Integrated Approaches to Waste Heat Utilization for Power Generation in Civil and Mechanical Engineering

Integrated Approaches to Waste Heat Utilization for Power Generation in Civil and Mechanical Engineering | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Integrated Approaches to Waste Heat Utilization for Power Generation in Civil and Mechanical Engineering ABU SAYED, MD SAIM HOSSEM, SAKIB HASAN, Susmita Swarna, Tafsia Tasmine Nadia This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7714155/v3 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 3 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Show more versions Abstract Waste heat utilization (WHU) is a potential technique that has been considered in the enhancement of energy effectiveness of both civil and mechanical systems. This research aims at comparing the performance of three WHU technologies which are Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC), Kalina cycle, and Thermoelectric Generators (TEGs) through experimentation and modeling. The study analyzed their efficiency concerning thermal conditions and incorporate these technologies in civil structures such as heating, ventilating, and air conditioning systems or grey water recovery and aeromechanical systems like the gas turbine exhaust. These tend to show that Kalina cycle and its efficiency, mainly at medium and high temperatures, are considerably high but ORC systems offer better system design along with relatively promising efficiency. TEGs, despite the fact that they are thin film based and hence compact, lack the capability to generate much power and are best suited for small power applications. The findings concerning both sectors show a high potential of energy recovery and the modeling results are over 95% accurate as compared with the experimental results. Sensitivity also increases the rating of parameters that shows that the temperature and flow rate are the most sensitive variables in the system. It can be concluded that there is the potential of achieving significant environmental and economic advantages when adopting WHU systems by organizing them according to civil and mechanical domain operations characteristics. This study contributes to the understanding of sustainable energy systems and offers practical recommendations to engineering and policy professionals desiring to minimize energy losses and environmental impacts when deploying WHU. Environmental Engineering Waste heat utilization Organic Rankine Cycle Kalina Cycle Thermoelectric Generators energy efficiency Full Text Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 3 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Show more versions Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7714155","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":527811171,"identity":"0d83659c-00e6-43dc-a801-7de6fb2f7884","order_by":0,"name":"ABU SAYED","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nantong University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"ABU","middleName":"","lastName":"SAYED","suffix":""},{"id":535968011,"identity":"d450e2b9-b46a-4cd2-a554-b3a030d9e0b8","order_by":1,"name":"MD SAIM HOSSEM","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nantong University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"MD","middleName":"SAIM","lastName":"HOSSEM","suffix":""},{"id":535968012,"identity":"f8656fd7-2c53-407f-8cb1-82ef2b04e2d7","order_by":2,"name":"SAKIB HASAN","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA5ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFACNobDDBU2PPzsDUCOgQWxWs6kyUn2HABpkSBOCzNj22FjgxsJIB4RWuTbjyUeLjjDnLjh5vOrG34USDDwt3cn4NVicCbtwOEZFWyJM2/nlN3sATpM4szZDfi1MKQ3HOY5w5PYdzsn7QYPUIuBRC5+LfL9zxsO87ZJJDbcPJN28w8xWhhuAB3G22ZgLHCD/dhtomwxuPEs4fCMMwnAQM5huy1jIMFD0C/y/WnGnwsq/gOj8vizm2/+2Mjxt/cScBgC8BiASWKVgwD7A1JUj4JRMApGwQgCAAnPTtnFW08TAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0001-6443-5076","institution":"Nantong University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"SAKIB","middleName":"","lastName":"HASAN","suffix":""},{"id":535968111,"identity":"a7164d2a-0d62-4c1e-bbc4-b07101433adf","order_by":3,"name":"Susmita Swarna","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Bangladesh University of Business and Technology, Bangladesh.","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Susmita","middleName":"","lastName":"Swarna","suffix":""},{"id":535968112,"identity":"64223373-5585-457f-b9eb-f57f6014aec0","order_by":4,"name":"Tafsia Tasmine Nadia","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Changsha University of Science and Technology, China.","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Tafsia","middleName":"Tasmine","lastName":"Nadia","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-09-25 14:56:21","currentVersionCode":3,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":true,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7714155/v3","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7714155/v3","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":94986431,"identity":"5667f1ca-142f-45ef-bc5a-74d484b6e1af","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-03 07:00:19","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":1947117,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"IntegratedApproachestomodify.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7714155/v3/a8041a2a07165bba6e9deb70.docx"},{"id":94883559,"identity":"0c7d689b-c7b8-46f8-997e-b942cbf758ed","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 17:37:36","extension":"json","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":342,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"rs7714155.json","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7714155/v3/f5422e18c23e12c9157f2f44.json"},{"id":94986623,"identity":"edadb5f2-4a61-4976-80f1-84a4fd40e43e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-03 07:00:30","extension":"xml","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":126279,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"rs77141553enriched.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7714155/v3/aa12a7eff36f3addd95a38f6.xml"},{"id":94883564,"identity":"95bdf67b-ac11-4252-a3f7-da43773abc27","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 17:37:36","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":796858,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7714155/v3/8ad0ff4e664333d61bb79391.png"},{"id":94986689,"identity":"d4394dd4-c425-470e-a8ef-df03b285f05a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-03 07:00:37","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":145893,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7714155/v3/8727a379e3d8d123cf41c525.png"},{"id":94986551,"identity":"37bc4e07-251f-4679-a5b4-3976f8c8a8e9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-03 07:00:25","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":116473,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7714155/v3/af3fcd0dfa7492765208072d.png"},{"id":94986760,"identity":"26d16f3b-4860-4209-a4c0-0753ea5dcd23","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-03 07:00:44","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":111919,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7714155/v3/22d7dd34220edb8807748229.png"},{"id":94987237,"identity":"8d2cc978-00d5-41c0-8927-12be65e832b8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-03 07:01:32","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":122582,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7714155/v3/a7bc18a079cdf8816295f59c.png"},{"id":94986702,"identity":"8e1d3daf-295b-4265-9903-65d347b5a940","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-03 07:00:38","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":166596,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7714155/v3/f42c68352fab4f78ef9c220d.png"},{"id":94883568,"identity":"a1ab4b29-1e92-44ce-9a4e-7f94c5e4a1b3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 17:37:36","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":158211,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7714155/v3/7044296656012faa52be0a96.png"},{"id":94986889,"identity":"4f01d59b-e509-45eb-bb76-4815adae3108","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-03 07:00:56","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":107515,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7714155/v3/fa5f8600d8a49537dfaad44d.png"},{"id":94883579,"identity":"2fe60af5-3265-46c2-9396-99e27fb360d5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 17:37:36","extension":"jpeg","order_by":11,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":202834,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7714155/v3/168d3a4ed646e90c12b31f13.jpeg"},{"id":94883571,"identity":"35f8b1c6-a48c-4583-883c-be85103b5442","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 17:37:36","extension":"png","order_by":12,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":164219,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7714155/v3/406e7b7382e239ee8e5c46c5.png"},{"id":94883572,"identity":"634ecbc1-1441-4643-bf9a-7bc89c3ac2aa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 17:37:36","extension":"png","order_by":13,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":46861,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7714155/v3/da1104d803a9d486ce760953.png"},{"id":94987370,"identity":"a06017a7-1211-47c4-ab77-873ed7874ad5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-03 07:01:47","extension":"png","order_by":14,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":42306,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7714155/v3/5c0579ca7860349d84d333e5.png"},{"id":94883582,"identity":"b2873fc1-2c4a-4ac3-82b6-09ce13b5066a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 17:37:37","extension":"png","order_by":15,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":27245,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7714155/v3/c9380471a2a2c5d0baa3ecf2.png"},{"id":94883577,"identity":"b1462a0a-135c-44e1-9cff-444e64dcb1bc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 17:37:36","extension":"png","order_by":16,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":27413,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7714155/v3/51fb810cb0856fb119af04fb.png"},{"id":94987354,"identity":"f13a92de-3b88-4925-8410-915f6a8f8141","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-03 07:01:45","extension":"png","order_by":17,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":36211,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7714155/v3/c79412b34f0ec692bd2d755d.png"},{"id":94883574,"identity":"8cac6a85-8446-498d-9e6d-dd3f28349141","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 17:37:36","extension":"png","order_by":18,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":42026,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7714155/v3/36187bf3ada7a7df49593e0f.png"},{"id":94986919,"identity":"d208767b-894d-4754-ba22-5d1006739710","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-03 07:00:58","extension":"png","order_by":19,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":34628,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7714155/v3/8094faf9327d6568fcbd3874.png"},{"id":94883581,"identity":"b2bdd880-4479-4887-b82f-0a89846b340b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 17:37:36","extension":"png","order_by":20,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":30850,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7714155/v3/b84b01026af804265a2d1cf5.png"},{"id":94883578,"identity":"23fa2de9-f83f-486a-87ef-cb80e1796852","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 17:37:36","extension":"png","order_by":21,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":39112,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7714155/v3/2070bc670e5923de6196d29e.png"},{"id":94883575,"identity":"b96fbd7c-7b91-41e6-9fc7-80b6cfee4fe1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 17:37:36","extension":"png","order_by":22,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":41536,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7714155/v3/7a02f958bcef2f79bc860354.png"},{"id":94987458,"identity":"8160c357-e208-4e92-adeb-0c34f93ecbc9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-03 07:01:53","extension":"xml","order_by":23,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":125164,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"rs77141553structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7714155/v3/dffd8c89ed2cf36c800ca9df.xml"},{"id":94883576,"identity":"b0ded429-145d-438c-8773-522c0988dbe1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 17:37:36","extension":"html","order_by":24,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":131946,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7714155/v3/9540a1c78ece254b492dbb3c.html"},{"id":94990483,"identity":"e6457150-e052-4e34-bd7e-2eed3971ab1a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-03 07:17:24","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1166099,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"IntegratedApproachestomodify.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7714155/v3_covered_ee8a856c-e4fc-4cca-8c5e-873e36ca761c.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"Integrated Approaches to Waste Heat Utilization for Power Generation in Civil and Mechanical Engineering","fulltext":[],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Nantong University","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":true,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":true,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Waste heat utilization, Organic Rankine Cycle, Kalina Cycle, Thermoelectric Generators, energy efficiency","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7714155/v3","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7714155/v3","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eWaste heat utilization (WHU) is a potential technique that has been considered in the enhancement of energy effectiveness of both civil and mechanical systems. This research aims at comparing the performance of three WHU technologies which are Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC), Kalina cycle, and Thermoelectric Generators (TEGs) through experimentation and modeling. The study analyzed their efficiency concerning thermal conditions and incorporate these technologies in civil structures such as heating, ventilating, and air conditioning systems or grey water recovery and aeromechanical systems like the gas turbine exhaust. These tend to show that Kalina cycle and its efficiency, mainly at medium and high temperatures, are considerably high but ORC systems offer better system design along with relatively promising efficiency. TEGs, despite the fact that they are thin film based and hence compact, lack the capability to generate much power and are best suited for small power applications. The findings concerning both sectors show a high potential of energy recovery and the modeling results are over 95% accurate as compared with the experimental results. Sensitivity also increases the rating of parameters that shows that the temperature and flow rate are the most sensitive variables in the system. It can be concluded that there is the potential of achieving significant environmental and economic advantages when adopting WHU systems by organizing them according to civil and mechanical domain operations characteristics. This study contributes to the understanding of sustainable energy systems and offers practical recommendations to engineering and policy professionals desiring to minimize energy losses and environmental impacts when deploying WHU.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Integrated Approaches to Waste Heat Utilization for Power Generation in Civil and Mechanical Engineering","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":3,"date":"2025-10-31 17:37:31","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7714155/v3","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}},{"code":2,"date":"2025-10-10 17:10:34","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7714155/v2","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}},{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-26 11:28:31","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7714155/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b962b374-a8d5-4428-a23b-1956293022d4","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 31st, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":56108256,"name":"Environmental Engineering"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-13T14:47:16+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-31 17:37:31","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v3","identity":"rs-7714155","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7714155","identity":"rs-7714155","version":["v3"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}