher than males. Also, the means’ difference is statistically significant at the 0.01 level with a relatively large t statistic value. Therefore, females tend to be more critical thinkers compared to males at Qatar University according to the self-reported data available. Table 4. Gender variable T-test results (Two-sample, unequal variances) (Source: Authors). Male Female Mean 117.142 124.968 Variance 148.624 61.063 Observations 77 94 Hypothesized Mean Difference 0 Degrees of Freedom 124 T-statistic -4.871 Probability of t-statistic 0.000 Table 5 shows the results of an independent samples t-test examining whether language of instruction affects scores on critical thinking. Note that the dependent variable is the sum of all 30 items on the test. Further, the independent variable is language measured by Arabic or English. Results show that Arabic taught students scored higher than English taught students. Nevertheless, the means’ difference is only statistically significant at the 0.10 level. Such a result alludes to the conclusion that language did not cause the differences observed in the test scores. Table 5. Instruction language variable T-test results (Two-sample, unequal variances) (Source: Authors). English Arabic Mean 114.809 199.610 Variance 94.161 75.517 Observations 21 59 Hypothesized Mean Difference 0 Degrees of Freedom 32 T-statistic -1.999 Probability of t-statistic 0.054 Table 6 shows the results of bivariate correlations between analytical, creative and practical thinking for the Spring 2020. Note that practical thinking is negatively associated with both analytical and creative thinking. Nevertheless, the magnitude of the correlations is minimal. By the same token, analytical thinking had an inverse relationship with creative thinking. All associations, however, are small or non-significant. Table 6. Bivariate correlations of critical thinking dimensions for spring 2020 term (Source: Authors). Analytical thinking Creative thinking Practical thinking Analytical Thinking 1.000 Creative Thinking -0.113 1.000 Practical Thinking -0.079 -0.059 1.000 Table 7 shows the bivariate correlations between analytical, creative, and practical thinking for Fall 2020. Note that practical thinking is conversely related to analytical and creative thinking. More importantly, the inverse association between practical thinking and analytical thinking is stronger compared to the association between practical thinking and creative thinking. Note that the correlation between analytical thinking and creative thinking is negligible and close to zero. Table 7. Bivariate correlations of critical thinking dimensions for fall 2020 term (Source: Authors). Analytical thinking Creative thinking Practical thinking Analytical Thinking 1.000 Creative Thinking 0.024 1.000 Practical Thinking -0.316 -0.107 1.000 Table 8 demonstrates the bivariate correlations between analytical, creative and practical thinking in the Spring of 2021. Note that analytical thinking is conversely related to creative thinking. By the same token, practical thinking is negatively associated with both analytical and creative thinking. Note, however, that the strength of such correlations is weak. It appears that if a student scores high on practical thinking, the student will likely score lower on both analytical and creative thinking. Table 8. Bivariate correlations of critical thinking dimensions for spring 2021 term (Source: Authors). Analytical thinking Creative thinking Practical thinking Analytical Thinking 1.000 Creative Thinking -0.177 1.000 Practical Thinking -0.070 -0.054 1.000 One of the patterns worthies of mention is that Qatar University students rated their practical thinking abilities in a more favorable way compared to analytical or creative thinking. Figure 4 demonstrates the highest six means among all the items considered in this research. Note that four of them are within the purview of practical thinking. Students rated their abilities to perform or do tasks, apply learned knowledge, and completion of tasks higher than other items on the questionnaire. With respect to analytical thinking, students rated their desire to observe convincing evidence as the highest item in that dimension. Concerning creative thinking, students rated being energized when exposed to new learning experiences as the highest item within that set of indicators. Figure 4. Comparison of the dimensions of critical thinking in terms of instruction language (Source: Authors). Simultaneously, students rated themselves low in few items. The least six means, as seen in Figure 5 , were associated with three practical thinking items, two creative thinking items, and one analytical thinking item. Shifting between tasks or problems, adjustment to new teaching styles, and time management were the least skills students rated themselves in. By the same token, allowing oneself to make mistakes was one of the least creative thinking items students rated themselves on. With respect to analytical thinking, students indicated a dislike to analyze causes and effects. Figure 5. Comparison of the dimensions of critical thinking in terms of instruction language (Source: Authors). Discussion The findings in this research contradict the literature on critical thinking abilities among college students in the Middle East ( Abrami et al., 2015 ; Chen et al., 2018 ; Lee et al., 2016 ; Miterianifa et al., 2019 ). Unlike past research reporting low scores on critical thinking assessments, this study documented high self-reported analytical, creative, and practical thinking scores among Qatar University students. In a related study, Yousef (2021) concluded that Qatar University students regardless of gender, language of instruction, years’ standing or major scored low on a mathematics literacy test designed to measure students’ abilities in identifying, implementing, and evaluating strategy. This result confirms the existence of the mismatch between self-reported measures and observed assessments of students’ abilities in critical thinking. This research uncovers a Dunning-Kruger’s effect reality in the assessment of critical thinking among Arab college students like Qatar University attendees. The Dunning-Kruger effect holds that individuals rate their abilities much higher compared to their actual skills ( Kruger & Dunning, 1999 ). One of the reasons driving this phenomenon is the fear of losing face reputation among peers and instructors. Students desire to be perceived as smart and intelligent, and therefore would likely rate their skills at unrealistically high values. By the same token, confidence is a reversed quality in modern society, and no college student aspires to be perceived incontinent in his or her circles. To appear confident, students are more likely to rate themselves as knowledgeable in areas where they truly need serious training and development. Many students believe that their skills and intelligence in one domain transfers to others. Such a thought is absolutely untenable because knowing how to solve complex mathematics problems does not translate into becoming a great English language writer. One of the most important findings in this research is the validation of Sternberg’s three-pronged conception of critical thinking ( Sternberg, 1999 ). Unlike other researchers who believe that critical thinking is a unidimensional construct, this study documented low bivariate correlations between analytical, creative, and practical thinking. Such a conclusion leads to the belief that each domain of the three critical thinking possesses unique skills independent of others ( Yousef, 2021 ). This result challenges existing critical thinking instructional models that overwhelmingly focus on analytical ability more than creativity or decision making and implementation. Conclusions This investigation examined critical thinking dispositions among college students from their perspectives. Results indicated that students rate their analytical, creative, and practical thinking as high. Additionally, gender and language of instruction seem to have little to no effect on students’ critical thinking ratings. The correlational analysis reported low associations between the three types of critical thinking pointing to the validity of Sternberg’s measurement model. The three distinct dimensions are independent from each other, noting a need for teaching all of them at the college level rather than simply focusing on analytical thinking. The evidence presented throughout this paper is important for several considerations. First, past analyses noted the limited ability of college students in critical thinking skills’ assessments. Such a trend suggests the emergence of the Dunning-Kruger phenomenon. Students may rate their skills as high. However, when tested, their actual ability is much lower. Furthermore, the rigorous testing of students ‘critical thinking dispositions is important given the limited study of the topic. The implementation of validated instruments like the California Critical Thinking Dispositions Appraisal is crucial in determining prevalence among college students’ populations especially in neglected settings like The Middle East. Recommendations Critical thinking achievement in the Middle East suffers from persistent inadequacy. One of the solutions is to introduce analytical, creative, and practical thinking exercises in all courses taught at the undergraduate level. For instance, a business student who is completing an introductory to business course featuring online timed tests or quizzes will not develop thinking skills. If the course introduced assignments like desiring one’s own business and devising a marketing strategy, as well as implementing one or more components of it, students are more likely going to develop more critical thinking skills. Taking the scenario further, if the same course requires students to present their ideas three to four times a semester, then students are expected to generate new ideas, package them in acceptable academic format, and present them using some form of evidence. Arising from this discussion is the need to revamp instruction at the higher education level. Requiring instructors to include critical thinking assignments featuring analytical, creative, and practical thinking will improve students’ competencies with respect to the construct. The standardized measurement of critical thinking abilities and dispositions in Middle Eastern higher education is a rare practice. Colleges and universities are urged to adopt available reputable and valid critical thinking assessments like the California Critical Thinking Appraisal for actual abilities or dispositions. Improving critical thinking ability requires knowing the starting point. As of now little to no evidence shows Arab colleges or universities commitment to critical thinking consistent assessment. Taking advantage of available education technologies is a key driver in fostering critical thinking skills in higher education ( Goldsmith, 2013 ; Mandernach, 2006 ). Instructors could ask students to design new products or services using simulation and modelling software. By the same token, students may collect, organize, analyze, visualize and interpret data to answer research questions or test hypotheses using statistical packages ( Woo & Wang, 2009 ). Students could generate graphics to demonstrate how their decisions affect a variety of contacts or areas ( Dominguez et al., 2015 ; Ikhsan et al., 2020 ). All in all, once technology is introduced and students utilize it to complete assignments, the activation of more than a single domain of critical thinking is at work. Limitations One of the limitations in this research is the use of non-random sampling in recruiting subjects to participate in the research. Results obtained represent the samples used in this study, which on face value do not differ from Qatar University’s population, however, the subjects were not randomly selected. The absence of randomization may have introduced unobserved biases to the sample ( Abduljaber & Kalin, 2019 ; Onder, 2021 ; Onder, 2022 ). For instance, the number of females in the sample is much larger compared to males, reflecting a similar trend at Qatar University. The students selected for this study were largely sophomores and juniors with few freshman and senior participants. The non-probability sampling strategy may have caused some bias in the statistics and coefficients estimated throughout the research. Social desirability has threatened the reliability and validity of the data, likely causing the Dunning-Kruger effect. On the one hand, students highly rated their abilities on every item of the survey to project a confident, desirable character. On the other hand, students may have assigned positive ratings to boost their motivation or quest for actualizing self-worth. At any rate, one needs to treat self-reported information with great caution when drawing inferences or conclusions about real observed phenomena. Future research Researchers are encouraged to implement standardized assessment tools to evaluate student’s abilities and dispositions with respect to critical thinking. The California Critical Thinking Appraisal Inventory offers a variety of options. Similarly, the Warson-Glaser Test offers many options for the measurement of students’ critical thinking. This paper utilized Sternberg’s assessment tool, which has been validated elsewhere in the extant literature. When utilizing self-reported instruments, however, one needs to be cautious about the Dunning-Kruger effect. One of the best remedies to social desirability or the Dunning-Kruger effect phenomenon is educating the sample on the dangers of both to not only the research integrity, but also to the sample’s own benefits from critical thinking assessments. Researchers may hold brief education or awareness sessions prior to the completion of the instrument. Researchers may lecture participants face to face or virtually on the need for accurate assessments and refraining from falsely aggrandizing one’s abilities. Such a solution may not guarantee the elimination if social desirability, however, it has the promise to minimize it. Ethics and consent Prior to data collection activities, Qatar University Research Ethics committee approved the investigation. The Qatar University Institutional Review Board (QU-IRB) approval number is QU-IRB 1487-E/21, and it was approved on February 22, 2021. 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Publisher Full Text Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 2 VERSION 2 PUBLISHED 03 Jun 2025 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment Author details Author details 1 Core Curriculum Program, Deanship of General Studies, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar 2 Saginaw Valley State University, Great Lakes, Michigan, USA 3 Political Science and International Relations, Hasan Kalyoncu University, Gaziantep, Gaziantep, Turkey Wael Yousef Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Investigation, Project Administration, Resources, Supervision, Visualization, Writing – Original Draft Preparation Malek Abduljaber Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Validation, Visualization, Writing – Review & Editing Mehmet Onder Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Validation, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Competing interests No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work. Article Versions (2) version 2 Revised Published: 18 Sep 2025, 14:553 https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.157874.2 version 1 Published: 03 Jun 2025, 14:553 https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.157874.1 Copyright © 2025 Yousef W et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The author(s) is/are employees of the US Government and therefore domestic copyright protection in USA does not apply to this work. The work may be protected under the copyright laws of other jurisdictions when used in those jurisdictions. Download Export To Sciwheel Bibtex EndNote ProCite Ref. 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Key to Reviewer Statuses VIEW HIDE Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 03 Jun 2025 Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Le HV. Reviewer Report For: Widening gap between college students’ perceptions and abilities: The Dunning-Kruger phenomenon in critical thinking appraisal in higher education [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :553 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.173391.r392073 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-553/v1#referee-response-392073 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 13 Aug 2025 Ha Van Le , FPT University, Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam Approved with Reservations VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.173391.r392073 Thank you so much for your manuscript. It's enjoyable to read your paper. However, there are some key points that need to be addressed before being accepted for publishing Strengthen literature grounding ... Continue reading READ ALL Thank you so much for your manuscript. It's enjoyable to read your paper. However, there are some key points that need to be addressed before being accepted for publishing Strengthen literature grounding Incorporate recent studies on self-assessment bias and Dunning-Kruger in higher education (e.g. meta-analyses since 2020). Ensure all in-text citations appear in the reference list and vice versa.(e.g. “Erikson & Erikson, 2019”) Enhance measurement validity and reliability Report Cronbach’s α (or McDonald’s ω) for each subscale in this sample. Describe any pilot testing or cultural adaptation of Carter & Kravits items for Arab contexts. Detail methods for full transparency Provide the full survey instrument (as an appendix). Specify statistical software (e.g. SPSS v27, R 4.2) and procedures for cleaning data and checking assumptions (normality, homogeneity of variance). Refine statistical analysis and reporting Justify treating Likert scales as interval or use non-parametric alternatives (e.g. Mann–Whitney U). Report effect sizes (Cohen’s d) and 95 % confidence intervals alongside p-values. Define thresholds for interpreting correlation magnitudes (e.g. |r| < 0.1 negligible, 0.1–0.3 small). Align conclusions tightly with data Temper claims about the Dunning-Kruger effect by acknowledging the lack of direct performance measures. Reframe curricular recommendations as hypotheses to be tested, or pilot small-scale interventions before broad adoption. Polish presentation and consistency Eliminate repeated sentences in the literature review. Standardize table formatting (e.g. ensure all tables are numbered sequentially and referenced in text). Verify figure captions and ensure all figures are legible in grayscale print. Expand discussion of limitations Acknowledge cross-sectional design precludes causal inference. Discuss the potential impact of COVID-19 data collection mode changes (face-to-face vs. virtual). Future research directions Propose mixed-methods studies combining self-reports with objective performance tasks. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? Partly Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? Partly If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Partly Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Yes Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Partly Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: Critical literacy, language teaching, and learning I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Le HV. Reviewer Report For: Widening gap between college students’ perceptions and abilities: The Dunning-Kruger phenomenon in critical thinking appraisal in higher education [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :553 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.173391.r392073 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-553/v1#referee-response-392073 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 2 VERSION 2 PUBLISHED 03 Jun 2025 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment keyboard_arrow_left keyboard_arrow_right Open Peer Review Reviewer Status info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Reviewer Reports Invited Reviewers 1 2 Version 2 (revision) 18 Sep 25 read read Version 1 03 Jun 25 read Ha Van Le , FPT University, Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam Nuriye Semerci , Bartın Üniversitesi, BARTIN, Turkey Comments on this article All Comments (0) Add a comment Sign up for content alerts Sign Up You are now signed up to receive this alert Browse by related subjects keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2025 Semerci N. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 08 Nov 2025 | for Version 2 Nuriye Semerci , Bartın Üniversitesi, BARTIN, Turkey 0 Views copyright © 2025 Semerci N. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (0) Approved With Reservations info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions The study is important in that it addresses the three dimensions of critical thinking. However, in my opinion, there are weaknesses in several areas. Although it is important to select students from three different periods when determining the sample, this needs to be clarified. Was the sample group composed of different students from three different periods? What are the stages of standardizing the scale? For example, what are the pilot application, validity, and reliability analyses? Furthermore, there is a significant difference between the sample groups representing the two languages. It would be useful to cite sources indicating that comparing the two groups is appropriate. It is unclear how the Dunning-Kruger effect was measured. It is unclear on what basis the conclusion that this effect exists was reached. The testing of the assumption that the Dunning-Kruger effect exists is unsatisfactory. In my opinion, this is the weakest point of this study. The authors are also aware of this and have mentioned this issue within the limitations. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Yes Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? Yes Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? Yes If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? I cannot comment. A qualified statistician is required. Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Partly Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Partly Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise Curriculum, critical thinking, barriers of critical thinking I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above. reply Respond to this report Responses (0) Semerci N. Peer Review Report For: Widening gap between college students’ perceptions and abilities: The Dunning-Kruger phenomenon in critical thinking appraisal in higher education [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :553 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.188054.r424862) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-553/v2#referee-response-424862 keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2025 Le H. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 14 Oct 2025 | for Version 2 Ha Van Le , FPT University, Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam 0 Views copyright © 2025 Le H. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (0) Approved info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions I have reviewed the revised manuscript, and I am pleased with the author's effort in refining it. It is ready for acceptance. Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise Critical literacy, language teaching, and learning I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard. reply Respond to this report Responses (0) Le HV. Peer Review Report For: Widening gap between college students’ perceptions and abilities: The Dunning-Kruger phenomenon in critical thinking appraisal in higher education [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :553 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.188054.r415243) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-553/v2#referee-response-415243 keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2025 Le H. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 13 Aug 2025 | for Version 1 Ha Van Le , FPT University, Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam 0 Views copyright © 2025 Le H. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (0) Approved With Reservations info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Thank you so much for your manuscript. It's enjoyable to read your paper. However, there are some key points that need to be addressed before being accepted for publishing Strengthen literature grounding Incorporate recent studies on self-assessment bias and Dunning-Kruger in higher education (e.g. meta-analyses since 2020). Ensure all in-text citations appear in the reference list and vice versa.(e.g. “Erikson & Erikson, 2019”) Enhance measurement validity and reliability Report Cronbach’s α (or McDonald’s ω) for each subscale in this sample. Describe any pilot testing or cultural adaptation of Carter & Kravits items for Arab contexts. Detail methods for full transparency Provide the full survey instrument (as an appendix). Specify statistical software (e.g. SPSS v27, R 4.2) and procedures for cleaning data and checking assumptions (normality, homogeneity of variance). Refine statistical analysis and reporting Justify treating Likert scales as interval or use non-parametric alternatives (e.g. Mann–Whitney U). Report effect sizes (Cohen’s d) and 95 % confidence intervals alongside p-values. Define thresholds for interpreting correlation magnitudes (e.g. |r| < 0.1 negligible, 0.1–0.3 small). Align conclusions tightly with data Temper claims about the Dunning-Kruger effect by acknowledging the lack of direct performance measures. Reframe curricular recommendations as hypotheses to be tested, or pilot small-scale interventions before broad adoption. Polish presentation and consistency Eliminate repeated sentences in the literature review. Standardize table formatting (e.g. ensure all tables are numbered sequentially and referenced in text). Verify figure captions and ensure all figures are legible in grayscale print. Expand discussion of limitations Acknowledge cross-sectional design precludes causal inference. Discuss the potential impact of COVID-19 data collection mode changes (face-to-face vs. virtual). Future research directions Propose mixed-methods studies combining self-reports with objective performance tasks. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? Partly Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? Partly If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Partly Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Yes Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Partly Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise Critical literacy, language teaching, and learning I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above. reply Respond to this report Responses (0) Le HV. Peer Review Report For: Widening gap between college students’ perceptions and abilities: The Dunning-Kruger phenomenon in critical thinking appraisal in higher education [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :553 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.173391.r392073) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-553/v1#referee-response-392073 Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved - the paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations - A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved - fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Adjust parameters to alter display View on desktop for interactive features Includes Interactive Elements View on desktop for interactive features Competing Interests Policy Provide sufficient details of any financial or non-financial competing interests to enable users to assess whether your comments might lead a reasonable person to question your impartiality. 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