How Leadership Capabilities influences Students’ Achievement in Tanzanian public secondary schools

How Leadership Capabilities influences Students’ Achievement in Tanzanian public secondary schools | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article How Leadership Capabilities influences Students’ Achievement in Tanzanian public secondary schools Mwajabu Rajabu Mbwambo, Hillary Abdulrahman Dachi, Simon Peter Ngalomba This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7216101/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 13 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study explores the influence of school heads’ leadership capabilities on students’ academic achievement in public secondary schools in Temeke Municipality. Using a concurrent triangulation design, data were gathered from 254 respondents through questionnaires, interviews, and document review. Descriptive statistics and regression analysis guided by the skills theory of leadership were used for analysis. Key leadership capabilities identified such as decision-making, instructional supervision, resource mobilization, and parental engagement showed a strong association with student performance. The study also reveal that majority of school heads lacked formal leadership training and operated beyond their professional scope. It recommends that the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MoEST) ensure the appointment of qualified school leaders and provide ongoing training. Adopting a comprehensive leadership framework that integrates diverse capabilities is vital for navigating educational challenges and improving student outcomes. School heads Leadership Capabilities Students academic achievement Introduction Leadership exercised by school heads significantly influences student academic performance and overall school effectiveness. A recent and comprehensive meta-meta-analysis by Wu and Shen ( 2022 ) found a moderate but meaningful effect of principal leadership on student achievement (Cohen’s d = 0.34), with a notable trend toward increasing consensus and methodological rigor in the field. This evidence underscores the need to focus on the multifaceted capabilities of school leaders including technical proficiency, instructional oversight, conceptual reasoning, critical thinking, and strategic problem-solving as central drivers of school success. These competencies not only enhance teacher motivation and instructional quality but also create learning environments conducive to sustained academic improvement. Within the Tanzanian context, and specifically Temeke Municipality, these insights highlight the pressing need to develop leadership practices tailored to local challenges and student needs, reaffirming the centrality of leadership capability in shaping educational outcomes School leadership continues to be a primary predictor of student success (Robinson, 2010 ). Empirical studies emphasize that effective leaders demonstrate courage, vision, and pedagogical acumen that galvanize teacher commitment and drive student engagement (Wandasari et al., 2019 ; Sharma, 2011 ). For example, instructional and transformational leadership models characterized by contextual awareness and data-driven decision-making show the strongest association with achievement when adapted to local contexts (Author B et al., 2023). At the global level, enhanced student outcomes are often linked to schools where leaders prioritize teacher mentoring and engagement (Barber et al., 2010 ). Recent research confirms that school leadership, in conjunction with a supportive climate, produces meaningful gains in performance (Ozdogru et al., 2025 ). In Sub‑Saharan Africa, leadership competencies in resource management, communication, instructional supervision, teacher motivation, and professional development are closely tied to improved student outcomes (Akomolafe, 2014 ; Lena, 2015 ). When school heads facilitate teacher collaboration and participatory decision-making, student achievement tends to rise measurably. Secondary school enrollment in Tanzania increased from 17.2% to 24.5% between 2015 and 2019 as a result of educational reforms implemented since the late 1990s, such as SEDP Phases I and II. Decentralization and expanded leadership responsibilities served as the foundation for these advancements (URT, 2016 ; 2019 ). The Agency for Development of Educational Management (ADEM) was established in 2001 to help this, and it was recently strengthened through a collaboration with the Open University of Tanzania to strengthen leadership development at the district and regional levels (ADEM & OUT, 2025). Nonetheless, there are still consistent issues: a significant proportion of school leaders lack the basic conceptual, technical, and soft skills necessary to provide efficient teacher supervision and instruction (Ignace, 2014 ; Mkanga, 2016 ; Nkundabakura et al., 2024 ; (Maramoko et al., 2025 ; Urio & Manase, 2024 ). Insufficient supervision, then, reduces the effectiveness of student learning (Massawe, 2014 ). These training programs, according to recent critics, have not kept up with changing policy expectations, leaving many leaders ill-prepared to change school practices. This study addresses crucial empirical gaps. In the context of critical problems like absenteeism and inadequate monitoring, it first investigates Tanzanian school heads' perceptions regarding leadership and how it affects outcomes for students. Secondly, it utilizes a mixed-methods framework that incorporates the perspectives of both teachers and students, a technique that is not commonly used in Tanzanian research. Thirdly, the relevance of external leadership frameworks to local contexts is critically examined. In order to provide a comprehensive understanding of effective school leadership in Tanzanian schools, this study ultimately looks at how specific leadership competencies such as instructional supervision, resource mobilization, relational communication, and strategic decision-making affect student performance in Temeke Municipality. Review of Related Literature In the pursuit of quality education, school heads are entrusted with a central role in guiding institutions toward achieving their overarching academic and operational goals. As leaders, they are expected to harness available resources efficiently, foster collaborative school cultures, and ensure the provision of a safe and productive teaching and learning environment (Ruloff & Petko, 2025 ; Koirala & Neupane, 2023 ). Despite this, the condition of many public schools in Tanzania remains concerning, often marked by resource constraints and leadership challenges. Within this context, school heads are not merely administrative figures; they are instructional leaders who must possess a robust repertoire of leadership capabilities including strategic management, pedagogical oversight, and organizational expertise to promote academic achievement. These leaders are expected to articulate a shared school vision, support day-to-day operations, and cultivate professional relationships that align with institutional objectives and student success. Tanzania’s Education Act No. 5 of 1978, which remains a cornerstone of school governance, mandates the presence of a school head in every public school. These individuals are charged with forming school management teams and overseeing all administrative, instructional, and auxiliary services (United Republic of Tanzania [URT], 1978). As stipulated, the school head has the authority to guide teachers in the delivery of quality education and to ensure students' academic progress, thereby shaping the course of the school. In this light, the leadership quality of a school head directly correlates with the overall effectiveness and outcomes of the school. Given the ever-evolving educational landscape driven by global competitiveness and rising standards, school leaders must possess dynamic, context-responsive leadership competencies that allow them to navigate complexity while striving for academic excellence (Kapelela, Mislay, & Manyengo, 2025 ; Safwan, Shaheen, Zaidi & Siddiqui, 2025 ). Furthermore, school heads are widely regarded as key influencers of teacher performance and instructional quality. As noted by Alzoraiki et al. ( 2024 ), effective school heads foster teacher motivation, supervise instruction, and provide professional development opportunities, thereby indirectly boosting student achievement. Similarly, Gading ( 2024 ) outlines the multifaceted responsibilities of school leaders, including guiding, supervising, monitoring, evaluating, and managing both teaching and non-teaching staff. Leadership within schools is a complex, multi-dimensional task that requires heads to function as strategic managers, instructional leaders, organizational stewards, and change agents. They must also engage with key stakeholders’ students, teachers, parents, and the wider community to ensure school goals are met through shared ownership and accountability (Mehmood & Hassan, 2023 ). In this ecosystem, effective leadership practices have a direct influence on educational outcomes. Mombourquette ( 2017 ) highlights that successful school leaders are those who inspire a shared vision, foster team cohesion, and strategically plan to support continuous school improvement. The exercise of leadership, therefore, goes beyond authority; it encompasses an ongoing process of supervision, evaluation, communication, and empowerment. Panol et al. ( 2020 ) emphasize that day-to-day school leadership involves giving direction, offering support, issuing instructions, and building capacity within the school workforce. Ultimately, school heads who exhibit strong, contextually aware leadership capabilities are better positioned to drive student success and realize the goals articulated in school vision and mission statements. This study is grounded in the assertion that such leadership capabilities when understood through the lived experiences of school heads are fundamental to elevating educational standards in Temeke Municipality and similar contexts across Tanzania. Methods Approach and Design The study adopted a mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative and quantitative methods, as emphasized by Creswell (2014). This approach was deemed suitable because it enabled researchers to gather comparable data on school heads' leadership capabilities and their relationship with students’ academic achievements. To gain an in-depth understanding of the leadership capabilities that influence student achievement in Temeke Municipality. 3.2. Selection of schools and school heads The study involved 10 school heads, from 10 public secondary schools. The schools were stratified based on performance: 4 higher-performing schools (A, B, C, D), 3 moderate-performing schools (E, F, G), and 3 lower-performing schools (H, I, J), selected based on consistent performance in the CSEE examination (2018–2022). The diverse sample provided a comprehensive understanding of school leadership’s impact on academic outcomes across performance tiers. (District and school names omitted for anonymization.) Furthermore, the study purposely sampled school heads because of their critical leadership role, enabling them to provide valuable insights into how leadership capabilities influence students' academic performance in NECTA exams. 3.3. Instruments This study employed a qualitative research method, utilizing semi-structured interviews and documentary reviews as primary data collection methods. A total of ten school heads from public secondary schools within the municipality were purposefully selected based on their leadership experience, school context, and availability. The interviews served as a platform for these educational leaders to articulate their personal definitions, interpretations, and lived experiences of leadership capabilities as exercised in their daily administrative and instructional routines. The qualitative nature of the study allowed for rich, subtle insights into how leadership is practiced at the school level and how these practices are shaped by institutional, contextual, and policy-related dynamics. During the analysis, the narratives from the ten school heads revealed a diverse but converging understanding of leadership as an integrative function encompassing strategic planning, supervision, teacher support, student discipline, resource mobilization, community engagement, and the fostering of a conducive learning environment. These capabilities, as described by the participants, were not abstract ideals but rather practical competencies authorized daily to ensure the smooth functioning of their schools and the academic progression of students. Moreover, the documentary reviews which included school improvement plans, supervision reports, and performance records were triangulated with the interview data to validate and deepen the emerging themes. This methodological approach enhanced the credibility of the study while allowing the researcher to map the operationalization of leadership capabilities within real-world school contexts. The findings underscore the importance of understanding school leadership not merely in terms of positional authority, but as a multifaceted capability embedded in practice, shaped by contextual constraints, and oriented toward improving student achievement. As such, this study contributes to the growing body of literature that positions school heads as critical agents of change whose leadership practices directly shape educational outcomes in Tanzanian public secondary schools. 3.3.1. Validity of the instruments Prior to data collection, rigorous measures were undertaken to ensure the validity of the research instruments, specifically focusing on both content and construct validity to enhance the credibility and reliability of the study’s findings. Content validity was established through a systematic process involving independent reviews by academic supervisors who critically assessed the interview guide’s items. This review process scrutinized each item for its relevance, appropriateness, and alignment with the study’s objectives, particularly concerning the exploration of school heads’ leadership capabilities and their perceived impact on students’ academic achievement within the context of public secondary schools in Temeke Municipality. Feedback from these experts was instrumental in refining the instrument, prompting revisions that addressed ambiguities, redundancies, and inconsistencies in phrasing. Statements that were unclear removed altogether, thereby enhancing the overall clarity, coherence, and focus of the interview guide. This iterative refinement process ensured that the instrument’s content was both comprehensive and sufficiently targeted to elicit meaningful responses from participants about their leadership practices. Additionally, particular attention was given to language accessibility to facilitate effective communication and comprehension among school heads with diverse linguistic backgrounds. Recognizing that some technical terms such as school leadership and students’ academic achievement might be unfamiliar or interpreted variably across different educational contexts, the researcher carefully translated and adapted these concepts into simpler, commonly used terms. This linguistic adjustment was vital for ensuring that participants could fully grasp the questions and express their experiences and perceptions accurately, thereby enhancing the quality and authenticity of the data collected. By applying these validity procedures, the study sought to produce a culturally and contextually appropriate instrument that reflects the realities of school leadership in Tanzanian public secondary schools, thereby supporting robust and insightful analysis relevant to the overarching aim of understanding how leadership capabilities influence student outcomes in public secondary schools 3.3.2 Reliability of the instruments Ensuring the reliability of the research instruments was a critical consideration in this study, particularly because it involved collecting in-depth qualitative data from school heads on sensitive and complex topics such as leadership capabilities and their influence on students’ academic achievement. Reliability, in this context, was conceptualized primarily in terms of equivalence reliability, which emphasizes the consistency of results when the same individuals are repeatedly engaged with a research tool under similar conditions (Taherdoost, 2016 ; Heale & Twycross, 2015 ). In line with this, the study employed a structured yet flexible approach to the semi-structured interviews, engaging school heads through multiple prompts and follow-up questions that varied in focus and depth while retaining thematic consistency. This method allowed the researcher to assess whether participants provided stable and coherent responses over time and across slightly altered versions of the interviewquestions, an approach that aligns with recommendations by Roberts and Priest ( 2023 ), who advocate for triangulated dialogue as a means of reinforcing qualitative reliability. To enhance the internal consistency of the interview process, researcher-maintained uniformity in question delivery and ensured that interview conditions such as time allocation, setting, and facilitation style were kept consistent across all ten school sites. Furthermore, detailed field notes and reflective memos were maintained to track any variations or patterns in responses that might suggest inconsistencies or ambiguities in question interpretation. This methodological rigor was particularly significant given the study’s focus on understanding leadership from the lived experiences of school heads operating in resource-constrained and policy-driven educational settings. By applying equivalence reliability techniques, the study ensured that the responses captured were not only authentic but also consistent representations of the leadership practices and beliefs held by school heads regarding their influence on student academic outcomes in public secondary schools across Temeke Municipality. 3.4. Data analysis procedures In this study, the qualitative data obtained through interviews and documentary review were analyzed using thematic analysis, a widely recognized method in qualitative research for interpreting patterns of meaning within textual data (Braun & Clarke, 2021 ). Thematic analysis was selected because it aligns well with the study’s goal of exploring school heads’ interpretations and lived experiences of leadership capabilities that influence students’ academic achievement. This approach allowed for a nuanced exploration of the subjective meanings that school leaders attach to their daily leadership practices within the complex educational environment of Temeke Municipality. The analytic process followed Braun and Clarke’s ( 2021 ) six-phase framework: familiarization with the data, generation of initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and finally producing the report. After transcribing and thoroughly reading the interview data, meaningful units were identified and coded to capture the essence of what each school head conveyed regarding their leadership roles and responsibilities. This coding process enabled the researcher to identify recurrent ideas, leadership behaviors, and contextual influences, which were then categorized into broader thematic clusters. These emergent themes reflected various dimensions of leadership capabilities such as instructional leadership, resource management, teacher motivation, and stakeholder engagement and how these factors collectively shaped students' academic outcomes. The themes were not only grounded in the participants’ narratives but also critically examined in light of existing literature, allowing for both inductive and deductive interpretations (Nowell et al., 2017 ). Given the socio-cultural and policy-specific context of Tanzanian public secondary schools, this analytical strategy was particularly effective in illuminating the complex interplay between leadership practices and educational outcomes. It enabled the researcher to uncover deeply embedded perceptions and challenges faced by school heads, providing rich insights that contribute to a more localized understanding of effective school leadership in resource-constrained settings. Procedures Before the commencement of fieldwork, the researcher secured ethical clearance and formal research authorization from relevant educational and administrative bodies. These permissions included official letters addressed to the heads of the selected public secondary schools within Temeke Municipality, granting access and affirming institutional support for the study. Ethical standards were strictly observed in compliance with widely accepted research protocols in qualitative inquiry (Bhandari, 2023 ; Creswell & Poth, 2018 ). Prior to data collection, the researcher met with each participant individually to provide a clear explanation regarding the study’s objectives, scope, and procedures. Participants were informed of their voluntary involvement in the research, including their right to decline participation or withdraw at any point without any negative consequences. To uphold ethical research practice, informed consent forms were distributed and signed before interviews began. These forms outlined the nature of participation, the confidentiality of responses, and the protection of participants' rights throughout the research process (Silverman, 2021 ). Participants were given autonomy to select a convenient time and a private setting for their interviews to ensure comfort and confidentiality. The semi-structured interviews were designed to encourage open-ended responses, allowing for deeper exploration of school heads' lived experiences and leadership practices. Each session lasted approximately 35 to 60 minutes, and all interviews were audio-recorded with the participants' permission. These recordings were subsequently transcribed verbatim for thematic data analysis. Follow-up questions were integrated within the semi-structured format to probe deeper into participants' responses and to ensure clarity and richness in the data collected. The procedures adhered to in this study were guided by ethical best practices for qualitative research, emphasizing informed consent, participant autonomy, and data confidentiality, which are essential when dealing with human subjects in educational settings (Tracy, 2020 ) Results and Discussion Problem Solving Skills The findings from this study underline thesignificance of problem-solving skills as a pivotal leadership capability that school heads in public secondary schools in Temeke Municipality practice daily. This skill emerged as a dominant theme in the interviews conducted with the ten participating school heads, who consistently emphasized that effective leadership entails the ability to respond to a wide array of school-level challenges in a timely, strategic, and contextually appropriate manner. Participants in the study articulated their understanding of leadership capabilities primarily through their capacity to resolve problems within the school environment. Problem-solving was portrayed not as an incidental task, but rather as a core leadership function embedded in nearly all aspects of a school head’s responsibilities from managing student behavior to resolving interpersonal staff conflicts and addressing academic underperformance. Leadership skills mean finding alternative ways of solving various problems at school. It includes collaboration with teachers and students through talking, cooperation, solving discipline cases, receiving opinions and sharing decisions, being patient and empathetic (Interview; Head of School B ). This aligns with the perspective of Fullan ( 2023 ), who argues that educational leadership increasingly demands not just technical expertise but the ability to navigate complex, adaptive challenges through inclusive, empathetic, and innovative approaches. From the narratives provided by the school heads, problem-solving as a leadership capability unfolds in interconnected stages: Early Identification of Issues; School heads emphasized the importance of vigilance and proactive detection of challenges such as declining academic performance or teacher dissatisfaction. As noted by Leithwood et al. ( 2020 ), timely identification of issues is a hallmark of effective school leadership, allowing for preventative measures rather than reactive crisis management. Information Gathering and Stakeholder Consultation ; Leaders highlighted that gathering accurate and comprehensive information is crucial for diagnosing problems. This includes using academic performance data, conducting teacher assessments, and holding dialogue with parents and students. According to Bush and Glover ( 2021 ), such data-informed decision-making ensures leadership actions are grounded in contextual realities. Creative and Contextual Thinking ; the heads reported engaging in creative thinking to overcome limited resources. For instance, head of school remarked: Be creative enough to select which appropriate approach to apply to solve students’ discipline problems, engage parents, teacher supervision, and classroom assessment (Interview, Head of School J). This reinforces views by Robinson et al. ( 2022 ), who stress the need for innovative leadership especially in under-resourced educational settings, where traditional models may not suffice. Conflict Resolution and Interpersonal Management; another notable leadership skill tied to problem-solving is conflict resolution, as shared by Head of School: I have conflict resolution skills for instance, when there is misunderstanding among teachers, I identify the root cause, set the goal, and apply appropriate techniques depending on the situation” (Interview, Head of School C). This supports research by Hallinger and Murphy ( 2020 ), which illustrates how resolving interpersonal conflicts contributes to building a cohesive school culture and better instructional outcomes. Planning, Execution and Review; School heads discussed formulating action plans with clearly defined steps, timelines, and measurable goals. A reflective cycle was also emphasized, where solutions are evaluated and adjusted based on feedback and observed outcomes, a practice echoed in the transformational leadership framework (Bass & Riggio, 2018 ). The Importance of Stakeholder Engagement; In line with participatory leadership models, several school heads emphasized that problem-solving should not be a solitary endeavor. Instead, engaging teachers, parents, and students fosters shared responsibility and ownership, a view consistent with Yukl’s ( 2022 ) model of effective leadership behaviors. Stakeholder involvement not only improves the quality of solutions but also enhances trust, motivation, and commitment across the school community. This participatory approach reflects a shift from traditional authoritarian models to more collaborative and distributed leadership (Spillane & Diamond, 2021 ). However, findings also reveal a duality in practice. While some school heads actively involve stakeholders, others prefer to address issues independently. This dichotomy resonates with earlier observations by Leithwood et al. ( 1993 ) and the Specialized National Council (2003), which noted that isolationist problem-solving often leads to ineffective leadership outcomes. When school heads act unilaterally, they risk missing valuable perspectives and limiting the scope and sustainability of solutions. Overall, the study reveals that problem-solving is a foundational capability through which school heads enact leadership on a day-to-day basis. Their capacity to identify problems early, gather data, develop and implement solutions, and involve stakeholders is critical to ensuring an environment conducive to teaching and learning. These findings corroborate contemporary literature that places problem-solving at the heart of educational leadership, particularly in complex and resource-constrained contexts like Tanzania (Ngoma & Said, 2024 ; Bush & Glover, 2021 ). Managerial Leadership in School Settings Managerial practices encompass a wide range of administrative tasks, including strategic planning, instructional supervision, resource allocation, budgeting, discipline enforcement, and stakeholder engagement. As articulated by one school head: I have ability to supervise all issues within the school compound by monitor, supervise rules and regulations, and follow all the procedures. Guide, provide views, opinions and support my subordinates (Interview, Head of School D). This perspective resonates with traditional educational leadership theories, notably the managerial leadership model outlined by Campbell et al. ( 1977 ), which highlights organization, coordination, and control as key administrative roles of school heads. In modern educational contexts, such managerial tasks are increasingly linked to student performance outcomes (Hallinger & Heck, 1998 ; Bush & Glover, 2021 ). Strategic Planning and Instructional Supervision; The study revealed that effective school heads engage in both short-term and long-term strategic planning, setting clear academic targets and aligning available resources to meet them. Instructional supervision is also emphasized, including regular lesson observations, scrutiny of lesson plans, classroom assessments, and daily program monitoring. This was reported by school heads as follow Setting individual Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) for teachers, checking logbooks and lesson plans and assessing teachers’ teaching practices, monitoring student dropout, identifying types of dropouts, and involving parents through signed agreements ( Interview, Head of School J). This aligns with the Hallinger ( 2005 ) model of instructional leadership, wherein the school head acts as an academic leader by shaping the school's vision, supervising instruction, and promoting a positive academic climate. Ma et al. ( 2024 ) further validate this, suggesting that such instructional oversight and data-informed monitoring systems are vital for improving student outcomes across diverse school contexts. Capacity Building and Resource Management The findings indicate that managerial leadership extends to teachers’ professional development. School heads frequently organize workshops, in-service training, and support staff in pursuing higher qualifications. These practices not only improve teachers’ pedagogical skills but also contribute to a culture of continuous improvement, critical for sustained school progress. Equally important is resource management. Participants reported prioritizing the effective distribution of materials such as textbooks, laboratory equipment, and other teaching aids. The ability to forecast, budget, and control expenditures was also mentioned as part of responsible leadership. As highlighted by Bush and Glover ( 2021 ), resource management is central to ensuring equitable access to learning opportunities. Promoting a Positive School Climate and Stakeholder Engagement Another key dimension of managerial practice is the cultivation of a positive school climate, which includes reinforcing discipline, recognizing achievements, and fostering collaboration. School heads described implementing fair and consistent disciplinary measures, developing student counseling programs, and encouraging extracurricular participation to boost student motivation and engagement. Further, parental involvement emerged as a core aspect of managerial leadership. Participants cited the establishment of by-laws, mandatory parental meetings, and communication protocols to ensure parents are engaged in student academic tracking. This participatory approach supports findings by Leithwood et al. ( 2020 ), who emphasize that involving families and communities in school governance enhances both accountability and student achievement. Administrative Oversight and Accountability Structures Effective managerial practices also involve setting systems of accountability through tools like performance indicators, student data tracking, and monitoring of school routines for instance punctuality, attendance and sanitation. These mechanisms not only foster transparency but also allow early intervention in academic or behavioral issues, which is consistent with the recommendations of the Wallace Foundation ( 2021 ), which found that leadership accounts for up to 25% of school-related factors influencing student achievement, second only to classroom instruction. In conclusion, the study reveals that school heads in Temeke Municipality perceive and practice leadership capabilities predominantly through managerial functions. These encompass strategic planning, instructional supervision, resource management, stakeholder engagement, and performance monitoring. Such practices form the administrative backbone of effective schooling and have a direct bearing on student academic achievement. While the managerial leadership model has often been critiqued as rigid, the findings here suggest that when practiced inclusively and strategically, it remains highly relevant in the leadership landscape of public education in Tanzania. Supervising the Teaching and Learning Process One of the principal themes emerging from the interviews with school heads in Temeke Municipality is the conception of leadership capabilities as the daily supervision of the teaching and learning process. School heads viewed effective instructional supervision not merely as an administrative duty, but as a leadership capability essential to improving student academic outcomes. Through strategic supervision, school heads are able to uphold quality standards, enhance teacher accountability, encourage pedagogical development, and ensure curriculum coverage. Instructional supervision involves direct oversight of classroom practices, teacher planning, and student engagement strategies. The data revealed that school heads consistently supervise lesson planning, classroom instruction, student assessments, and teaching materials to ensure alignment with national standards and internal school goals. For example, one school head shared: I used to conduct learning walks, heck teachers enter classrooms on time, assess their teaching practices, check student workbooks, lesson plans every Friday, and class journals to ensure syllabus coverage, we also have remedial classes for Form Two and Form Four students (Interview, School Head A). This quotation highlights how instructional supervision functions not only as a monitoring mechanism but also as an instrument for feedback and professional development, enabling teachers to improve in areas identified during evaluations. These findings align with Kibui ( 2013 ) who emphasized that effective supervision of curriculum instruction is essential for ensuring educational quality, and without it, student performance can decline. Supervision is structured through routines such as lesson plan checks (often on Fridays), logbook reviews, student attendance tracking, and instructional observations. Teachers are expected to adhere to performance standards and are required to respond to deficiencies in instructional delivery. As described by one head: Subjects are evaluated every three months, if the subject pass rate is below 50%, The teacher writes a commitment letter. We also assess classroom practices such as voice balance, student engagement, use of teaching aids, and provide feedback (Interview, School Head I). Such accountability measures reflect a performance based leadership approach, emphasizing results through data informed supervision. This aligns with the transformational leadership model as defined by Machumu and Kaitila ( 2014 ), which proposes that effective school leaders engage with their teams to influence teaching and learning practices that maximize academic outcomes. Remedial teaching and timetabling for academic support are implemented effectively. A recurrent strategy employed by school heads is the organization of remedial programs for candidate classes (Forms II and IV), implemented in morning (06:30–07:20 am) and evening sessions (03:00–04:40 pm). This practice helps close instructional gaps and ensure syllabus completion, particularly for exam-level students. We identify slow learners and support them every morning except Friday, notebooks are checked, and lessons assessed to ensure teachers are performing (Interview, School Head G). These extended instructional hours represent a targeted intervention strategy in response to observed learning challenges. According to the Wallace Foundation ( 2021 ), such practices when accompanied by strong instructional leadership significantly improve student learning outcomes, especially when combined with monitoring and feedback. The findings also reveal that supervision is a distributed responsibility, often involving academic masters, heads of departments, and class teachers. I delegate my responsibilities through academic master, heads of departments, and subject teachers. They supervise instruction and must fulfill their responsibilities (Interview, School Head C). This approach reflects distributed leadership theory, wherein leadership roles are shared among various actors in the school community to enhance effectiveness (Spillane & Diamond, 2021 ). Delegating responsibilities helps school heads focus on strategic oversight while building leadership capacity within the school. Additionally, several school heads reported that instructional supervision also involves parental engagement, particularly for students showing signs of academic decline or absenteeism. Parents meetings are conducted for children not improving. If a student is absent for two days without informing the school, the parent must provide the information to school administration. (Interview, School Head E). Such measures align with Leithwood et al. ( 2020 ), who emphasize the importance of school-family partnerships in improving student performance. Active parental involvement ensures that learning responsibilities are shared beyond the classroom. On the other hand, many school heads emphasized the importance of ensuring that all teaching documents and resources including schemes of work, lesson notes, class journals, and logbooks are prepared and checked regularly. Teachers should prepare subject action plans, lesson plans, and lesson notices… we ensure journals and logbooks are available and complete ( Interview, School Head H). The structured preparation of teaching materials reflects strong administrative systems aimed at curriculum fidelity, which the MANTEP Institute ( 2015 ) highlighted as a core expectation for instructional leaders in Tanzanian schools. These findings are strongly supported by existing literature. Studies have consistently shown that classroom focused supervision and feedback loops are powerful levers for improving teacher effectiveness and student learning (Hallinger & Murphy, 1985 ; Robinson et al., 2008 ). According to Ma et al. ( 2024 ), effective instructional supervision especially when it includes observation, feedback, coaching, and evaluation is significantly associated with higher student achievement across diverse educational contexts. Moreover, the structured supervisory practices observed in Temeke are consistent with international best practices. For instance, the High Impact Leadership model by the Wallace Foundation ( 2021 ) emphasizes that strong instructional leadership requires routine monitoring of teaching and learning, aligned with school improvement plans and clearly defined academic targets. In summary, the findings indicate that school heads in Temeke Municipality perceive daily supervision of the teaching and learning process as a core leadership capability. This includes not only routine classroom monitoring and evaluation but also strategic planning, parental involvement, remedial instruction, and data-driven decision-making. These practices collectively foster a learning-centered school environment where both teachers and students are held to high standards of performance. The study affirms that instructional supervision when practiced collaboratively, consistently, and with developmental intent is a vital leadership function that can significantly elevate student achievement. Management of Teaching and Learning Materials The findings from this study reveal that school heads in Temeke Municipality perceive the management of teaching and learning materials as a fundamental component of their leadership capabilities. Effective instructional leadership, in this context, includes ensuring the availability, distribution, tracking, and optimal utilization of essential learning resources such as textbooks and laboratory equipment. These responsibilities are seen as instrumental in enhancing the quality of teaching and learning processes and consequently improving students’ academic achievement. All interviewed school heads emphasized that one of their core leadership roles is the procurement, documentation, and allocation of teaching and learning materials. The materials primarily sourced from the Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) and coordinated through local government agencies such as TAMISEMI include textbooks, laboratory equipment, teaching aids, and storage units. As one school head noted: Instructional resources are allocated to the school, all resources received are recorded in the ledger, stamped and numbered. We received enough books from the government through TIE. The challenge is the lack of a proper library. We only have a bookstore (Interview, School Head A). This statement highlights not only the systematic handling of resources but also infrastructural limitations that hinder optimal material management. It underscores the discrepancy between supply and the physical or logistical capacity of schools to handle learning materials, a finding echoed across multiple schools in the district. Inventory and Accountability Systems; Most school heads reported implementing clear systems for tracking and lending learning materials, including use of ledgers, library cards, and teacher supervision for borrowing books. These systems reflect a conscious effort to ensure that materials are both protected and effectively utilized. If teachers or students need to use [materials], it must be recorded to the appropriate book and given a specific day to return it (Interview, School Head B). Books are hired and returned within seven days. Laboratory equipment is recorded and stored the lab technician is responsible for all available equipment (Interview, School Head I). These practices support principles of educational resource accountability, which, according to Mulkeen ( 2017 ), are critical in resource constrained contexts where loss, mismanagement, or underutilization of materials could directly impede learning outcomes. While some schools have structured library facilities with reading timetables and supervision protocols, others rely on temporary bookstores or improvised systems due to infrastructural limitations. We have a temporary library, students rent books under teachers’ supervision (Interview, School Head C). Library timetable is available. Teachers guide students how to use the library and empower them with reading skills (Interview, School Head I). Such initiatives align with findings by Orodho ( 2014 ), who observed that in many sub-Saharan African countries, school leaders adapt to resource constraints by employing informal but practical solutions to provide students with access to learning materials. Despite these efforts, many school heads highlighted the lack of adequate physical infrastructure, such as shelves, cupboards, or dedicated library space. This limitation can affect both the accessibility and longevity of the materials. Nonetheless, the intentional management practices by the school heads serve as a compensatory leadership function aimed at ensuring continued student access to educational resources. These findings align with the notion that resource management is a crucial facet of instructional leadership. As noted by Bush and Glover ( 2014 ), school leaders who strategically manage instructional resources enhance both teacher performance and student learning by providing the tools necessary for effective teaching. The study also confirms the assertion by Johnson et al. ( 2004 ) that availability of teaching and learning materials like textbooks, reference books, teaching guides, and charts enhances the effectiveness of students in learning toward positive academic achievement. The capacity of school heads to organize, distribute and monitor learning materials is therefore not only a managerial function but also a demonstration of their leadership capabilities in shaping a conducive learning environment. Several school heads reported that book accessibility directly affects student learning outcomes. And students hired books under teachers’ supervision. It helps students to improve their learning. The student-book ratio is about 1:3 for instance, School Head E mentioned. Although a 1:3 ratio is not optimal, especially in resource-rich settings, it is significantly better than total lack of access, and it enables more equitable learning opportunities. According to UNESCO ( 2021 ), even modest improvements in textbook availability in low-income settings have positive correlations with students’ learning achievement, particularly in literacy and science subjects. Despite these structured practices, many school heads expressed financial and logistical limitations that impede the optimal management of instructional materials. These include: Lack of sufficient budgets for infrastructure development [School Head A] reported, inadequate library space or shelves and delayed or inconsistent supply of materials from central agencies. Such findings mirror broader educational challenges reported by World Bank ( 2020 ), which highlights that in many African countries, financial constraints prevent schools from developing the physical and human infrastructure necessary to support resource-rich learning environments. The findings clearly indicate that management of teaching and learning materials is a vital leadership function as perceived and practiced by school heads in Temeke Municipality. School heads take active roles in ensuring that teaching and learning materials are received, documented, stored, and distributed responsibly. Their efforts, often under constrained conditions, demonstrate a strong commitment to instructional leadership, particularly in relation to maximizing the use of available resources to enhance student learning. Despite the challenges such as inadequate libraries and budget limitations school heads have implemented innovative, context responsive strategies to maintain access and accountability. These strategies, although varied across schools, consistently reflect a leadership style that is both resource-conscious and student-focused. Effective management of instructional materials remains not only a technical responsibility but also a strategic leadership act that underpins student achievement and teaching effectiveness. Delegation of Authority The study revealed that delegation of authority is a pivotal leadership capability employed by school heads to ensure the effective and efficient operation of schools in Temeke municipality. Delegation is not merely a managerial tool, but a strategic mechanism through which leadership responsibilities are distributed among staff members and student leaders to foster institutional performance and enhance student achievement. From the data gathered, it became evident that the majority of school heads practice intentional delegation as a means to empower their subordinates particularly teachers and departmental heads to execute tasks on their behalf. This distributed approach to leadership is rooted in the recognition that no single individual, regardless of expertise or experience, can manage all aspects of school administration in isolation, especially within institutions characterized by growing complexity and expanding responsibilities. As School Head articulated as follows: Parents are engaged through meetings where we share the school improvement plan. After each examination, we share students’ results with parents and engage in discussions on how to enhance academic performance (interview, School Head C). This statement reflects the inclusive and multi-level nature of delegated responsibilities, not only among teaching staff but extending to external stakeholders such as parents, thereby reinforcing accountability and transparency in leadership practices. Similarly, School Head D emphasized the collaborative framework under which authority is delegated: As a school leader, I oversee school operations in cooperation with the School Management Team (SMT). I delegate authority to the assistant head, academic master, and discipline master. I provide guidance and support to ensure our objectives are achieved (Interview, School Head D). This exemplifies hierarchical delegation, where specific roles and duties are clearly allocated to subordinates, thus promoting operational efficiency, role clarity, and leadership continuity. Such a framework aligns with the principles of transformational leadership, where heads of schools inspire and empower their teams to achieve collective goals (Bush & Glover, 2022 ). Furthermore, School Head F elaborated on the use of participatory leadership styles in managing academic processes: I delegate my authority to heads of departments to supervise and monitor academic progress in collaboration with subject teachers. The academic master is responsible for student performance and test monitoring, and submits periodic reports to me (Interview, School Head F). This type of delegation reflects instructional leadership, where academic responsibilities are shared among competent educators to maintain continuous student performance tracking and pedagogical oversight (Hallinger, 2020 ). These narratives collectively demonstrate that delegation is not only about reducing the leader’s workload but also about building leadership capacity among staff and cultivating a collaborative work culture. By delegating responsibilities such as discipline management, academic supervision, and student monitoring, school heads are fostering a sense of ownership and professionalism among teachers. The study findings are consistent with existing scholarship. For instance, Emmanouil, Osia, and Athanasoula-Reppa ( 2014 ) emphasize that delegation within schools reflects a shared leadership model, wherein responsibilities are executed collaboratively with the aim of improving student learning outcomes. Such bottom-up participation enhances motivation, accountability, and innovation within educational settings. Additionally, Kongnyuy ( 2020 ) underscores that the effectiveness of any school heavily depends on the strategic delegation of responsibilities. When school leaders empower staff to act autonomously within well-defined roles, it results in improved organizational performance and learner outcomes. Delegation also allows leaders to concentrate on broader strategic issues such as policy formulation, stakeholder engagement, and institutional development. Recent research by Ng, Wang, and Ahlstrom ( 2022 ) further supports this perspective, suggesting that schools which embrace distributed leadership and clearly defined delegation structures exhibit greater levels of staff cohesion and student achievement. Similarly, Wenner and Campbell ( 2017 ) argue that when leadership is shared across teaching staff, it fosters professional growth, enhances decision-making and promotes a culture of collective responsibility all of which are essential for improving educational outcomes in resource-constrained environments such as Temeke municipality. Moreover, effective delegation enables school heads to enhance institutional resilience and responsiveness. In situations where immediate action is required such as addressing disciplinary incidents or organizing remedial programs delegated authority ensures swift and contextually appropriate responses, without waiting for top-level directives. This agility is particularly vital in public schools operating under systemic constraints and high enrolment pressures. In light of the findings, delegation emerges as a leadership capability that not only supports operational management but also directly influences student academic achievement. By fostering shared responsibility, school heads create environments where both staff and students are engaged, proactive and goal-oriented. Parental Engagement Parental engagement has emerged as a critical dimension of educational leadership and a key capability among school heads influencing student achievement in Tanzanian secondary schools. This study found that school heads actively facilitate parental participation in various academic and institutional activities, understanding it as both a leadership strategy and an essential component of school effectiveness. Consistent with the literature, engaging parents in the academic lives of their children fosters positive learning outcomes and enhances institutional accountability (Goodall, 2022 ; Jeynes, 2018 ). Interview data revealed that school heads strategically involve parents through meetings, performance reviews, and structured support mechanisms to reinforce student learning. As one participant noted: We set school academic standards early in the year and shared them with parents. During parent meetings, we discussed students’ performance and agreed on full parental involvement. We formed a Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) to address school improvement plans and committed to eliminating division zero through shared responsibility (Interview, School Head A). Such leadership practices align with transformational leadership principles , where shared vision, community collaboration, and participatory decision-making are central to improving academic standards (Harris & Jones, 2020 ). Through mechanisms like PTAs, school heads foster collaborative environments in which parents contribute not only to their children's academic progress but also to institutional development, such as infrastructure, discipline, and co-curricular support. Another school head elaborated: Parents are engaged through meetings and the school improvement plan is shared early in the academic year. Parents support their children academically and contribute to activities like school kitchen construction, academic office rehabilitation, and student meal provision (Interview, School Head D). These practices indicate that school leaders conceptualize parental engagement beyond episodic participation. Instead, they institutionalize it as a form of shared educational leadership, fostering a school-community relationship that enhances both academic performance and school infrastructure (Ezenne & Ezeoba, 2021 ). Recent studies underscore that parental involvement in school governance, such as strategic planning and resource mobilization is positively associated with school outcomes (Wairimu & Muthaa, 2023 ). Parental engagement also has significant emotional and psychological implications for students. When parents actively attend school events such as academic ceremonies or open days, they enhance students' motivation, confidence, and sense of accountability. As evidenced by the narratives, home-based educational support mechanisms such as homework supervision and the provision of take-home learning packages play a crucial role in academic improvement. For instance: Parents are engaged to set standards during meetings. Home packages are distributed to parents who must ensure their children complete them. At the beginning of the term, students return to school with their parents to review these packages. This approach ensures that parents remain fully involved in their children's learning ( Interview, School Head J ). These leadership efforts are consistent with findings by Desforges and Abouchaar ( 2021 ), who assert that parental engagement at home has a stronger influence on educational attainment than socio-economic background. Moreover, this practice fosters learning continuity between school and home, a critical factor in post pandemic educational recovery and resilience. However, the study also identified significant disparities in parental involvement across different school contexts. In more remote or underserved areas, parental engagement remains low due to geographical, economic, or social barriers. One school head reported: Most parents live far from the school. Given the area’s nature, they are often uncooperative. They rarely attend meetings or follow up on their children’s education. As a result, overall school performance remains low ( Interview, School Head I). This gap indicates the presence of structural and contextual challenges that hinder effective parental participation. As supported by Seni and Onyango ( 2021 ), limited engagement often correlates with poor school outcomes and reduced community ownership of educational initiatives. In such cases, school heads are compelled to adopt adaptive leadership strategies, including direct outreach, flexible meeting schedules, and community based follow up mechanisms to bridge these gaps (Ochieng & Wamukuru, 2022 ). Additionally, some parents demonstrate limited understanding of their roles in supporting academic development. Despite the availability of forums such as PTAs, communication between teachers and parents remains sporadic in certain contexts. This finding mirrors observations by Abdullah ( 2009 ) and is echoed in more recent analyses by Clinton and Hattie ( 2023 ), who argue that effective parental engagement depends on clear, consistent communication and well-defined expectations from school leadership. Importantly, this study highlights that successful school heads in Temeke do not merely rely on passive parental involvement. Instead, they actively construct engagement frameworks by embedding parental roles into academic planning, discipline management and learning assessment processes. This intentional integration of parental functions within school leadership structures demonstrates a distinct understanding of parental engagement as a strategic leadership capability. Generally, the evidence from this study underscores parental engagement as a central leadership capability that school heads in Temeke Municipality deploy to promote student achievement. Effective parental involvement, facilitated through structured communication, participatory decision-making, and home-school collaboration, contributes to improved academic performance, student motivation, and institutional development. Nonetheless, disparities in parental involvement remain, largely driven by socio-spatial and contextual factors. These findings call for targeted leadership training and policy interventions aimed at equipping school heads with the tools to foster inclusive, sustainable parental engagement practices across diverse school contexts. Handling of School Challenges The study explored the challenges encountered by school heads and the leadership strategies adopted to manage these difficulties, collectively defining their leadership capabilities. Challenges identified included poor discipline among teachers and students, lack of parental involvement, overcrowded classrooms, inadequate funding, shortage of infrastructure and teaching facilities, and an insufficient number of subject teachers. Disciplinary Issues among Teachers and Students; the findings highlighted pervasive disciplinary concerns involving both students and teachers that posed significant barriers to academic achievement in Temeke secondary schools. School heads reported violations of school regulations such as truancy, substance abuse, and inappropriate relationships among students and between students and teachers. For instance, one school head noted multiple challenges: We face issues such as student dropout, marijuana use, and lack of engagement with classwork, and reluctance to adapt to pedagogical strategies. Some teachers engage in inappropriate relationships with students. These issues are addressed through disciplinary measures, including warnings and, in extreme cases, expulsion (Interview, School head A) Similarly, another School Head mentioned: Teachers’ absenteeism and students' long commutes lead to irregular attendance and dropout. Disciplinary committees administer case-specific sanctions (Interview, School Head F. Another School head recounted: Upon transfer to this school, I found a poor school culture with frequent dropouts. In 2022, eight students missed national exams due to dropout, and twelve missed mock exams in 2023. We’ve established a dropout response system that involves local government and police reporting mechanisms ( Interview, School head J). Additional disciplinary challenges, such as tardiness, failure to cover syllabi, and inadequate classroom performance, were noted by School Head G. These results echo previous studies demonstrating that discipline-related issues detract from both teaching effectiveness and student outcomes (Maro, 2021 ; Mwenda & Ndege, 2023 ). Inadequate Parental Engagement The study revealed that many parents or guardians failed to support their children’s educational development, further complicating the leadership role of school heads. School Head remarked Some parents neglect behavioral issues like drug use at home. They rarely contribute to school feeding programs, compounding the problem (Interview, School Head A) While other School Head B added that: Low parental participation in school meetings hinders student follow-up. For dropout cases, we collaborate with local authorities to hold parents accountable through legal measures (Interview, School Head B). Similar sentiments were echoed by School Heads D and E, who reported parental resistance to school policies, particularly those related to food contributions. These findings are consistent with Hakielimu ( 2022 ), who emphasized the critical role of parent-school partnerships in supporting student academic progress. Overcrowded Classrooms; A significant impediment to effective learning and teaching was overcrowding in classrooms. Interviews revealed class sizes exceeding recommended student-teacher ratios, with some schools operating beyond 1:100 ratios. Our Class Student Ratio is 1:67. Environmental distractions and over-enrollment limit effective classroom assessment. Nevertheless, we implement strategic timetabling and assessment reforms to ensure quality instruction (Interview, School Head E). School Heads C and B reported even higher ratios of 1:91 and 1:102, respectively. They described adaptations such as using outdoor learning spaces and splitting sessions to mitigate congestion. These results affirm those of Amiry (2018) and Kalembo and Mgeni ( 2021 ), who concluded that large class sizes hinder individualized instruction and overall academic achievement. Inadequate Funding; Budgetary constraints emerged as a persistent challenge. School heads lamented insufficient capitation grants, which adversely affected daily operations, procurement of teaching materials, and the implementation of remedial programs. School Heads stated that: We cannot procure all required teaching materials. School feeding programs rely on inconsistent parental contributions (Interview, School Head A). The free education policy has inadvertently burdened schools financially. We accumulate debts to cover electricity, security, and printing costs. Monthly expenditures exceed government allocations ( Interview, School Head B) This concern was echoed by School Head D, who reported delayed teacher allowances for remedial lessons, resulting in reduced teacher motivation. These insights align with Kigobe and Chiwamba ( 2022 ) and Mwalimu ( 2023 ), who argue that underfunding critically undermines educational leadership and resource availability. Shortage of Infrastructure and Facilities ; the findings indicated that most schools operated with inadequate physical infrastructure, affecting the quality of education delivery. Shortages included classrooms, toilets, staff rooms, libraries, laboratories, and administrative blocks. School head shared that: We have only 14 classrooms for over 1,400 students. Limited land area restricts further construction (Interview, School Head B). School Heads C and E echoed concerns about overcrowding, lack of sanitation, and the absence of essential facilities like libraries and staff rooms. Although laboratory construction was underway in some schools, operationalization remained inconsistent. Only two out of ten schools had functional computer laboratories. One school head reported successful integration of ICT: Our school has a computer lab with 40 machines under the ‘Tehama kwa Wote’ program ( Interview, School Head H). The findings align with Mcharo ( 2021 ) and Osaki ( 2020 ), who underscore the correlation between infrastructure adequacy and effective curriculum delivery, emphasizing the need for equitable resource distribution. Inadequate Subject-Specific Teachers; another major challenge involved the shortage of qualified subject teachers, especially in science, mathematics, and business-related subjects. School heads reported increased workloads for the few available teachers and dependence on volunteers or part-time staff. For instance, School Head A explained: We lack science and mathematics teachers, which hampers student performance in these subjects. School Head B reported: Out of 47 teaching staff, only 40 are full-time. We depend on volunteer teachers for mathematics, physics, and chemistry. School Head F added: To address science subject deficits, we’ve hired part-time teachers with financial support from parents. School Head G quantified the shortage, noting that only 4 mathematics teachers served a school requiring 17. These staffing deficits impacted workload distribution and instructional effectiveness. These findings corroborate those of Njau ( 2023 ), who highlighted how staff shortages contribute to increased workloads and lower academic performance. Kaswaga ( 2020 ) and Logation ( 2021 ) also observed that unequal subject specialization among teachers exacerbates instructional gaps, particularly in STEM fields. The study concludes that school heads in Temeke Municipality exhibit adaptive leadership capabilities by devising local solutions to systemic challenges. However, the persistent issues of discipline, parental disengagement, overcrowding, underfunding, poor infrastructure, and staff shortages significantly constrain their effectiveness. Addressing these challenges requires integrated policy interventions and enhanced stakeholder collaboration to improve student outcomes. Conclusion This study highlights that school heads in public schools bring a diverse set of leadership capabilities to their roles skills that are central to supporting student learning and academic achievement. Their ability to guide teaching, make decisions, manage resources, and engage with stakeholders demonstrates a strong foundation in effective school leadership. However, the consistently low performance in national examinations like the CSEE and FTNA cannot simply be blamed on weak leadership. Instead, these results point to deeper, systemic challenges such as limited resources, socio-economic hardships, and inadequate infrastructure that go beyond the control of school leaders. At the same time, the connection between strong leadership and better academic outcomes remains clear. When school heads are able to apply their skills fully, they foster environments that help students succeed. Yet they face many barriers: indiscipline among students and teachers, overcrowded classrooms, minimal parental involvement, and a lack of funding and basic facilities like classrooms, laboratories, and toilets. The shortage of qualified teachers in key subjects, and the intake of students who need extra academic support, further stretch their already limited capacity. In the end, while school leadership matters greatly, it can only be as effective as the support system behind it. If we want to see real improvements in student achievement, especially in public secondary schools across Temeke, we must not only invest in leadership development but also tackle the broader challenges that hold schools back. Supporting school heads with the resources they need will go a long way in improving educational outcomes for all learners. Recommendations Given that many school heads currently operate outside their areas of expertise and lack formal leadership training, the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training (MOEVT) should prioritize the appointment of qualified and professionally trained individuals to leadership positions. Continuous capacity-building through in-service training and consistent supervision is also essential to empower school heads to support teacher development effectively, thereby enhancing instructional quality and improving student performance. Moreover, the government must ensure that all public secondary schools are adequately resourced with essential infrastructure such as classrooms, administrative blocks, science and computer laboratories, libraries, sanitation facilities, and secure perimeters to create an environment conducive to teaching and learning. School heads should focus on their core role of supporting instructional delivery, particularly in moderate- and low-performing schools, by consistently supervising classrooms and managing teaching materials efficiently. This approach can enhance teacher motivation and ultimately lead to improved academic outcomes. Furthermore, strengthening parental engagement is vital. While high-performing schools often benefit from active parental involvement, moderate and low-performing schools face challenges in this area. School heads must proactively cultivate stronger partnerships with parents to encourage their participation in academic activities and foster a shared responsibility for student success. Declarations Author Contribution This article is part of the corresponding author’s PhD dissertation submitted at the University of Dar es salaam. The first author, Mwajabu Rajabu Mbwambo conceptualized the study, collected data, performed analysis and prepared the manuscript. Hillary Dachi and Simon Peter Ngalomba commented and reversed the proceeding versions. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Funding The authors did not receive any financial support from any organizations for this work. Data availability The data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Ethical approval The study got approval by University of Dar es salaam research committee. All data collection procedures were conducted in agreement with ethical standards of the University of Dar es salaam research committee and in accordance with government circular letter Ref .No. MPEC/R/10/1 dated 4 th July 1980 which empowered the Vice Chancellor of the University of Dar es Salaam to issue research clearances to staff members and students of the University of Dar es salaam on behalf of the government and the Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology (COSTECH). Informed consent the study was approved by University of Dar es salaam research committee. All participants provided informed consent before taking part in the study. The research also adhered to the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. Both authors have reviewed and approved the final version of this manuscript, which has not been published or submitted for consideration elsewhere. Conflict of Interest The authors declared that they have no conflict of interest. Clinical trial number: not applicable References Abdullah AGK. Parental involvement and its impact on students' academic performance. Malaysian Ministry of Education; 2009. ADEM & Open University of Tanzania. Strategic partnership report on school leadership development. Agency for Development of Educational Management; 2025. Akomolafe CO. Principals’ leadership styles and teachers’ job performance in senior secondary schools in Ondo State, Nigeria. 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Discover Educ. 2025;4(1):244. Scott S, Ciarrochi J, Deane FP. School-based adolescent leadership: The ole of communication, collaboration, and self-efficacy. Educational Psychol. 2008;28(5):535–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410701880101 . Seni M, Onyango E. An analysis of parental engagement in secondary schools in Tanzania. Tanzan J Educational Leadersh Manage. 2021;8(1):45–60. Sharma S. Teacher and principal leadership: Importance and relevance in India nation. Int J Educational Manage. 2011;25(6):517–27. https://doi.org/10.1108/09513541111159027 . Silverman D. Qualitative research. 5th ed. SAGE; 2021. Spillane JP, Diamond JB. Distributed leadership in practice. 2nd ed. Teachers College; 2021. Taherdoost H. Validity and reliability of the research instrument: How to test the validation of a questionnaire/survey in a research. Int J Acad Res Manage. 2016;5(3):28–36. Tracy SJ. Qualitative research methods: Collecting evidence, crafting analysis, communicating impact. 2nd ed. Wiley-Blackwell; 2020. UNESCO. Global Education Monitoring Report 2021: Non-state actors in education: Who chooses? Who loses? UNESCO Publishing; 2021. United Republic of Tanzania (URT). Education Act No. 5 of 1978. Government Printer; 1978. Urio F, Manase H. Leadership effectiveness of secondary school heads in Tanzania: A mixed-methods appraisal. Afr J Educational Manage. 2024;8(2):87–104. URT. Education sector performance report 2015/2016. Ministry of Education, Science and Technology; 2016. URT. Basic education statistics in Tanzania (BEST) 2015–2019. Ministry of Education, Science and Technology; 2019. Wairimu N, Muthaa GM. Effects of parental involvement on academic performance of secondary school students. J Educ Pract. 2023;14(4):67–75. https://doi.org/10.7176/JEP/14-4-07 . Wallace Foundation. How principals affect students and schools: A systematic synthesis of two decades of research. Wallace Foundation; 2021. Wandasari F, Wirawan H, Agusta D. Transformational leadership and academic performance: The mediating role of teacher motivation. Int J Instruction. 2019;12(3):343–56. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2019.12321a . Wenner JA, Campbell T. The theoretical and empirical basis of teacher leadership: A review of the literature. Rev Educ Res. 2017;87(1):134171. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654316653478 . World Bank. Ending Learning Poverty: What will it take? World Bank Group; 2020. Wu H, Shen J. (2022). The association between principal leadership and student achievement: A multivariate meta-meta-analysis. Educational Research Review,35 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2021.100423 Yukl G. Leadership in organizations. 9th ed. Pearson Education; 2022. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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14:39:24","extension":"html","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":185660,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7216101/v1/427b3c5339973d8a5b5f6431.html"},{"id":94467585,"identity":"40efee9e-23ae-4921-86e1-7f85cf129f59","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-27 15:23:12","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":767899,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7216101/v1/86990139-0537-4c91-924b-503d304b1d3e.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"How Leadership Capabilities influences Students’ Achievement in Tanzanian public secondary schools","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eLeadership exercised by school heads significantly influences student academic performance and overall school effectiveness. A recent and comprehensive meta-meta-analysis by Wu and Shen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) found a moderate but meaningful effect of principal leadership on student achievement (Cohen\u0026rsquo;s d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.34), with a notable trend toward increasing consensus and methodological rigor in the field. This evidence underscores the need to focus on the multifaceted capabilities of school leaders including technical proficiency, instructional oversight, conceptual reasoning, critical thinking, and strategic problem-solving as central drivers of school success. These competencies not only enhance teacher motivation and instructional quality but also create learning environments conducive to sustained academic improvement. Within the Tanzanian context, and specifically Temeke Municipality, these insights highlight the pressing need to develop leadership practices tailored to local challenges and student needs, reaffirming the centrality of leadership capability in shaping educational outcomes\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSchool leadership continues to be a primary predictor of student success (Robinson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Empirical studies emphasize that effective leaders demonstrate courage, vision, and pedagogical acumen that galvanize teacher commitment and drive student engagement (Wandasari et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Sharma, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). For example, instructional and transformational leadership models characterized by contextual awareness and data-driven decision-making show the strongest association with achievement when adapted to local contexts (Author B et al., 2023). At the global level, enhanced student outcomes are often linked to schools where leaders prioritize teacher mentoring and engagement (Barber et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Recent research confirms that school leadership, in conjunction with a supportive climate, produces meaningful gains in performance (Ozdogru et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). In Sub‑Saharan Africa, leadership competencies in resource management, communication, instructional supervision, teacher motivation, and professional development are closely tied to improved student outcomes (Akomolafe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Lena, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). When school heads facilitate teacher collaboration and participatory decision-making, student achievement tends to rise measurably.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecondary school enrollment in Tanzania increased from 17.2% to 24.5% between 2015 and 2019 as a result of educational reforms implemented since the late 1990s, such as SEDP Phases I and II. Decentralization and expanded leadership responsibilities served as the foundation for these advancements (URT, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The Agency for Development of Educational Management (ADEM) was established in 2001 to help this, and it was recently strengthened through a collaboration with the Open University of Tanzania to strengthen leadership development at the district and regional levels (ADEM \u0026amp; OUT, 2025). Nonetheless, there are still consistent issues: a significant proportion of school leaders lack the basic conceptual, technical, and soft skills necessary to provide efficient teacher supervision and instruction (Ignace, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Mkanga, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Nkundabakura et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; (Maramoko et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Urio \u0026amp; Manase, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Insufficient supervision, then, reduces the effectiveness of student learning (Massawe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). These training programs, according to recent critics, have not kept up with changing policy expectations, leaving many leaders ill-prepared to change school practices.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study addresses crucial empirical gaps. In the context of critical problems like absenteeism and inadequate monitoring, it first investigates Tanzanian school heads' perceptions regarding leadership and how it affects outcomes for students. Secondly, it utilizes a mixed-methods framework that incorporates the perspectives of both teachers and students, a technique that is not commonly used in Tanzanian research. Thirdly, the relevance of external leadership frameworks to local contexts is critically examined. In order to provide a comprehensive understanding of effective school leadership in Tanzanian schools, this study ultimately looks at how specific leadership competencies such as instructional supervision, resource mobilization, relational communication, and strategic decision-making affect student performance in Temeke Municipality.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Review of Related Literature","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn the pursuit of quality education, school heads are entrusted with a central role in guiding institutions toward achieving their overarching academic and operational goals. As leaders, they are expected to harness available resources efficiently, foster collaborative school cultures, and ensure the provision of a safe and productive teaching and learning environment (Ruloff \u0026amp; Petko, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Koirala \u0026amp; Neupane, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Despite this, the condition of many public schools in Tanzania remains concerning, often marked by resource constraints and leadership challenges. Within this context, school heads are not merely administrative figures; they are instructional leaders who must possess a robust repertoire of leadership capabilities including strategic management, pedagogical oversight, and organizational expertise to promote academic achievement. These leaders are expected to articulate a shared school vision, support day-to-day operations, and cultivate professional relationships that align with institutional objectives and student success.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTanzania\u0026rsquo;s Education Act No. 5 of 1978, which remains a cornerstone of school governance, mandates the presence of a school head in every public school. These individuals are charged with forming school management teams and overseeing all administrative, instructional, and auxiliary services (United Republic of Tanzania [URT], 1978). As stipulated, the school head has the authority to guide teachers in the delivery of quality education and to ensure students' academic progress, thereby shaping the course of the school. In this light, the leadership quality of a school head directly correlates with the overall effectiveness and outcomes of the school. Given the ever-evolving educational landscape driven by global competitiveness and rising standards, school leaders must possess dynamic, context-responsive leadership competencies that allow them to navigate complexity while striving for academic excellence (Kapelela, Mislay, \u0026amp; Manyengo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Safwan, Shaheen, Zaidi \u0026amp; Siddiqui, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, school heads are widely regarded as key influencers of teacher performance and instructional quality. As noted by Alzoraiki et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), effective school heads foster teacher motivation, supervise instruction, and provide professional development opportunities, thereby indirectly boosting student achievement. Similarly, Gading (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) outlines the multifaceted responsibilities of school leaders, including guiding, supervising, monitoring, evaluating, and managing both teaching and non-teaching staff. Leadership within schools is a complex, multi-dimensional task that requires heads to function as strategic managers, instructional leaders, organizational stewards, and change agents. They must also engage with key stakeholders\u0026rsquo; students, teachers, parents, and the wider community to ensure school goals are met through shared ownership and accountability (Mehmood \u0026amp; Hassan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this ecosystem, effective leadership practices have a direct influence on educational outcomes. Mombourquette (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) highlights that successful school leaders are those who inspire a shared vision, foster team cohesion, and strategically plan to support continuous school improvement. The exercise of leadership, therefore, goes beyond authority; it encompasses an ongoing process of supervision, evaluation, communication, and empowerment. Panol et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) emphasize that day-to-day school leadership involves giving direction, offering support, issuing instructions, and building capacity within the school workforce. Ultimately, school heads who exhibit strong, contextually aware leadership capabilities are better positioned to drive student success and realize the goals articulated in school vision and mission statements. This study is grounded in the assertion that such leadership capabilities when understood through the lived experiences of school heads are fundamental to elevating educational standards in Temeke Municipality and similar contexts across Tanzania.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eApproach and Design\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study adopted a mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative and quantitative methods, as emphasized by Creswell (2014). This approach was deemed suitable because it enabled researchers to gather comparable data on school heads' leadership capabilities and their relationship with students\u0026rsquo; academic achievements. To gain an in-depth understanding of the leadership capabilities that influence student achievement in Temeke Municipality.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.2. Selection of schools and school heads\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study involved 10 school heads, from 10 public secondary schools. The schools were stratified based on performance: 4 higher-performing schools (A, B, C, D), 3 moderate-performing schools (E, F, G), and 3 lower-performing schools (H, I, J), selected based on consistent performance in the CSEE examination (2018\u0026ndash;2022). The diverse sample provided a comprehensive understanding of school leadership\u0026rsquo;s impact on academic outcomes across performance tiers. (District and school names omitted for anonymization.) Furthermore, the study purposely sampled school heads because of their critical leadership role, enabling them to provide valuable insights into how leadership capabilities influence students' academic performance in NECTA exams.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.3. Instruments\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study employed a qualitative research method, utilizing semi-structured interviews and documentary reviews as primary data collection methods. A total of ten school heads from public secondary schools within the municipality were purposefully selected based on their leadership experience, school context, and availability. The interviews served as a platform for these educational leaders to articulate their personal definitions, interpretations, and lived experiences of leadership capabilities as exercised in their daily administrative and instructional routines. The qualitative nature of the study allowed for rich, subtle insights into how leadership is practiced at the school level and how these practices are shaped by institutional, contextual, and policy-related dynamics. During the analysis, the narratives from the ten school heads revealed a diverse but converging understanding of leadership as an integrative function encompassing strategic planning, supervision, teacher support, student discipline, resource mobilization, community engagement, and the fostering of a conducive learning environment. These capabilities, as described by the participants, were not abstract ideals but rather practical competencies authorized daily to ensure the smooth functioning of their schools and the academic progression of students.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Moreover, the documentary reviews which included school improvement plans, supervision reports, and performance records were triangulated with the interview data to validate and deepen the emerging themes. This methodological approach enhanced the credibility of the study while allowing the researcher to map the operationalization of leadership capabilities within real-world school contexts. The findings underscore the importance of understanding school leadership not merely in terms of positional authority, but as a multifaceted capability embedded in practice, shaped by contextual constraints, and oriented toward improving student achievement. As such, this study contributes to the growing body of literature that positions school heads as critical agents of change whose leadership practices directly shape educational outcomes in Tanzanian public secondary schools.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.3.1. Validity of the instruments\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrior to data collection, rigorous measures were undertaken to ensure the validity of the research instruments, specifically focusing on both content and construct validity to enhance the credibility and reliability of the study\u0026rsquo;s findings. Content validity was established through a systematic process involving independent reviews by academic supervisors who critically assessed the interview guide\u0026rsquo;s items. This review process scrutinized each item for its relevance, appropriateness, and alignment with the study\u0026rsquo;s objectives, particularly concerning the exploration of school heads\u0026rsquo; leadership capabilities and their perceived impact on students\u0026rsquo; academic achievement within the context of public secondary schools in Temeke Municipality. Feedback from these experts was instrumental in refining the instrument, prompting revisions that addressed ambiguities, redundancies, and inconsistencies in phrasing. Statements that were unclear removed altogether, thereby enhancing the overall clarity, coherence, and focus of the interview guide. This iterative refinement process ensured that the instrument\u0026rsquo;s content was both comprehensive and sufficiently targeted to elicit meaningful responses from participants about their leadership practices.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, particular attention was given to language accessibility to facilitate effective communication and comprehension among school heads with diverse linguistic backgrounds. Recognizing that some technical terms such as school leadership and students\u0026rsquo; academic achievement might be unfamiliar or interpreted variably across different educational contexts, the researcher carefully translated and adapted these concepts into simpler, commonly used terms. This linguistic adjustment was vital for ensuring that participants could fully grasp the questions and express their experiences and perceptions accurately, thereby enhancing the quality and authenticity of the data collected. By applying these validity procedures, the study sought to produce a culturally and contextually appropriate instrument that reflects the realities of school leadership in Tanzanian public secondary schools, thereby supporting robust and insightful analysis relevant to the overarching aim of understanding how leadership capabilities influence student outcomes in public secondary schools\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.3.2 Reliability of the instruments\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnsuring the reliability of the research instruments was a critical consideration in this study, particularly because it involved collecting in-depth qualitative data from school heads on sensitive and complex topics such as leadership capabilities and their influence on students\u0026rsquo; academic achievement. Reliability, in this context, was conceptualized primarily in terms of equivalence reliability, which emphasizes the consistency of results when the same individuals are repeatedly engaged with a research tool under similar conditions (Taherdoost, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Heale \u0026amp; Twycross, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn line with this, the study employed a structured yet flexible approach to the semi-structured interviews, engaging school heads through multiple prompts and follow-up questions that varied in focus and depth while retaining thematic consistency. This method allowed the researcher to assess whether participants provided stable and coherent responses over time and across slightly altered versions of the interviewquestions, an approach that aligns with recommendations by Roberts and Priest (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), who advocate for triangulated dialogue as a means of reinforcing qualitative reliability. To enhance the internal consistency of the interview process, researcher-maintained uniformity in question delivery and ensured that interview conditions such as time allocation, setting, and facilitation style were kept consistent across all ten school sites. Furthermore, detailed field notes and reflective memos were maintained to track any variations or patterns in responses that might suggest inconsistencies or ambiguities in question interpretation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis methodological rigor was particularly significant given the study\u0026rsquo;s focus on understanding leadership from the lived experiences of school heads operating in resource-constrained and policy-driven educational settings. By applying equivalence reliability techniques, the study ensured that the responses captured were not only authentic but also consistent representations of the leadership practices and beliefs held by school heads regarding their influence on student academic outcomes in public secondary schools across Temeke Municipality.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.4. Data analysis procedures\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study, the qualitative data obtained through interviews and documentary review were analyzed using thematic analysis, a widely recognized method in qualitative research for interpreting patterns of meaning within textual data (Braun \u0026amp; Clarke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Thematic analysis was selected because it aligns well with the study\u0026rsquo;s goal of exploring school heads\u0026rsquo; interpretations and lived experiences of leadership capabilities that influence students\u0026rsquo; academic achievement. This approach allowed for a nuanced exploration of the subjective meanings that school leaders attach to their daily leadership practices within the complex educational environment of Temeke Municipality.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe analytic process followed Braun and Clarke\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) six-phase framework: familiarization with the data, generation of initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and finally producing the report. After transcribing and thoroughly reading the interview data, meaningful units were identified and coded to capture the essence of what each school head conveyed regarding their leadership roles and responsibilities. This coding process enabled the researcher to identify recurrent ideas, leadership behaviors, and contextual influences, which were then categorized into broader thematic clusters. These emergent themes reflected various dimensions of leadership capabilities such as instructional leadership, resource management, teacher motivation, and stakeholder engagement and how these factors collectively shaped students' academic outcomes. The themes were not only grounded in the participants\u0026rsquo; narratives but also critically examined in light of existing literature, allowing for both inductive and deductive interpretations (Nowell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Given the socio-cultural and policy-specific context of Tanzanian public secondary schools, this analytical strategy was particularly effective in illuminating the complex interplay between leadership practices and educational outcomes. It enabled the researcher to uncover deeply embedded perceptions and challenges faced by school heads, providing rich insights that contribute to a more localized understanding of effective school leadership in resource-constrained settings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eProcedures\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBefore the commencement of fieldwork, the researcher secured ethical clearance and formal research authorization from relevant educational and administrative bodies. These permissions included official letters addressed to the heads of the selected public secondary schools within Temeke Municipality, granting access and affirming institutional support for the study. Ethical standards were strictly observed in compliance with widely accepted research protocols in qualitative inquiry (Bhandari, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Creswell \u0026amp; Poth, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Prior to data collection, the researcher met with each participant individually to provide a clear explanation regarding the study\u0026rsquo;s objectives, scope, and procedures. Participants were informed of their voluntary involvement in the research, including their right to decline participation or withdraw at any point without any negative consequences. To uphold ethical research practice, informed consent forms were distributed and signed before interviews began. These forms outlined the nature of participation, the confidentiality of responses, and the protection of participants' rights throughout the research process (Silverman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Participants were given autonomy to select a convenient time and a private setting for their interviews to ensure comfort and confidentiality. The semi-structured interviews were designed to encourage open-ended responses, allowing for deeper exploration of school heads' lived experiences and leadership practices. Each session lasted approximately 35 to 60 minutes, and all interviews were audio-recorded with the participants' permission. These recordings were subsequently transcribed verbatim for thematic data analysis. Follow-up questions were integrated within the semi-structured format to probe deeper into participants' responses and to ensure clarity and richness in the data collected. The procedures adhered to in this study were guided by ethical best practices for qualitative research, emphasizing informed consent, participant autonomy, and data confidentiality, which are essential when dealing with human subjects in educational settings (Tracy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eProblem Solving Skills\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings from this study underline thesignificance of problem-solving skills as a pivotal leadership capability that school heads in public secondary schools in Temeke Municipality practice daily. This skill emerged as a dominant theme in the interviews conducted with the ten participating school heads, who consistently emphasized that effective leadership entails the ability to respond to a wide array of school-level challenges in a timely, strategic, and contextually appropriate manner. Participants in the study articulated their understanding of leadership capabilities primarily through their capacity to resolve problems within the school environment. Problem-solving was portrayed not as an incidental task, but rather as a core leadership function embedded in nearly all aspects of a school head\u0026rsquo;s responsibilities from managing student behavior to resolving interpersonal staff conflicts and addressing academic underperformance.\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeadership skills mean finding alternative ways of solving various problems at school. It includes collaboration with teachers and students through talking, cooperation, solving discipline cases, receiving opinions and sharing decisions, being patient and empathetic \u003cem\u003e(Interview; Head of School B\u003c/em\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis aligns with the perspective of Fullan (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), who argues that educational leadership increasingly demands not just technical expertise but the ability to navigate complex, adaptive challenges through inclusive, empathetic, and innovative approaches. From the narratives provided by the school heads, problem-solving as a leadership capability unfolds in interconnected stages:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEarly Identification of Issues;\u003c/em\u003e School heads emphasized the importance of vigilance and proactive detection of challenges such as declining academic performance or teacher dissatisfaction. As noted by Leithwood et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), timely identification of issues is a hallmark of effective school leadership, allowing for preventative measures rather than reactive crisis management.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eInformation Gathering and Stakeholder Consultation\u003c/em\u003e; Leaders highlighted that gathering accurate and comprehensive information is crucial for diagnosing problems. This includes using academic performance data, conducting teacher assessments, and holding dialogue with parents and students. According to Bush and Glover (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), such data-informed decision-making ensures leadership actions are grounded in contextual realities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCreative and Contextual Thinking\u003c/em\u003e; the heads reported engaging in creative thinking to overcome limited resources. For instance, head of school remarked:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBe creative enough to select which appropriate approach to apply to solve students\u0026rsquo; discipline problems, engage parents, teacher supervision, and classroom assessment \u003cem\u003e(Interview, Head of School J).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis reinforces views by Robinson et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), who stress the need for innovative leadership especially in under-resourced educational settings, where traditional models may not suffice.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eResolution and Interpersonal Management;\u003c/em\u003e another notable leadership skill tied to problem-solving is conflict resolution, as shared by Head of School:\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eI have conflict resolution skills for instance, when there is misunderstanding among teachers, I identify the root cause, set the goal, and apply appropriate techniques depending on the situation\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003e(Interview, Head of School C).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis supports research by Hallinger and Murphy (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), which illustrates how resolving interpersonal conflicts contributes to building a cohesive school culture and better instructional outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePlanning, Execution and Review;\u003c/em\u003e School heads discussed formulating action plans with clearly defined steps, timelines, and measurable goals. A reflective cycle was also emphasized, where solutions are evaluated and adjusted based on feedback and observed outcomes, a practice echoed in the transformational leadership framework (Bass \u0026amp; Riggio, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe Importance of Stakeholder Engagement;\u003c/em\u003e In line with participatory leadership models, several school heads emphasized that problem-solving should not be a solitary endeavor. Instead, engaging teachers, parents, and students fosters shared responsibility and ownership, a view consistent with Yukl\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) model of effective leadership behaviors. Stakeholder involvement not only improves the quality of solutions but also enhances trust, motivation, and commitment across the school community. This participatory approach reflects a shift from traditional authoritarian models to more collaborative and distributed leadership (Spillane \u0026amp; Diamond, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, findings also reveal a duality in practice. While some school heads actively involve stakeholders, others prefer to address issues independently. This dichotomy resonates with earlier observations by Leithwood et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e) and the Specialized National Council (2003), which noted that isolationist problem-solving often leads to ineffective leadership outcomes. When school heads act unilaterally, they risk missing valuable perspectives and limiting the scope and sustainability of solutions. Overall, the study reveals that problem-solving is a foundational capability through which school heads enact leadership on a day-to-day basis. Their capacity to identify problems early, gather data, develop and implement solutions, and involve stakeholders is critical to ensuring an environment conducive to teaching and learning. These findings corroborate contemporary literature that places problem-solving at the heart of educational leadership, particularly in complex and resource-constrained contexts like Tanzania (Ngoma \u0026amp; Said, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Bush \u0026amp; Glover, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eManagerial Leadership in School Settings\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eManagerial practices encompass a wide range of administrative tasks, including strategic planning, instructional supervision, resource allocation, budgeting, discipline enforcement, and stakeholder engagement. As articulated by one school head:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eI have ability to supervise all issues within the school compound by monitor, supervise rules and regulations, and follow all the procedures. Guide, provide views, opinions and support my subordinates \u003cem\u003e(Interview, Head of School D).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis perspective resonates with traditional educational leadership theories, notably the managerial leadership model outlined by Campbell et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1977\u003c/span\u003e), which highlights organization, coordination, and control as key administrative roles of school heads. In modern educational contexts, such managerial tasks are increasingly linked to student performance outcomes (Hallinger \u0026amp; Heck, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e; Bush \u0026amp; Glover, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStrategic Planning and Instructional Supervision;\u003c/em\u003e The study revealed that effective school heads engage in both short-term and long-term strategic planning, setting clear academic targets and aligning available resources to meet them. Instructional supervision is also emphasized, including regular lesson observations, scrutiny of lesson plans, classroom assessments, and daily program monitoring. This was reported by school heads as follow\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSetting individual Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) for teachers, checking logbooks and lesson plans and assessing teachers\u0026rsquo; teaching practices, monitoring student dropout, identifying types of dropouts, and involving parents through signed agreements (\u003cem\u003eInterview, Head of School J).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis aligns with the Hallinger (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) model of instructional leadership, wherein the school head acts as an academic leader by shaping the school's vision, supervising instruction, and promoting a positive academic climate. Ma et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) further validate this, suggesting that such instructional oversight and data-informed monitoring systems are vital for improving student outcomes across diverse school contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCapacity Building and Resource Management\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings indicate that managerial leadership extends to teachers\u0026rsquo; professional development. School heads frequently organize workshops, in-service training, and support staff in pursuing higher qualifications. These practices not only improve teachers\u0026rsquo; pedagogical skills but also contribute to a culture of continuous improvement, critical for sustained school progress. Equally important is resource management. Participants reported prioritizing the effective distribution of materials such as textbooks, laboratory equipment, and other teaching aids. The ability to forecast, budget, and control expenditures was also mentioned as part of responsible leadership. As highlighted by Bush and Glover (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), resource management is central to ensuring equitable access to learning opportunities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePromoting a Positive School Climate and Stakeholder Engagement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnother key dimension of managerial practice is the cultivation of a positive school climate, which includes reinforcing discipline, recognizing achievements, and fostering collaboration. School heads described implementing fair and consistent disciplinary measures, developing student counseling programs, and encouraging extracurricular participation to boost student motivation and engagement. Further, parental involvement emerged as a core aspect of managerial leadership. Participants cited the establishment of by-laws, mandatory parental meetings, and communication protocols to ensure parents are engaged in student academic tracking. This participatory approach supports findings by Leithwood et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), who emphasize that involving families and communities in school governance enhances both accountability and student achievement.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAdministrative Oversight and Accountability Structures\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eEffective managerial practices also involve setting systems of accountability through tools like performance indicators, student data tracking, and monitoring of school routines for instance punctuality, attendance and sanitation. These mechanisms not only foster transparency but also allow early intervention in academic or behavioral issues, which is consistent with the recommendations of the Wallace Foundation (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), which found that leadership accounts for up to 25% of school-related factors influencing student achievement, second only to classroom instruction.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, the study reveals that school heads in Temeke Municipality perceive and practice leadership capabilities predominantly through managerial functions. These encompass strategic planning, instructional supervision, resource management, stakeholder engagement, and performance monitoring. Such practices form the administrative backbone of effective schooling and have a direct bearing on student academic achievement. While the managerial leadership model has often been critiqued as rigid, the findings here suggest that when practiced inclusively and strategically, it remains highly relevant in the leadership landscape of public education in Tanzania.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSupervising the Teaching and Learning Process\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of the principal themes emerging from the interviews with school heads in Temeke Municipality is the conception of leadership capabilities as the daily supervision of the teaching and learning process. School heads viewed effective instructional supervision not merely as an administrative duty, but as a leadership capability essential to improving student academic outcomes. Through strategic supervision, school heads are able to uphold quality standards, enhance teacher accountability, encourage pedagogical development, and ensure curriculum coverage. Instructional supervision involves direct oversight of classroom practices, teacher planning, and student engagement strategies. The data revealed that school heads consistently supervise lesson planning, classroom instruction, student assessments, and teaching materials to ensure alignment with national standards and internal school goals. For example, one school head shared:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eI used to conduct learning walks, heck teachers enter classrooms on time, assess their teaching practices, check student workbooks, lesson plans every Friday, and class journals to ensure syllabus coverage, we also have remedial classes for Form Two and Form Four students \u003cem\u003e(Interview, School Head A).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis quotation highlights how instructional supervision functions not only as a monitoring mechanism but also as an instrument for feedback and professional development, enabling teachers to improve in areas identified during evaluations. These findings align with Kibui (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) who emphasized that effective supervision of curriculum instruction is essential for ensuring educational quality, and without it, student performance can decline. Supervision is structured through routines such as lesson plan checks (often on Fridays), logbook reviews, student attendance tracking, and instructional observations. Teachers are expected to adhere to performance standards and are required to respond to deficiencies in instructional delivery. As described by one head:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSubjects are evaluated every three months, if the subject pass rate is below 50%, The teacher writes a commitment letter. We also assess classroom practices such as voice balance, student engagement, use of teaching aids, and provide feedback \u003cem\u003e(Interview, School Head I).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSuch accountability measures reflect a performance based leadership approach, emphasizing results through data informed supervision. This aligns with the transformational leadership model as defined by Machumu and Kaitila (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), which proposes that effective school leaders engage with their teams to influence teaching and learning practices that maximize academic outcomes. Remedial teaching and timetabling for academic support are implemented effectively. A recurrent strategy employed by school heads is the organization of remedial programs for candidate classes (Forms II and IV), implemented in morning (06:30\u0026ndash;07:20 am) and evening sessions (03:00\u0026ndash;04:40 pm). This practice helps close instructional gaps and ensure syllabus completion, particularly for exam-level students.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe identify slow learners and support them every morning except Friday, notebooks are checked, and lessons assessed to ensure teachers are performing \u003cem\u003e(Interview, School Head G).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese extended instructional hours represent a targeted intervention strategy in response to observed learning challenges. According to the Wallace Foundation (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), such practices when accompanied by strong instructional leadership significantly improve student learning outcomes, especially when combined with monitoring and feedback. The findings also reveal that supervision is a distributed responsibility, often involving academic masters, heads of departments, and class teachers.\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eI delegate my responsibilities through academic master, heads of departments, and subject teachers. They supervise instruction and must fulfill their responsibilities \u003cem\u003e(Interview, School Head C).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis approach reflects distributed leadership theory, wherein leadership roles are shared among various actors in the school community to enhance effectiveness (Spillane \u0026amp; Diamond, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Delegating responsibilities helps school heads focus on strategic oversight while building leadership capacity within the school. Additionally, several school heads reported that instructional supervision also involves parental engagement, particularly for students showing signs of academic decline or absenteeism.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eParents meetings are conducted for children not improving. If a student is absent for two days without informing the school, the parent must provide the information to school administration. \u003cem\u003e(Interview, School Head E).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSuch measures align with Leithwood et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), who emphasize the importance of school-family partnerships in improving student performance. Active parental involvement ensures that learning responsibilities are shared beyond the classroom. On the other hand, many school heads emphasized the importance of ensuring that all teaching documents and resources including schemes of work, lesson notes, class journals, and logbooks are prepared and checked regularly.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTeachers should prepare subject action plans, lesson plans, and lesson notices\u0026hellip; we ensure journals and logbooks are available and complete (\u003cem\u003eInterview, School Head H).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe structured preparation of teaching materials reflects strong administrative systems aimed at curriculum fidelity, which the MANTEP Institute (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) highlighted as a core expectation for instructional leaders in Tanzanian schools. These findings are strongly supported by existing literature. Studies have consistently shown that classroom focused supervision and feedback loops are powerful levers for improving teacher effectiveness and student learning (Hallinger \u0026amp; Murphy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e; Robinson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). According to Ma et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), effective instructional supervision especially when it includes observation, feedback, coaching, and evaluation is significantly associated with higher student achievement across diverse educational contexts. Moreover, the structured supervisory practices observed in Temeke are consistent with international best practices. For instance, the High Impact Leadership model by the Wallace Foundation (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) emphasizes that strong instructional leadership requires routine monitoring of teaching and learning, aligned with school improvement plans and clearly defined academic targets.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn summary, the findings indicate that school heads in Temeke Municipality perceive daily supervision of the teaching and learning process as a core leadership capability. This includes not only routine classroom monitoring and evaluation but also strategic planning, parental involvement, remedial instruction, and data-driven decision-making. These practices collectively foster a learning-centered school environment where both teachers and students are held to high standards of performance. The study affirms that instructional supervision when practiced collaboratively, consistently, and with developmental intent is a vital leadership function that can significantly elevate student achievement.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eManagement of Teaching and Learning Materials\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings from this study reveal that school heads in Temeke Municipality perceive the management of teaching and learning materials as a fundamental component of their leadership capabilities. Effective instructional leadership, in this context, includes ensuring the availability, distribution, tracking, and optimal utilization of essential learning resources such as textbooks and laboratory equipment. These responsibilities are seen as instrumental in enhancing the quality of teaching and learning processes and consequently improving students\u0026rsquo; academic achievement. All interviewed school heads emphasized that one of their core leadership roles is the procurement, documentation, and allocation of teaching and learning materials. The materials primarily sourced from the Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) and coordinated through local government agencies such as TAMISEMI include textbooks, laboratory equipment, teaching aids, and storage units. As one school head noted:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eInstructional resources are allocated to the school, all resources received are recorded in the ledger, stamped and numbered. We received enough books from the government through TIE. The challenge is the lack of a proper library. We only have a bookstore (Interview, School Head A).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis statement highlights not only the systematic handling of resources but also infrastructural limitations that hinder optimal material management. It underscores the discrepancy between supply and the physical or logistical capacity of schools to handle learning materials, a finding echoed across multiple schools in the district.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eInventory and Accountability Systems;\u003c/em\u003e Most school heads reported implementing clear systems for tracking and lending learning materials, including use of ledgers, library cards, and teacher supervision for borrowing books. These systems reflect a conscious effort to ensure that materials are both protected and effectively utilized.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIf teachers or students need to use [materials], it must be recorded to the appropriate book and given a specific day to return it \u003cem\u003e(Interview, School Head B).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBooks are hired and returned within seven days. Laboratory equipment is recorded and stored the lab technician is responsible for all available equipment \u003cem\u003e(Interview, School Head I).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese practices support principles of educational resource accountability, which, according to Mulkeen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), are critical in resource constrained contexts where loss, mismanagement, or underutilization of materials could directly impede learning outcomes. While some schools have structured library facilities with reading timetables and supervision protocols, others rely on temporary bookstores or improvised systems due to infrastructural limitations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe have a temporary library, students rent books under teachers\u0026rsquo; supervision \u003cem\u003e(Interview, School Head C).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLibrary timetable is available. Teachers guide students how to use the library and empower them with reading skills \u003cem\u003e(Interview, School Head I).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSuch initiatives align with findings by Orodho (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), who observed that in many sub-Saharan African countries, school leaders adapt to resource constraints by employing informal but practical solutions to provide students with access to learning materials. Despite these efforts, many school heads highlighted the lack of adequate physical infrastructure, such as shelves, cupboards, or dedicated library space. This limitation can affect both the accessibility and longevity of the materials. Nonetheless, the intentional management practices by the school heads serve as a compensatory leadership function aimed at ensuring continued student access to educational resources.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese findings align with the notion that resource management is a crucial facet of instructional leadership. As noted by Bush and Glover (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), school leaders who strategically manage instructional resources enhance both teacher performance and student learning by providing the tools necessary for effective teaching. The study also confirms the assertion by Johnson et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e) that availability of teaching and learning materials like textbooks, reference books, teaching guides, and charts enhances the effectiveness of students in learning toward positive academic achievement. The capacity of school heads to organize, distribute and monitor learning materials is therefore not only a managerial function but also a demonstration of their leadership capabilities in shaping a conducive learning environment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeveral school heads reported that book accessibility directly affects student learning outcomes. And students hired books under teachers\u0026rsquo; supervision. It helps students to improve their learning. The student-book ratio is about 1:3 for instance, School Head E mentioned. Although a 1:3 ratio is not optimal, especially in resource-rich settings, it is significantly better than total lack of access, and it enables more equitable learning opportunities. According to UNESCO (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), even modest improvements in textbook availability in low-income settings have positive correlations with students\u0026rsquo; learning achievement, particularly in literacy and science subjects.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite these structured practices, many school heads expressed financial and logistical limitations that impede the optimal management of instructional materials. These include: Lack of sufficient budgets for infrastructure development [School Head A] reported, inadequate library space or shelves and delayed or inconsistent supply of materials from central agencies. Such findings mirror broader educational challenges reported by World Bank (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), which highlights that in many African countries, financial constraints prevent schools from developing the physical and human infrastructure necessary to support resource-rich learning environments. The findings clearly indicate that management of teaching and learning materials is a vital leadership function as perceived and practiced by school heads in Temeke Municipality. School heads take active roles in ensuring that teaching and learning materials are received, documented, stored, and distributed responsibly. Their efforts, often under constrained conditions, demonstrate a strong commitment to instructional leadership, particularly in relation to maximizing the use of available resources to enhance student learning. Despite the challenges such as inadequate libraries and budget limitations school heads have implemented innovative, context responsive strategies to maintain access and accountability. These strategies, although varied across schools, consistently reflect a leadership style that is both resource-conscious and student-focused. Effective management of instructional materials remains not only a technical responsibility but also a strategic leadership act that underpins student achievement and teaching effectiveness.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eDelegation of Authority\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study revealed that delegation of authority is a pivotal leadership capability employed by school heads to ensure the effective and efficient operation of schools in Temeke municipality. Delegation is not merely a managerial tool, but a strategic mechanism through which leadership responsibilities are distributed among staff members and student leaders to foster institutional performance and enhance student achievement. From the data gathered, it became evident that the majority of school heads practice intentional delegation as a means to empower their subordinates particularly teachers and departmental heads to execute tasks on their behalf. This distributed approach to leadership is rooted in the recognition that no single individual, regardless of expertise or experience, can manage all aspects of school administration in isolation, especially within institutions characterized by growing complexity and expanding responsibilities. As School Head articulated as follows:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParents are engaged through meetings where we share the school improvement plan. After each examination, we share students\u0026rsquo; results with parents and engage in discussions on how to enhance academic performance \u003cem\u003e(interview, School Head C).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis statement reflects the inclusive and multi-level nature of delegated responsibilities, not only among teaching staff but extending to external stakeholders such as parents, thereby reinforcing accountability and transparency in leadership practices. Similarly, School Head D emphasized the collaborative framework under which authority is delegated:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs a school leader, I oversee school operations in cooperation with the School Management Team (SMT). I delegate authority to the assistant head, academic master, and discipline master. I provide guidance and support to ensure our objectives are achieved \u003cem\u003e(Interview, School Head D).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis exemplifies hierarchical delegation, where specific roles and duties are clearly allocated to subordinates, thus promoting operational efficiency, role clarity, and leadership continuity. Such a framework aligns with the principles of transformational leadership, where heads of schools inspire and empower their teams to achieve collective goals (Bush \u0026amp; Glover, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, School Head F elaborated on the use of participatory leadership styles in managing academic processes:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eI delegate my authority to heads of departments to supervise and monitor academic progress in collaboration with subject teachers. The academic master is responsible for student performance and test monitoring, and submits periodic reports to me \u003cem\u003e(Interview, School Head F).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis type of delegation reflects instructional leadership, where academic responsibilities are shared among competent educators to maintain continuous student performance tracking and pedagogical oversight (Hallinger, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). These narratives collectively demonstrate that delegation is not only about reducing the leader\u0026rsquo;s workload but also about building leadership capacity among staff and cultivating a collaborative work culture. By delegating responsibilities such as discipline management, academic supervision, and student monitoring, school heads are fostering a sense of ownership and professionalism among teachers. The study findings are consistent with existing scholarship. For instance, Emmanouil, Osia, and Athanasoula-Reppa (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) emphasize that delegation within schools reflects a shared leadership model, wherein responsibilities are executed collaboratively with the aim of improving student learning outcomes. Such bottom-up participation enhances motivation, accountability, and innovation within educational settings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, Kongnyuy (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) underscores that the effectiveness of any school heavily depends on the strategic delegation of responsibilities. When school leaders empower staff to act autonomously within well-defined roles, it results in improved organizational performance and learner outcomes. Delegation also allows leaders to concentrate on broader strategic issues such as policy formulation, stakeholder engagement, and institutional development. Recent research by Ng, Wang, and Ahlstrom (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) further supports this perspective, suggesting that schools which embrace distributed leadership and clearly defined delegation structures exhibit greater levels of staff cohesion and student achievement. Similarly, Wenner and Campbell (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) argue that when leadership is shared across teaching staff, it fosters professional growth, enhances decision-making and promotes a culture of collective responsibility all of which are essential for improving educational outcomes in resource-constrained environments such as Temeke municipality.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoreover, effective delegation enables school heads to enhance institutional resilience and responsiveness. In situations where immediate action is required such as addressing disciplinary incidents or organizing remedial programs delegated authority ensures swift and contextually appropriate responses, without waiting for top-level directives. This agility is particularly vital in public schools operating under systemic constraints and high enrolment pressures. In light of the findings, delegation emerges as a leadership capability that not only supports operational management but also directly influences student academic achievement. By fostering shared responsibility, school heads create environments where both staff and students are engaged, proactive and goal-oriented.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eParental Engagement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eParental engagement has emerged as a critical dimension of educational leadership and a key capability among school heads influencing student achievement in Tanzanian secondary schools. This study found that school heads actively facilitate parental participation in various academic and institutional activities, understanding it as both a leadership strategy and an essential component of school effectiveness. Consistent with the literature, engaging parents in the academic lives of their children fosters positive learning outcomes and enhances institutional accountability (Goodall, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Jeynes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Interview data revealed that school heads strategically involve parents through meetings, performance reviews, and structured support mechanisms to reinforce student learning. As one participant noted:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe set school academic standards early in the year and shared them with parents. During parent meetings, we discussed students\u0026rsquo; performance and agreed on full parental involvement. We formed a Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) to address school improvement plans and committed to eliminating division zero through shared responsibility \u003cem\u003e(Interview, School Head A).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSuch leadership practices align with \u003cem\u003etransformational leadership principles\u003c/em\u003e, where shared vision, community collaboration, and participatory decision-making are central to improving academic standards (Harris \u0026amp; Jones, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Through mechanisms like PTAs, school heads foster collaborative environments in which parents contribute not only to their children's academic progress but also to institutional development, such as infrastructure, discipline, and co-curricular support. Another school head elaborated:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParents are engaged through meetings and the school improvement plan is shared early in the academic year. Parents support their children academically and contribute to activities like school kitchen construction, academic office rehabilitation, and student meal provision \u003cem\u003e(Interview, School Head D).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e These practices indicate that school leaders conceptualize parental engagement beyond episodic participation. Instead, they institutionalize it as a form of shared educational leadership, fostering a school-community relationship that enhances both academic performance and school infrastructure (Ezenne \u0026amp; Ezeoba, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Recent studies underscore that parental involvement in school governance, such as strategic planning and resource mobilization is positively associated with school outcomes (Wairimu \u0026amp; Muthaa, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Parental engagement also has significant emotional and psychological implications for students. When parents actively attend school events such as academic ceremonies or open days, they enhance students' motivation, confidence, and sense of accountability. As evidenced by the narratives, home-based educational support mechanisms such as homework supervision and the provision of take-home learning packages play a crucial role in academic improvement. For instance:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParents are engaged to set standards during meetings. Home packages are distributed to parents who must ensure their children complete them. At the beginning of the term, students return to school with their parents to review these packages. This approach ensures that parents remain fully involved in their children's learning (\u003cem\u003eInterview, School Head J\u003c/em\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese leadership efforts are consistent with findings by Desforges and Abouchaar (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), who assert that parental engagement at home has a stronger influence on educational attainment than socio-economic background. Moreover, this practice fosters learning continuity between school and home, a critical factor in post pandemic educational recovery and resilience. However, the study also identified significant disparities in parental involvement across different school contexts. In more remote or underserved areas, parental engagement remains low due to geographical, economic, or social barriers. One school head reported:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMost parents live far from the school. Given the area\u0026rsquo;s nature, they are often uncooperative. They rarely attend meetings or follow up on their children\u0026rsquo;s education. As a result, overall school performance remains low (\u003cem\u003eInterview, School Head I).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis gap indicates the presence of structural and contextual challenges that hinder effective parental participation. As supported by Seni and Onyango (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), limited engagement often correlates with poor school outcomes and reduced community ownership of educational initiatives. In such cases, school heads are compelled to adopt adaptive leadership strategies, including direct outreach, flexible meeting schedules, and community based follow up mechanisms to bridge these gaps (Ochieng \u0026amp; Wamukuru, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, some parents demonstrate limited understanding of their roles in supporting academic development. Despite the availability of forums such as PTAs, communication between teachers and parents remains sporadic in certain contexts. This finding mirrors observations by Abdullah (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) and is echoed in more recent analyses by Clinton and Hattie (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), who argue that effective parental engagement depends on clear, consistent communication and well-defined expectations from school leadership. Importantly, this study highlights that successful school heads in Temeke do not merely rely on passive parental involvement. Instead, they actively construct engagement frameworks by embedding parental roles into academic planning, discipline management and learning assessment processes. This intentional integration of parental functions within school leadership structures demonstrates a distinct understanding of parental engagement as a strategic leadership capability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGenerally, the evidence from this study underscores parental engagement as a central leadership capability that school heads in Temeke Municipality deploy to promote student achievement. Effective parental involvement, facilitated through structured communication, participatory decision-making, and home-school collaboration, contributes to improved academic performance, student motivation, and institutional development. Nonetheless, disparities in parental involvement remain, largely driven by socio-spatial and contextual factors. These findings call for targeted leadership training and policy interventions aimed at equipping school heads with the tools to foster inclusive, sustainable parental engagement practices across diverse school contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eHandling of School Challenges\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study explored the challenges encountered by school heads and the leadership strategies adopted to manage these difficulties, collectively defining their leadership capabilities. Challenges identified included poor discipline among teachers and students, lack of parental involvement, overcrowded classrooms, inadequate funding, shortage of infrastructure and teaching facilities, and an insufficient number of subject teachers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDisciplinary Issues among Teachers and Students;\u003c/em\u003e the findings highlighted pervasive disciplinary concerns involving both students and teachers that posed significant barriers to academic achievement in Temeke secondary schools. School heads reported violations of school regulations such as truancy, substance abuse, and inappropriate relationships among students and between students and teachers. For instance, one school head noted multiple challenges:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe face issues such as student dropout, marijuana use, and lack of engagement with classwork, and reluctance to adapt to pedagogical strategies. Some teachers engage in inappropriate relationships with students. These issues are addressed through disciplinary measures, including warnings and, in extreme cases, expulsion \u003cem\u003e(Interview, School head A)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimilarly, another School Head mentioned:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTeachers\u0026rsquo; absenteeism and students' long commutes lead to irregular attendance and dropout. Disciplinary committees administer case-specific sanctions \u003cem\u003e(Interview, School Head F.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnother School head recounted:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUpon transfer to this school, I found a poor school culture with frequent dropouts. In 2022, eight students missed national exams due to dropout, and twelve missed mock exams in 2023. We\u0026rsquo;ve established a dropout response system that involves local government and police reporting mechanisms (\u003cem\u003eInterview, School head J).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdditional disciplinary challenges, such as tardiness, failure to cover syllabi, and inadequate classroom performance, were noted by School Head G. These results echo previous studies demonstrating that discipline-related issues detract from both teaching effectiveness and student outcomes (Maro, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Mwenda \u0026amp; Ndege, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInadequate Parental Engagement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003e The study revealed that many parents or guardians failed to support their children\u0026rsquo;s educational development, further complicating the leadership role of school heads. School Head remarked\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Some parents neglect behavioral issues like drug use at home. They rarely contribute to school feeding programs, compounding the problem \u003cem\u003e(Interview, School Head A)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile other School Head B added that:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLow parental participation in school meetings hinders student follow-up. For dropout cases, we collaborate with local authorities to hold parents accountable through legal measures \u003cem\u003e(Interview, School Head B).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimilar sentiments were echoed by School Heads D and E, who reported parental resistance to school policies, particularly those related to food contributions. These findings are consistent with Hakielimu (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), who emphasized the critical role of parent-school partnerships in supporting student academic progress.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOvercrowded Classrooms;\u003c/em\u003e A significant impediment to effective learning and teaching was overcrowding in classrooms. Interviews revealed class sizes exceeding recommended student-teacher ratios, with some schools operating beyond 1:100 ratios.\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur Class Student Ratio is 1:67. Environmental distractions and over-enrollment limit effective classroom assessment. Nevertheless, we implement strategic timetabling and assessment reforms to ensure quality instruction \u003cem\u003e(Interview, School Head E).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSchool Heads C and B reported even higher ratios of 1:91 and 1:102, respectively. They described adaptations such as using outdoor learning spaces and splitting sessions to mitigate congestion. These results affirm those of Amiry (2018) and Kalembo and Mgeni (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), who concluded that large class sizes hinder individualized instruction and overall academic achievement.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eInadequate Funding;\u003c/em\u003e Budgetary constraints emerged as a persistent challenge. School heads lamented insufficient capitation grants, which adversely affected daily operations, procurement of teaching materials, and the implementation of remedial programs. School Heads stated that:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe cannot procure all required teaching materials. School feeding programs rely on inconsistent parental contributions \u003cem\u003e(Interview, School Head A).\u003c/em\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe free education policy has inadvertently burdened schools financially. We accumulate debts to cover electricity, security, and printing costs. Monthly expenditures exceed government allocations (\u003cem\u003eInterview, School Head B)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis concern was echoed by School Head D, who reported delayed teacher allowances for remedial lessons, resulting in reduced teacher motivation. These insights align with Kigobe and Chiwamba (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and Mwalimu (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), who argue that underfunding critically undermines educational leadership and resource availability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eShortage of Infrastructure and Facilities\u003c/em\u003e; the findings indicated that most schools operated with inadequate physical infrastructure, affecting the quality of education delivery. Shortages included classrooms, toilets, staff rooms, libraries, laboratories, and administrative blocks. School head shared that:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe have only 14 classrooms for over 1,400 students. Limited land area restricts further construction \u003cem\u003e(Interview, School Head B).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSchool Heads C and E echoed concerns about overcrowding, lack of sanitation, and the absence of essential facilities like libraries and staff rooms. Although laboratory construction was underway in some schools, operationalization remained inconsistent. Only two out of ten schools had functional computer laboratories. One school head reported successful integration of ICT:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur school has a computer lab with 40 machines under the \u0026lsquo;Tehama kwa Wote\u0026rsquo; program (\u003cem\u003eInterview, School Head H).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings align with Mcharo (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and Osaki (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), who underscore the correlation between infrastructure adequacy and effective curriculum delivery, emphasizing the need for equitable resource distribution.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eInadequate Subject-Specific Teachers;\u003c/em\u003e another major challenge involved the shortage of qualified subject teachers, especially in science, mathematics, and business-related subjects. School heads reported increased workloads for the few available teachers and dependence on volunteers or part-time staff. For instance, School Head A explained:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe lack science and mathematics teachers, which hampers student performance in these subjects.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSchool Head B reported:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOut of 47 teaching staff, only 40 are full-time. We depend on volunteer teachers for mathematics, physics, and chemistry.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSchool Head F added:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo address science subject deficits, we\u0026rsquo;ve hired part-time teachers with financial support from parents.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSchool Head G quantified the shortage, noting that only 4 mathematics teachers served a school requiring 17. These staffing deficits impacted workload distribution and instructional effectiveness. These findings corroborate those of Njau (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), who highlighted how staff shortages contribute to increased workloads and lower academic performance. Kaswaga (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) and Logation (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) also observed that unequal subject specialization among teachers exacerbates instructional gaps, particularly in STEM fields.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e The study concludes that school heads in Temeke Municipality exhibit adaptive leadership capabilities by devising local solutions to systemic challenges. However, the persistent issues of discipline, parental disengagement, overcrowding, underfunding, poor infrastructure, and staff shortages significantly constrain their effectiveness. Addressing these challenges requires integrated policy interventions and enhanced stakeholder collaboration to improve student outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study highlights that school heads in public schools bring a diverse set of leadership capabilities to their roles skills that are central to supporting student learning and academic achievement. Their ability to guide teaching, make decisions, manage resources, and engage with stakeholders demonstrates a strong foundation in effective school leadership. However, the consistently low performance in national examinations like the CSEE and FTNA cannot simply be blamed on weak leadership. Instead, these results point to deeper, systemic challenges such as limited resources, socio-economic hardships, and inadequate infrastructure that go beyond the control of school leaders. At the same time, the connection between strong leadership and better academic outcomes remains clear. When school heads are able to apply their skills fully, they foster environments that help students succeed. Yet they face many barriers: indiscipline among students and teachers, overcrowded classrooms, minimal parental involvement, and a lack of funding and basic facilities like classrooms, laboratories, and toilets. The shortage of qualified teachers in key subjects, and the intake of students who need extra academic support, further stretch their already limited capacity. In the end, while school leadership matters greatly, it can only be as effective as the support system behind it. If we want to see real improvements in student achievement, especially in public secondary schools across Temeke, we must not only invest in leadership development but also tackle the broader challenges that hold schools back. Supporting school heads with the resources they need will go a long way in improving educational outcomes for all learners.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eRecommendations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eGiven that many school heads currently operate outside their areas of expertise and lack formal leadership training, the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training (MOEVT) should prioritize the appointment of qualified and professionally trained individuals to leadership positions. Continuous capacity-building through in-service training and consistent supervision is also essential to empower school heads to support teacher development effectively, thereby enhancing instructional quality and improving student performance. Moreover, the government must ensure that all public secondary schools are adequately resourced with essential infrastructure such as classrooms, administrative blocks, science and computer laboratories, libraries, sanitation facilities, and secure perimeters to create an environment conducive to teaching and learning. School heads should focus on their core role of supporting instructional delivery, particularly in moderate- and low-performing schools, by consistently supervising classrooms and managing teaching materials efficiently. This approach can enhance teacher motivation and ultimately lead to improved academic outcomes. Furthermore, strengthening parental engagement is vital. While high-performing schools often benefit from active parental involvement, moderate and low-performing schools face challenges in this area. School heads must proactively cultivate stronger partnerships with parents to encourage their participation in academic activities and foster a shared responsibility for student success.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contribution\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThis article is part of the corresponding author\u0026rsquo;s PhD dissertation submitted at the University of Dar es salaam. The first author, Mwajabu Rajabu Mbwambo conceptualized the study, collected data, performed analysis and prepared the manuscript. Hillary Dachi and Simon Peter Ngalomba commented and reversed the proceeding versions. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors did not receive any financial support from any organizations for this work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe study got approval by University of Dar es salaam research committee. All data collection procedures were conducted in agreement with ethical standards of the University of Dar es salaam research committee and in accordance with government circular \u0026nbsp; letter Ref .No. MPEC/R/10/1 dated 4\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e July 1980 which empowered the Vice Chancellor of the University of Dar es Salaam to issue research clearances to staff members and students of the University of Dar es salaam on behalf of the government and the Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology (COSTECH). \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInformed consent\u003c/strong\u003e the study was approved by University of Dar es salaam research committee. All participants provided informed consent before taking part in the study. The research also adhered to the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. Both authors have reviewed and approved the final version of this manuscript, which has not been published or submitted for consideration elsewhere.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of Interest\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors declared that they have no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical trial number:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003enot applicable\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbdullah AGK. Parental involvement and its impact on students' academic performance. Malaysian Ministry of Education; 2009.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eADEM \u0026amp; Open University of Tanzania. Strategic partnership report on school leadership development. Agency for Development of Educational Management; 2025.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAkomolafe CO. 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Pearson Education; 2022.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-education","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"diedu","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Education](https://www.springer.com/journal/44217)","snPcode":"44217","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44217/3","title":"Discover Education","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"School heads, Leadership Capabilities, Students academic achievement","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7216101/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7216101/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study explores the influence of school heads\u0026rsquo; leadership capabilities on students\u0026rsquo; academic achievement in public secondary schools in Temeke Municipality. Using a concurrent triangulation design, data were gathered from 254 respondents through questionnaires, interviews, and document review. Descriptive statistics and regression analysis guided by the skills theory of leadership were used for analysis. Key leadership capabilities identified such as decision-making, instructional supervision, resource mobilization, and parental engagement showed a strong association with student performance. The study also reveal that majority of school heads lacked formal leadership training and operated beyond their professional scope. It recommends that the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MoEST) ensure the appointment of qualified school leaders and provide ongoing training. Adopting a comprehensive leadership framework that integrates diverse capabilities is vital for navigating educational challenges and improving student outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"How Leadership Capabilities influences Students’ Achievement in Tanzanian public secondary schools","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-27 11:31:26","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7216101/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-10-24T14:45:27+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-23T16:04:45+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-21T16:56:10+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-19T09:52:14+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"166965742723400247268486977111127059935","date":"2025-10-15T09:27:33+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"167238198152506302990170677991933894000","date":"2025-10-15T09:20:18+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"221538654687753801872168589809501163237","date":"2025-10-13T10:56:30+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"249860001890807232123472732091772559268","date":"2025-10-13T09:34:01+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-13T08:38:59+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-10-13T08:29:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-03T13:06:24+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-09-25T04:13:28+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Education","date":"2025-09-25T03:37:53+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-education","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"diedu","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Education](https://www.springer.com/journal/44217)","snPcode":"44217","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44217/3","title":"Discover Education","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"705b1b2d-19ca-4d69-8815-9a86aa25804c","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 27th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-13T15:53:28+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-27 11:31:26","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7216101","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7216101","identity":"rs-7216101","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}