Examining parenting behaviors as predictors of fine-grained dimensions of externalizing psychopathology in youth

Examining parenting behaviors as predictors of fine-grained dimensions of externalizing psychopathology in youth | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Examining parenting behaviors as predictors of fine-grained dimensions of externalizing psychopathology in youth Ashley R. Karlovich, Spencer C. Evans This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4559598/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Although the associations between specific dimensions of parenting behaviors (e.g., inconsistent discipline, poor monitoring/supervision, positive parenting) and youth externalizing problems are well-studied, externalizing constructs have often been measured broadly, imprecisely, or inconsistently. To clarify this picture, we examined the links between parenting behaviors and fine-grained dimensions of externalizing-spectrum problems. Caregiver-report survey data were collected for 576 youths ages 6-14. Path models revealed that poor monitoring/supervision and inconsistent discipline emerged as robust, independent predictors of all seven types of externalizing variables examined; however, the effects of positive parenting were attenuated to non-significance in combined models. These results held when controlling for, and were not moderated by, demographic variables (parent/child age/gender). Findings underscore the importance of parents’ inconsistent discipline and poor monitoring/supervision in accounting for child externalizing problems, while also revealing the consistency of associations with various externalizing-spectrum problems (e.g., irritability, aggression, ODD, ADHD). Replication using multiple methods and informants is needed. Parenting Externalizing Children Families Community Survey Figures Figure 1 Introduction Externalizing-spectrum problems are common and impairing among children and adolescents (herein “youths”), and make up some of the most common complaints among treatment-seeking families (e.g., Evans et al., 2022). Youths exhibiting concerns across the externalizing spectrum (i.e., disinhibited emotional and behavioral problems, including, but not limited to, anger, aggression, irritability, conduct problems, oppositionality, and hyperactivity/impulsivity) may experience significant impairment in a range of settings, causing problems and difficulties within the family system more broadly. Parenting behaviors 1 play a crucial role in the development and maintenance of these problems. Bidirectional and transactional associations between parenting behaviors and youth externalizing problems across all stages of development are well documented empirically (e.g., Awada & Shelleby, 2021; Pardini et al., 2008; Serbin et al., 2015) and are implicated in theoretical models. For instance, Patterson and colleagues’ coercion model suggests there are cyclical, bidirectional associations between youth defiance, aggression, or oppositional behaviors and caregiver hostile punishments or harsh parenting, ultimately resulting in fewer positive parent-child interactions over time (Eddy et al., 2001; Patterson, 1993; Shaw & Bell, 1993). However, little is known about how specific dimensions of youth externalizing affect and behaviors may contribute to the cycle of coercion and maladaptive parenting patterns. Understanding varying dimensions of parenting behaviors, as well as their contributions to specific youth externalizing problems, has critical implications for assessment, prevention, and intervention efforts related to youth and family wellbeing. Parenting Behaviors Although parenting is often discussed in general terms, specific dimensions of parenting behaviors have been theoretically and empirically delimited. Some of these parenting behaviors are more strongly linked to youths’ behavior than others. Three of particular interest here are Inconsistent Discipline, Parental Monitoring & Supervision, and Positive Parenting, discussed in turn below. Inconsistent Discipline refers to the use of parenting practices that vary across time and/or between caregivers (Gardner, 1989). Parents who use discipline inconsistently often have difficulty setting and adhering to rules for their children, resulting in variable punishments for recurring, similar behaviors (Varshal & Slobodskaya, 2022). Social learning and social-cognitive theories suggest that youths’ behaviors are heavily influenced by the consistency of caregiver discipline, and that youths may learn either antisocial and prosocial behaviors through reinforcement by consistent parental discipline (Bandura, 1986; Bandura et al., 1996; Bandura & Walters, 1959; Halgunseth et al., 2013). Maternal inconsistent discipline is also associated with youth ADHD symptoms, even after controlling for child ODD and CD (Ellis & Nigg, 2009). Additionally, inconsistent discipline has also been shown to predict subsequent delinquency and antisocial behaviors in early adolescent samples (Halgunseth et al., 2013). A recent systematic review defines Parental Monitoring as “the set of all behaviors performed by a caregiver to gather information about youths’ activities and life” (Pelham et al., 2023), while Parental Supervision suggests the parent is present and directly watching their child engage in a given activity (Racz & McMahon, 2011). Both Parental Monitoring and Supervision have been found to play an important role in reducing deviant, risk-taking behaviors in youth. For example, higher levels of parental monitoring are associated with lower levels of externalizing symptoms in youth across both community and foster care samples (Cooley et al., 2021; Racz & McMahon, 2011). Research has also indicated that poor parental supervision, as well as inconsistent discipline, are both associated with youth externalizing problems in community and clinic-referred samples more broadly (Dadds et al., 2003; Hawes & Dadds, 2006). Further, a recent systematic review of longitudinal studies suggested that poor parental supervision was found to predict later criminal offending in youth (Flanagan et al., 2019). Positive Parenting is a set of behaviors that are characterized by a caregiver providing unconditionally and consistently for the needs of their child, praising, and teaching or leading through communication and modeling (Seay et al., 2014). Positive parenting promotes youth mental well-being and protects against the development of emotional or behavioral concerns, with less positive parenting behaviors in toddlerhood also subsequently predicting elevations in childhood externalizing problems (Boeldt et al., 2012; Tabak & Zawadzka, 2017). Children with warm, supportive parents are less likely to develop antisocial behavioral problems later on, even when controlling for socioeconomic status (Odgers et al., 2012). Furthermore, meta-analytic findings suggest positive parenting and positive parent-child interactions are key components in therapeutic interventions aimed at reducing youth disruptive behaviors (e.g., Behavioral Parent Training; Wyatt Kaminski et al., 2008). Heterogeneity of Youth Externalizing Problems The research reviewed above pools across various ways of defining parenting behaviors and their relationship to externalizing problems in youth; we focus here on 7 specific externalizing variables. As shown in Table 1, externalizing spectrum problems are extremely heterogenous and share many common features. For instance, irritability is thought to be an increased propensity to anger which may manifest as either temper outbursts and/or generally sullen mood (Leibenluft, 2017). Similarly, anger is broadly defined a response to a socially driven frustration or threat, or attributions about one’s general environment as anger-inducing, generally resulting in a heightened arousal state (Spielberger, 1985). Reactive aggression occurs when an individual responds to or reacts to a perceived threat and may include physical or relational/interpersonal aggressive acts, whereas children displaying proactive aggression may engage in planned, goal-oriented aggressive behaviors causing harm or destruction (Dodge & Coie, 1987). Hyperactive-impulsive youths may display behaviors inconsistent with developmental level, including difficulties sitting still or staying in their seat, running about even if they are expected to sit still, or interrupting others/talking out of turn (APA, 2022). Oppositionality in youth may include generally defiant or headstrong behavior (Evans, Roberts, et al., 2021), and conduct problems typically include acts of delinquency, destruction or violence, or aggression towards people or animals (Kazdin, 1995; Litschge et al., 2010). Taken together, there is significant heterogeneity of these constructs. No known studies to date have included multiple dimensions of parenting behaviors as predictors of these fine-grained dimensions of externalizing problems in youth. Present Study To summarize, parenting behavior patterns—including Inconsistent Discipline, Poor Parental Monitoring & Supervision, and Positive Parenting—are robust predictors of youth externalizing problems. Examining a caregiver’s role in each of these domains may have significant implications for evidence-based assessment, prevention, and intervention practices. To that end, the current study investigated associations between parenting behaviors and externalizing problems in youth, inclusive of irritability, anger, reactive aggression, proactive aggression, hyperactivity/impulsivity, oppositionality, and conduct problems. Generally, we hypothesized that greater maladaptive parenting behaviors (i.e., Inconsistent Discipline and Poor Parental Monitoring & Supervision) would show positive associations with each externalizing problem, while Positive Parenting would show negative associations, or lower levels of externalizing problems, in youth. Methods Participants and Procedures A survey study of caregivers in the community was conducted to examine mental health symptoms and service needs of youth and families in the community. Multiple recruitment methods (MTurk, Qualtrics Panels, Prolific) were used to obtain a broad and varied sample. Respondents were considered eligible if they were at least 18 years of age, the primary caregiver of a youth 6.0 to 14.9 years of age and were able to complete consent and surveys in either English or Spanish. Respondents were excluded if they were unable to consent, below the age of 18, or otherwise unable to complete study consent and measures. On some platforms, caregivers completed a pre-screening survey to confirm their eligibility status. Caregivers were compensated for completing survey measures. All participants completed electronic consent to participate in the survey study. All study procedures were approved by the University’s Institutional Review Board. A total of N = 827 caregivers clicked on the survey link and provided informed consent; respondents who failed to complete the surveys ( n = 265) were excluded. Two attention check items were included in the surveys to promote valid data collection; respondents who failed one ( n = 29) or both ( n = 1) of these attention checks were excluded from the present analyses. Next, due to limited data collected in Spanish, participants who completed valid surveys in Spanish ( n = 13) were also excluded from the present analyses. This resulted in a final total sample of N = 576 for analysis (Qualtrics Panels n = 121, 21%; MTurk n = 217, 38%; Prolific n = 238, 41%). The final caregiver sample was 55% female, 76% White, 23% Hispanic, and reported a median household income of $70,000 per year. Youths were 53% male, 74% White, and 25% Hispanic, and the average age was 9 years. See Table 2 for full demographics of the sample. Measures ADHD and ODD Symptom Dimensions. Symptoms of oppositionality and hyperactivity/impulsivity were assessed using the Swanson, Nolan, and Pelham-IV (SNAP-IV) (Swanson et al., 2001). The SNAP-IV was developed such that the items map directly on to the diagnostic criteria symptoms for ADHD and ODD, per DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association, 1994), which largely remained the same for DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The version of the SNAP-IV used here consists of 26 items asking caregivers to choose the columns that best describe their child on a four-point Likert scale from 0 ( Not at all) to 3 (Very much) , and includes 9 items for inattention, 9 for hyperactivity/impulsivity, and 8 for oppositionality/defiance . Although inattention is a core symptom domain of ADHD, it is not considered to be an externalizing problem on its own. Accordingly, the inattention scale of the SNAP-IV was excluded from the current analyses. To score the SNAP-IV, items in each of the subscales are totaled, and greater scores indicate greater symptom levels. The SNAP-IV has demonstrated excellent internal validity, test-retest reliability, and internal consistency (Bussing et al., 2008; Swanson et al., 2001). Internal consistency for the hyperactivity/impulsivity and oppositionality subscales in the current sample was excellent, (α = .94 and .91, respectively). Proactive & Reactive Aggression. Proactive and reactive aggression were assessed using the Proactive & Reactive Aggression Questionnaire (PRA; Dodge & Coie, 1987). The PRA is comprised of 6-items designed to measure both proactive (e.g., “My child threatens or bullies others in order to get his or her way”) and reactive (e.g., “When my child has been teased or threatened, she or he gets angry easily and strikes back”) aggression. Caregivers respond on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Never) to 5 ( Always) . Item totals are summed, with higher scores reflecting higher levels of aggressive behaviors. Reliability and validity for the PRA-Caregiver report have been well-established (e.g., Fite et al., 2011; Pederson & Fite, 2014; Waschbusch & Willoughby, 1998). The present sample showed good to excellent internal consistency for proactive and reactive aggression subscales, (α = .88 and .93, respectively). Conduct Disorder Symptoms. Conduct Disorder Symptoms were assessed using the Conduct Disorder Rating Scale (CDRS; Waschbusch & Elgar, 2007) . The CDRS consists of 15 items in which caregivers are asked to rate the frequency of their child’s behaviors over the past 12 months (e.g., starts physical fights, skips school). Caregivers are asked to rate how much of a problem any of the endorsed behaviors cause their child at home, at school, and in other settings. The CDRS includes a 5-point Likert scale, with responses ranging from 0 (Never) to 4 (Daily). The CDRS-parent report version has shown moderate to good internal consistency in both community and treatment-seeking samples, with established norms/clinical cutoffs and criterion validity for youths with Conduct Disorder (Waschbusch & Elgar, 2007). Internal consistency for the CDRS was excellent (α = .98). Irritability. Youth irritability was assessed using the Affective Reactivity Index (ARI; Stringaris et al., 2012), a 6-item scale, plus 1 impairment item, which asks caregivers to report on their child’s irritability in relation to frequency, duration, and threshold over the past 6 months. Caregivers respond on a three-point scale from 0 ( Not True ) to 2 ( Certainly True ). The caregiver-report version of the ARI has been validated for use in clinical and community samples of children (Evans et al., 2021; Stringaris et al., 2012). The ARI-parent report has also shown good convergent validity with Child Behavior Checklist items in early childhood and early childhood clinical samples (Wilson et al., 2022) and with adolescent community-based samples (Dougherty et al., 2021) Internal consistency for the present sample was excellent, (α = .91). Anger. Anger was assessed using the National Institutes of Health Patient Reported Outcomes Measurement System (PROMIS) Anger – Parent Proxy (Irwin et al., 2012). The PROMIS-anger scale is comprised of six items in which caregivers report on their child’s angry mood over the past 7 days. Items are rated from 0 ( Never ) to 4 ( Always ); higher scores indicate higher levels of anger. The PROMIS parent proxy scales have demonstrated good psychometric properties for the measurement of anger in youth (Kaman et al., 2022; Varni et al., 2012). Internal consistency in the sample was excellent, (α = .92). Parenting Behaviors. Poor parental monitoring and supervision, inconsistent discipline, and positive parenting were measured using the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire (APQ; Frick, 1991). In its original form, the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire is a 42-item scale which measures parenting behaviors across five domains: Inconsistent Discipline, Parental Involvement, Positive Parenting, Poor Parental Monitoring & Supervision, and Corporal Punishment. In the present study, only the Inconsistent Discipline, Positive Parenting, and Poor Monitoring & Supervision subscales were included, leaving a total of 22 items. The Parental Involvement and Corporal Punishment scales were excluded due to potential concerns with contemporary and cross-cultural applicability of the item content of the two scales. The APQ asks caregivers to rate how often their behaviors typically occur in the home on a five-point scale, ranging from 1 ( Never ) to 5 ( Always ) . Reliability and validity of the APQ has been well-established in a variety of cross-cultural clinical and research samples (Florean et al., 2022; Frick et al., 1999; Shelton et al., 1996). Predictive validity for the APQ in predicting youth externalizing behaviors has also been established (Nichols et al., 2022). In the present sample, internal consistency for Inconsistent Discipline (α = .88), Positive Parenting. (α = 79), and Poor Monitoring & Supervision (α = .96) ranged from good to excellent. Demographic Variables, Covariates, and Moderators. As part of the survey, participants were also asked to report on several items related to child and parent demographics and family background variables. These included age, gender, race, and ethnicity for both parent and child, as well as parent marital status and household income. 2 The age variable was collected as continuous numerical value, rounded down to the nearest whole year. Based on prior literature, many of these variables were considered as candidate covariates and moderators for analyses described below. To select covariates/moderators, bivariate correlations were examined between all candidate demographic variables and all externalizing constructs of interest. These analyses 3 led to the selection of four variables as covariates and moderators: parent age, parent gender, child age, and child gender. Data Analytic Plan First, missing data, distributional characteristics (e.g., M , SD , % above clinical cut-offs), and correlations for the primary variables of interest were examined and presented with attention to modeling assumptions. Modeling adjustments were made as indicated to account for missing data and deviations from normality, described in greater detail below. Data were also screened for invalid responses using attention check items and invalid responses were removed from future analyses, as described above. Analyses were conducted using SPSS, Version 28 for observed item values and distributional characteristics and in the lavaan package in R, version 0.6-13 (Rosseel, 2012) for path models within a structural equation model (SEM) framework. Internal consistencies for all scales of interest were examined using Cronbach’s alpha and McDonald’s omega coefficients using the following conventions: <.60 = unacceptable; .60-.69 = questionable; .70-.79 = acceptable; .80-.89 = good; ≥.90 = excellent. To examine the role of Positive Parenting, Poor Monitoring & Supervision, and Inconsistent Discipline in predicting these externalizing problems, SEM path models were used using WLSMV estimation. Model fit statistics, including the chi-square (c 2 ) test of model fit, RMSEA, and CFI, were considered; however, since each model was fully saturated, model fit statistics were not applicable. Therefore, models were evaluated based on significance and magnitude of standardized path coefficients, and in relation to their bivariate correlations from the preliminary steps. These models were estimated in a series of steps. First (Models 1-3), three separate path models were estimated, one for each parenting variable as the single predictor of all externalizing dependent variables. Next, Model 4 combined these models together, with paths from all parenting variables predicting all externalizing problems within the same model. Finally, Model 5 estimated these effects with the inclusion of covariates—child age, child gender, parent age, and parent gender—as direct predictors of all externalizing variables. Finally, moderator analyses were conducted to assess whether the associations between parenting behaviors and externalizing problems might vary depending on parent or child age or gender. In the moderation analyses, interaction terms for parent gender, parent age, child gender, and child age, with each externalizing problem were entered one at a time (i.e., 4 moderation models) to evaluate whether the strength or direction of specific associations between parenting and externalizing variables was conditional upon the parent's or child’s age or gender. Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons were made given the exploratory nature of these analyses. With 3 interaction terms per model, and 7 different dependent variables, 21 moderator tests were employed in each moderation model. 4 Applying the Bonferroni adjustment with each moderator model, the threshold for statistical significance came to α = .05 / 21 = .0024. Thus, an unadjusted p-value of less than .0024 was required to indicate statistical significance for this set of analyses. Results For continuous variables, univariate distributions were examined through visual inspection and estimates of skewness and kurtosis. All parenting scales and most externalizing scales were roughly normally distributed. The exceptions were proactive aggression (PRA) and conduct problems (CDRS), which were both positively skewed. Distributional characteristics, descriptive statistics, and bivariate correlations are presented in Table 3. All externalizing scales were significantly and highly correlated with one another ( rs ≥ .68, p s < .001) . Similarly, each externalizing scale correlated with Positive Parenting ( r s = -.09 to -.24, p s < .01), Poor Monitoring & Supervision ( r s = .62 to .90, p s < .001, and Inconsistent Discipline ( r s = .66 to .78, p s <.001). Means, standard deviations, and percentage of youths falling above clinical cutoffs (where applicable) are also presented in Table 3. Results indicated that roughly 24.3% to 42.5% of the sample fell at or above established clinical cutoffs on the SNAP, ARI, CDRS, and PROMIS-Anger. As shown in Table 3, all scales showed good to excellent internal consistencies, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranging from .88-.98, and McDonald’s omega coefficients ranging from .80-.98. Parenting Path Models as Predictors of Externalizing Problems. Descriptive Statistics and Correlations. At the zero-order level, correlations showed support for the hypothesized links between parenting and externalizing variables ( r s = |.09-.90|, p s < .01; see Table 3). Given high correlations among the three parenting variables, multicollinearity was examined in a separate regression model with each parenting variable predicting one individual externalizing outcomes without demographic covariates. The Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) was 1.102 for Positive Parenting, 3.381 for Poor Monitoring & Supervision, and 3.201 for Inconsistent Discipline. Based on established guidelines (Hair et al., 2006), each of the three parenting variables fell in the 1.0-5.0 range for multicollinearity, suggesting a meaningful but acceptable level of multicollinearity. Regarding correlations between parenting and externalizing problems, Positive Parenting showed significant, but small associations with lower levels of all externalizing variables ( r s = -.09 to -.24), accounting for roughly 1-6% of their variance. Poor Monitoring & Supervision showed medium to large correlations across all externalizing variables ( r s = .62 to .90), accounting for 38-81% of their variance, and was most strongly related to proactive aggression and conduct problems (both r s = .90). Inconsistent Discipline was also strongly associated with all externalizing problems ( r s = .66 to .79), accounting for approximately 44-62% of their variance at the zero-order level. Main Path Model Results. Path model results are presented in Tables 4 (Models 1-3), 5A, and 5B (Models 4-5), and a visual of the full path model estimated without covariates is presented in Figure 4. When examined as separate, individual predictors (Models 1-3), each parenting variable was observed to significantly predict each observed externalizing problem separately in the expected direction. In other words, negative path coefficients for Positive Parenting indicated that lower levels of Positive Parenting significantly predicted each externalizing problem (standardized b s = -.092 to -.241, p s < .05). Further, higher levels of Poor Monitoring and Supervision significantly predicted each externalizing problem in the expected direction (standardized b s = 0.617 – 0.898, p s < .01), and the same was true for Inconsistent Discipline (standardized b s = 0.661 – 0.790, p s < .01). In Models 1-3, Positive Parenting explained about 1-6% of the variance in specific externalizing problems, while Poor Monitoring and Supervision explained 38-81%, and Inconsistent Discipline explained 43-62%. See Table 4 for full results of these models. However, when these three parenting variables were entered as predictors of externalizing problems within the same model (Model 4), the Positive Parenting paths were all attenuated to non-significance, while the Inconsistent Discipline and Poor Monitoring and Supervision paths remained significant. See Tables 5A-5B for full results of the final models. Path Models with Covariates and Moderators. Model 5 examined these effects when controlling for parent and child age and gender. With the inclusion of all four covariates, the pattern of results remained stable. Specifically, none of the Positive Parenting paths emerged as significant; however, all paths from Poor Monitoring & Supervision and Inconsistent Discipline remained positive and significant (standardized b s = 0.120 – 0.788). In Model 5, R 2 values ranged from 0.47 (hyperactivity/impulsivity) to 0.82 (conduct), suggesting that parenting practices explained 47-82% of the variance in parent-reported externalizing problems, when controlling for parent and child age and gender. The R 2 value of 0.81 for proactive aggression also suggested parenting practices explained 81% of the variance in proactive aggression, regardless of parent and child age and gender. Regarding main effects for covariates, there was a significant main effect of parent age on irritability (standardized b = -0.081, p < .01), and reactive aggression (standardized b = -0.058, p < .05). For child age, there was similarly a main effect on irritability (standardized b = 0.076, p = .01), reactive aggression (standardized b = 0.076, p = .01), and on oppositionality (standardized b = 0.078, p = .01). For parent gender, there was a significant main effect on hyperactivity/impulsivity (standardized b = 0.099, p < .01) and oppositionality (standardized b = 0.071, p < .05). There were no main effects for child age. See Tables 5A and 5B for results of Model 5, including covariates. Lastly, four separate moderation models were examined to determine whether parent and child age and gender moderated the paths from each of the three parenting variables to the externalizing variables. With the Bonferroni adjustment applied, no interaction effects were found across any of the moderators examined (unadjusted p-values were all ≥.02, with 71 of 84 p-values being >.10). Significance results for each interaction term tested are presented in Table 6. Discussion The current study aimed to address the ways in which specific parenting practices may be related to externalizing concerns in youth. Results showed that Poor Parental Supervision & Monitoring, Inconsistent Discipline, and Positive Parenting—when examined in isolation—all emerged as significant predictors of all seven externalizing problems; however, when examined in the same model, controlling for parent and child age and gender, only the effects of Poor Parental Supervision & Monitoring and Inconsistent Discipline remained significant. No moderation effects were found, suggesting the strength of these effects do not change depending on parent or child age and gender. Broadly speaking, findings are consistent with a large and longstanding body of literature suggesting that parenting practices play a significant role in the development and maintenance of externalizing problems in youth (e.g., Dishion & McMahon, 1998; Tabak & Zawadzka, 2017; Varshal & Slobodskaya, 2022). However, many of these studies have not included several parenting behaviors within the same sample or as predictors of multiple externalizing constructs. With respect to these findings, the parent-report and self-report nature of the data should be considered, particularly with caregivers rating their own parenting behaviors. For example, it may be that parents tend to self-report positive parenting items at an inflated level due to social desirability bias (Morsbach & Prinz, 2006). Indeed, parents with ADHD symptoms have been found to over-estimate their own positive parenting behaviors on self-report measures when compared to clinician-rated observations (Lui et al., 2013). Similarly, it is possible that the directionality of these items (where higher ratings are more favorable) differing from those of Inconsistent Discipline and Poor Monitoring & Supervision (where higher ratings are less favorable) contributed to differences in how this dimension was rated or in how it was associated with the externalizing outcome variables. Limitations The current study has some limitations to consider. First, there was some content overlap and a moderate degree of multicollinearity between measures. Although steps were taken to handle these concerns (e.g., examining associations across multiple model steps), this does not eliminate the challenges. At the same time, there are additional constructs on the externalizing spectrum that were not included here (e.g., delinquency, substance use, callous-unemotional traits) as well as parenting behaviors which were not considered (e.g., harsh parenting, corporal punishment, parental involvement). The cross-sectional nature of the study design limits inferences regarding causality or directionality. For example, some longitudinal work suggests that externalizing problems in youth may predict more maladaptive parenting behaviors (Fletcher & Johnston, 2016; Verhoeven et al., 2010). Additionally, sample and sampling platform characteristics may limit the generalizability of the findings. The current sample obtained is primarily White, non-Hispanic, and primarily residing in South Florida, limiting inferences for generalizability to other populations. However, the current sample is fairly representative with respect to household income, as U.S. Census Bureau reports a median household income of $74,580 in 2022, similar to that of the current sample ( Mdn = $70,000). While efforts were made to ensure validity of the data collected (e.g., using attention checks and screening items, as well as well-validated assessment instruments), because the survey was available across several platforms, it also cannot be guaranteed that one respondent did not complete the survey across each platform. There are some potential challenges with online data collection, including possibilities of social desirability bias, inconsistent English language fluency levels, and self-selection bias or self-misrepresentation (Aguinis et al., 2021). However, MTurk specifically has been described as a valid and feasible approach to research involving youth and families (Jensen-Doss et al., 2022; Schleider & Weisz, 2015). We also took several steps to limit the possibility of bias in the sample or in any single platform, such as including the use of screening and attention check items and expanding recruitment across three data collection platforms Implications and Future Directions These findings lay a foundation for future work which may consider more integrative, person-centered approaches (e.g., latent profile analyses inclusive of multiple parenting variables) (Hukkelberg & Ogden, 2021), to capture a more complete picture of their relation to externalizing problems. As such, it may also be important to consider the salience of certain parenting practices in the context of others (e.g., consistency in discipline and parental monitoring & supervision in the context of positive parenting), particularly in community-based samples of parent-child dyads. Lastly, given prior research linking parent psychopathology and parental stress to youth externalizing outcomes, as well as parenting behaviors, these potential correlates or moderators should be considered in the context of these relationships as well (Breaux et al., 2014; Kochanova et al., 2021). With respect to clinical implications, several well-supported prevention and intervention programs exist that are aimed at increasing positive parent-child interactions, supported by numerous randomized trials, as well as meta-analyses and systematic reviews (e.g., Triple P, Parent-Child Interaction Therapy [PCIT]; Kaminski & Claussen, 2017; Sanders, 2012; Sanders et al., 2014; Thomas et al., 2017). In other words, despite the absence of a unique association between positive parenting and externalizing problems in this analysis, there is a large body of experimental, longitudinal, and clinical research indicating that positive parenting can help improve child behavior problems. If the current findings are replicated and extended, future work in this area may consider examining effects of more integrative components of parent-directed interventions to include consistency in discipline and monitoring and supervision. Further, the finding that when considering levels of Positive Parenting, Poor Monitoring & Supervision and Inconsistent Discipline significantly predict myriad externalizing problems may also be relevant for community-based parenting education and prevention programming, potentially placing greater emphasis in supporting these practices. This finding may also guide in treatment personalization and tailoring for families already in treatment; for example, a clinician administering a behavioral parent training intervention may choose to emphasize consistency and structure for children showing little improvement as a response to positive parental attention. Lastly, the measurement and assessment of both externalizing problems and parenting behaviors varies considerably across cultures and contexts; therefore, future work should investigate these effects both within and across varying groups, inclusive of factors such as race, ethnicity, geographic location, educational attainment, marital status, presentations, and populations (e.g., clinical, juvenile justice). Taken together, findings from the current study contribute to the understanding of potential parenting behaviors associated with an array of externalizing spectrum concerns, which may have further implications for treatment selection and planning with youth and families as well. Future work should consider examining these effects using multi-informant instruments along with parent-report, as well as observational methods to obtain more objective measurement of parenting behaviors in relation to youth externalizing problems. Similarly, future work may also benefit from an emphasis on bidirectionality or within a longitudinal framework. Lastly, subsequent research would benefit from considering this even broader range of affective and behavioral phenomena as well as parenting behaviors which may contribute to these concerns along the externalizing spectrum as well. Declarations Author Contribution S.E. led the larger study design and overall project management. A.K. assisted with study design, recruitment, and data collection and management. A.K. led conceptualization of this analysis, conducted all analyses, and drafted the initial manuscript. S.E. provided ongoing mentorship and consultation throughout all phases of the project, and critically reviewed and revised several versions of the manuscript. Acknowledgement This manuscript was adapted from ARK’s master’s thesis, completed at the University of Miami in 2024 under the mentorship of SCE. The authors would like to thank Dr. Kristin Lindahl and Dr. Eileen Davis, members of the thesis committee, for their insightful feedback on this project. Data Availability Data for this study are available by request to the authors. References Aguinis H, Villamor I, Ramani RS (2021) MTurk research: Review and recommendations. J Manag 47(4):823–837 American Psychiatric Association (1994) Diagnostic and Statistical Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) American Psychiatric Association (2013) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5®). American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc. Awada SR, Shelleby EC (2021) Bidirectional Associations between Child Conduct Problems and Parenting Practices in Early Childhood. J Child Fam stud 30(11):2705–2717 Bandura A (1986) Prentice-Hall series in social learning theory. Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ Bandura A, Barbaranelli C, Caprara GV, Pastorelli C (1996) Mechanisms of moral disengagement in the exercise of moral agency. J Personal Soc Psychol 71(2):364 Bandura A, Walters RH (1959) Adolescent aggression: A study of the influence of child-training practices and family interrelationships. Boeldt DL, Rhee SH, DiLalla LF, Mullineaux PY, Schulz-Heik RJ, Corley RP, Young SE, Hewitt JK (2012) The association between positive parenting and externalizing behaviour. Infant Child Dev 21(1):85–106 Breaux RP, Harvey EA, Lugo-Candelas CI (2014) The role of parent psychopathology in the development of preschool children with behavior problems. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 43(5):777–790 Bussing R, Fernandez M, Harwood M, Hou W, Garvan CW, Eyberg SM, Swanson JM (2008) Parent and teacher SNAP-IV ratings of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms: Psychometric properties and normative ratings from a school district sample. Assessment 15(3):317–328 Cooley ME, Thompson HM, Wojciak AS, Mihalec-Adkins BP (2021) Parental monitoring by foster parents, youth behaviours and the youth–foster parent relationship. Child Family Social Work 26(4):629–641 Dadds MR, Maujean A, Fraser JA (2003) Parenting and conduct problems in children: Australian data and psychometric properties of the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire. Australian Psychol 38(3):238–241 Dishion TJ, McMahon RJ (1998) Parental monitoring and the prevention of child and adolescent problem behavior: A conceptual and empirical formulation. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 1(1):61–75 Dodge KA, Coie JD (1987) Social-information-processing factors in reactive and proactive aggression in children’s peer groups. J Personal Soc Psychol 53(6):1146 Dougherty LR, Galano MM, Chad-Friedman E, Olino TM, Bufferd SJ, Klein DN (2021) Using item response theory to compare irritability measures in early adolescent and childhood samples. Assessment 28(3):918–927 Eddy JM, Leve LD, Fagot BI (2001) Coercive family processes: A replication and extension of Patterson’s coercion model. Aggressive Behavior: Official J Int Soc Res Aggress 27(1):14–25 Ellis B, Nigg J (2009) Parenting practices and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: New findings suggest partial specificity of effects. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 48(2):146–154 Evans SC, Abel MR, Doyle RL, Skov H, Harmon SL (2021) Measurement and correlates of irritability in clinically referred youth: Further examination of the Affective Reactivity Index. J Affect Disord 283:420–429 Evans SC, Corteselli KA, Edelman A, Scott H, Weisz JR (2022) Is irritability a top problem in youth mental health care? A multi-informant, multi-method investigation. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev, 1–15 Fite PJ, Stoppelbein L, Gaertner AE, Greening L, Elledge LC (2011) Further evaluation of the forms and functions of aggression measure within a child inpatient population. Residential Treat Child Youth 28(1):1–16 Flanagan IM, Auty KM, Farrington DP (2019) Parental supervision and later offending: A systematic review of longitudinal studies. Aggress Violent Beh 47:215–229 Fletcher AC, Johnston CA (2016) Parenting behaviors and child externalizing: A short-term investigation of directionality. J Child Fam stud 25:3150–3159 Florean IS, Dobrean A, Balazsi R, Roșan A, Păsărelu CR, Predescu E, Rad F (2022) Measurement Invariance of Alabama Parenting Questionnaire Across Age, Gender, Clinical Status, and Informant. Assessment , 10731911211068178 Frick PJ (1991) The Alabama parenting questionnaire. Unpublished Rating Scale, University of Alabama Frick PJ, Christian RE, Wootton JM (1999) Age trends in the association between parenting practices and conduct problems. Behav Modif 23(1):106–128 Gardner FE (1989) Inconsistent parenting: Is there evidence for a link with children’s conduct problems? J Abnorm Child Psychol 17(2):223–233 Ghosh D, Vogt A (2012) Outliers: An evaluation of methodologies . 12 (1), 3455–3460 Halgunseth LC, Perkins DF, Lippold MA, Nix RL (2013) Delinquent-oriented attitudes mediate the relation between parental inconsistent discipline and early adolescent behavior. J Fam Psychol 27(2):293 Hawes DJ, Dadds MR (2006) Assessing parenting practices through parent-report and direct observation during parent-training. J Child Fam stud 15(5):554–567 Hukkelberg SS, Ogden T (2021) Parenting practices and child conduct problems in a norwegian subclinical sample: Variable and person-centered approaches. Fam Relat 70(4):1102–1116 Irwin DE, Stucky BD, Langer MM, Thissen D, DeWitt EM, Lai J-S, Yeatts KB, Varni JW, DeWalt DA (2012) PROMIS Pediatric Anger Scale: An item response theory analysis. Qual Life Res 21(4):697–706 Jensen-Doss A, Patel ZS, Casline E, Mora Ringle VA, Timpano KR (2022) Using mechanical turk to study parents and children: An examination of data quality and representativeness. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 51(4):428–442 Kaman A, Otto C, Devine J, Erhart M, Döpfner M, Banaschewski T, Görtz-Dorten A, Hanisch C, Kölch M, Roessner V (2022) Assessing anger and irritability in children: Psychometric evaluation and normative data for the German version of the PROMIS® Parent Proxy Anger Scale. Qual Life Res 31(3):831–839 Kaminski JW, Claussen AH (2017) Evidence Base Update for Psychosocial Treatments for Disruptive Behaviors in Children. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 46(4):477–499. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2017.1310044 Kochanova K, Pittman LD, Pabis JM (2021) Parenting stress, parenting, and adolescent externalizing problems. J Child Fam stud 30(9):2141–2154 Lui JH, Johnston C, Lee CM, Lee-Flynn SC (2013) Parental ADHD symptoms and self-reports of positive parenting. J Consult Clin Psychol 81(6):988 Morsbach SK, Prinz RJ (2006) Understanding and improving the validity of self-report of parenting. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 9:1–21 Nichols LM, Fleming CM, Pedroza JA, O’Brien KM, Tanner-Smith EE (2022) Psychometric Properties of the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire among Adolescents with Substance Use Disorder Histories. Child Adolesc Soc Work J, 1–14 Odgers CL, Caspi A, Russell MA, Sampson RJ, Arseneault L, Moffitt TE (2012) Supportive parenting mediates neighborhood socioeconomic disparities in children’s antisocial behavior from ages 5 to 12. Dev Psychopathol 24(3):705–721 Pardini DA, Fite PJ, Burke JD (2008) Bidirectional associations between parenting practices and conduct problems in boys from childhood to adolescence: The moderating effect of age and African-American ethnicity. J Abnorm Child Psychol 36(5):647–662 Patterson GR (1993) Orderly change in a stable world: The antisocial trait as a chimera. J Consult Clin Psychol 61(6):911 Pederson CA, Fite PJ (2014) The impact of parenting on the associations between child aggression subtypes and oppositional defiant disorder symptoms. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 45(6):728–735 Pelham III, Racz WE, Davis SJ, Aks IS, Patel IR, McMahon H, Thornburg RJ, Huang MA, Gonzalez Y-TW, O., Tapert SF (2023) What is parental monitoring? Racz SJ, McMahon RJ (2011) The relationship between parental knowledge and monitoring and child and adolescent conduct problems: A 10-year update. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 14(4):377–398 Rosseel Y (2012) lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. J Stat Softw 48:1–36 Sanders MR (2012) Development, evaluation, and multinational dissemination of the Triple P-Positive Parenting Program. Ann Rev Clin Psychol 8:345–379 Sanders MR, Kirby JN, Tellegen CL, Day JJ (2014) The Triple P-Positive Parenting Program: A systematic review and meta-analysis of a multi-level system of parenting support. Clin Psychol Rev 34(4):337–357 Schleider JL, Weisz JR (2015) Using Mechanical Turk to study family processes and youth mental health: A test of feasibility. J Child Fam stud 24:3235–3246 Seay A, Freysteinson WM, McFarlane J (2014) Positive parenting . 49 (3), 200–208 Serbin LA, Kingdon D, Ruttle PL, Stack DM (2015) The impact of children’s internalizing and externalizing problems on parenting: Transactional processes and reciprocal change over time. Dev Psychopathol 27(4pt1):969–986 Shaw DS, Bell RQ (1993) Developmental theories of parental contributors to antisocial behavior. J Abnorm Child Psychol 21(5):493–518 Shelton KK, Frick PJ, Wootton J (1996) Assessment of parenting practices in families of elementary school-age children. J Clin Child Psychol 25(3):317–329 Stringaris A, Goodman R, Ferdinando S, Razdan V, Muhrer E, Leibenluft E, Brotman MA (2012) The Affective Reactivity Index: A concise irritability scale for clinical and research settings. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 53(11):1109–1117 Swanson JM, Kraemer HC, Hinshaw SP, Arnold LE, Conners CK, Abikoff HB, Clevenger W, Davies M, Elliott GR, Greenhill LL (2001) Clinical relevance of the primary findings of the MTA: success rates based on severity of ADHD and ODD symptoms at the end of treatment. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 40(2):168–179 Tabak I, Zawadzka D (2017) The importance of positive parenting in predicting adolescent mental health. J Family Stud 23(1):1–18 Thomas R, Abell B, Webb HJ, Avdagic E, Zimmer-Gembeck MJ (2017) Parent-child interaction therapy: A meta-analysis. Pediatrics, 140 (3) Varni JW, Thissen D, Stucky BD, Liu Y, Gorder H, Irwin DE, DeWitt EM, Lai J-S, Amtmann D, DeWalt DA (2012) PROMIS® Parent Proxy Report Scales: An item response theory analysis of the parent proxy report item banks. Qual Life Res 21(7):1223–1240 Varshal АV, Slobodskaya HR (2022) Inconsistent Discipline as a Mediator between Maternal Distress and Children’s Conduct Problems in a Population Sample of Russian Children. Child Fam Behav Ther 44(1):1–17 Verhoeven M, Junger M, van Aken C, Deković M, van Aken MA (2010) Parenting and children’s externalizing behavior: Bidirectionality during toddlerhood. J Appl Dev Psychol 31(1):93–105 Waschbusch DA, Elgar FJ (2007) Development and validation of the conduct disorder rating scale. Assessment 14(1):65–74 Waschbusch DA, Willoughby MT (1998) Criterion validity and the utility of reactive and proactive aggression: Comparisons to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, and other measures of functioning. J Clin Child Psychol 27(4):396–405 Wilson MK, Cornacchio D, Brotman MA, Comer JS (2022) Measuring Irritability in Early Childhood: A Psychometric Evaluation of the Affective Reactivity Index in a Clinical Sample of 3-to 8-Year-Old Children. Assessment 29(7):1473–1481 World Health Organization (2024) Clinical descriptions and diagnostic requirements for ICD-11 mental, behavioural and neurodevelopmental disorders (CDDR) Wyatt Kaminski J, Valle LA, Filene JH, Boyle CL (2008) A meta-analytic review of components associated with parent training program effectiveness. J Abnorm Child Psychol 36(4):567–589 Footnotes “Parent” and “parenting” refer to the primary caregivers involved with and processes of day-to-day child rearing. This could include, but is not limited to, biological parents, adoptive parents, grandparents, stepparents, foster parents, aunts/uncles, older siblings, etc. For descriptive statistics (Table 2 ), household income was analyzed as reported. For analyses concerning covariate/moderator selection, outliers on annual household income were winsorized by recoding extreme observations (below the 5th percentile [ $ 12,700] and at or above the 95th percentile [ $ 2,200,000]) with the more the plausible values defined by these percentiles (Ghosh & Vogt, 2012 ). Next, winsorized income was log-transformed to help bring the income closer to a normal distribution and scaled in a way that is comparable other variables. Child gender (1 = boys, 2 = girls) was not significantly correlated with any externalizing variable ( p s > .56), and neither was parent marital status (1 = single or non-married, 2 = married; p s > .25) or household income ( p s > .09). Child age was significantly correlated with proactive aggression, hyperactivity/impulsivity, and conduct problems ( r s = − .10 to − .12, p s = .005-.02). Parent age was significantly related to externalizing problems, such that younger parents tended to report higher scores on all externalizing scales ( r s = − .19 to − .26, p s < .001). Parent gender (1 = male, 2 = female) was significantly correlated with reactive aggression, proactive aggression, and conduct symptoms ( r s = − .09 to − .17, p s = .001-.04). Despite no significant correlations in the current sample, child gender was also selected as a covariate based on empirical and theoretical support for gender differences in externalizing problems in youth. For example, in the child age moderation model, three interaction terms (Positive Parenting*Child Age, Inconsistent Discipline*Child Age, and Poor Monitoring & Supervision*Child Age) were specified as predictors of all 7 externalizing variables, for a total of 21 statistical tests exploring whether any of these results are conditional upon the age of the child. Tables Table 1 The Heterogeneity of Externalizing Constructs Construct Definition Irritability An increased propensity to anger, which may manifest as sullen mood and/or temper outbursts (Leibenluft, 2017) Oppositionality Generally headstrong or defiant behaviors (American Psychiatric Association, 2022; World Health Organization, 2024) Anger Cognitions and behaviors in a heightened arousal state, resulting from socially or environmentally driven threat or frustration (Spielberger, 1985) Reactive Aggression Aggressive behaviors (intended to cause harm to another) that occur as a result of responding or reacting to perceived threat (Dodge & Coie, 1987) Proactive Aggression Aggressive behaviors (intended to cause harm to another) characterized by planned, goal-oriented action (Dodge & Coie, 1987) Conduct Problems Patterns of behavior involving aggression to people and animals, destruction of property, deceitfulness or theft, and serious violations of rules (American Psychiatric Association, 2022; Kazdin, 1995; Litschge et al., 2010) Hyperactivity/Impulsivity Behaviors inconsistent with developmental level, including fidgeting, interrupting others, or talking excessively, and discomfort with being still for long periods of time (American Psychiatric Association, 2022) Table 2 Sociodemographic Characteristics of Parents and Youth Variable n % M (SD) Parent Gender Male Female Non-binary or transgender 251 318 7 43.6 55.2 1.2 -- -- -- Parent Race White or Caucasian Black or African American Asian Another Race or Multiracial 442 60 44 30 76.7 10.4 7.6 5.3 -- -- -- -- Parent Ethnicity Not Hispanic/Latinx Hispanic/Latinx 427 133 74.1 23.1 -- -- Parent Marital Status Married Non-married 435 141 75.5 24.5 -- -- Parent Age in Years 576 -- 37.86 (8.69) Annual Household Income, Mdn [IQR] 573 -- $70,000 [$45,000, $100,000] Youth Gender Male Female Non-binary or transgender 306 261 9 53.1 45.3 1.6 -- -- -- Youth Race White or Caucasian Black or African American Asian Another Race or Multiracial 426 63 40 47 74.0 10.9 6.9 8.2 -- -- -- -- Youth Ethnicity Not Hispanic/Latinx Hispanic/Latinx 412 146 71.5 25.3 -- -- Youth Age in Years 575 -- 9.47 (2.67) Table 3 Bivariate Correlations and Descriptive Statistics Among Included Scales 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1. Hyp/Imp (SNAP-IV) 1 2. Opp (SNAP-IV) .81** 1 3. ProAgg (PRA) .68** .76** 1 4. Conduct (CDRS) .68** .76** .91** 1 5. Irritability (ARI) .73** .88** .76** .76** 1 6. Anger (PROMIS) .74** .85** .75** .75** .84** 1 7. ReaAgg (PRA) .70** .82** .78** .74** .78** .77** 1 8. Positive Parenting (APQ) -.09* -.16** -.24** -.21** -.13** -.11** -.11** 1 9. Poor Mon/Sup (APQ) .62** .70** .90** .90** .70** .70** .72** -.27** 1 10. Inconsistent Discipline (APQ) .66** .73** .78** .79** .70** .73** .73** -.13** .82** 1 M ( SD ) 8.80 (7.34) 7.06 (6.61) 5.37 (3.41) 9.99 (15.64) 3.09 (3.44) 11.78 (4.92) 6.78 (3.34) 3.97 (0.72) 1.90 (1.04) 2.35 (0.91) N (%) above cutoffs 195 (33.9) 245 (42.5) -- 140 (24.3) 211 (36.6) 162 (28.1) -- -- -- -- Skewness .52 .69 1.18 1.54 .89 .57 .55 -.90 1.00 .58 Kurtosis -.76 -.66 .02 1.10 -.45 -.48 -.88 .93 -.27 -.32 Observed Range 0-27 0-24 3-15 0-60 0-12 5-25 3-15 1-5 1-5 1-5 Cronbach’s Alpha (α) .94 .95 .88 .98 .91 .92 .93 .84 .94 .88 McDonald’s Omega (ω) .94 .95 .94 .98 .91 .92 .88 .84 .94 .88 Note: ** p <.01, * p <.05. Hyp/Imp = Hyperactivity/Impulsivity; Opp = Oppositionality; ProAgg = Proactive Aggression; ReaAgg = Reactive Aggression; Poor Mon/Sup = Poor Monitoring & Supervision; SNAP-IV = Swanson, Nolan, & Pelham – IV; PRA = Proactive-Reactive Aggression Scale; CDRS = Conduct Disorder Rating Scale; ARI = Affective Reactivity Index; PROMIS = Patient-Reported Outcome Information System; APQ = Alabama Parenting Questionnaire To calculate percentage of youth above clinical cutoffs, “mild” symptoms present was used for the SNAP-IV (sum scores of > 13 for hyperactivity/impulsivity and > 8 for oppositionality). For the CDRS, clinical significance was defined by sum scores > 15, the ARI was defined by total scores > 3, and clinical significance for the PROMIS-anger was defined by raw scores > 15 (T-Score conversion = 60). Table 4 Path Model Results for Models 1-3 Model 1: Positive Parenting as Predictor Model 2: Poor Monitoring/ Supervision as Predictor Model 3: Inconsistent Discipline as Predictor Dependent Variables Std. b b SE R 2 Std. b b SE R 2 Std. b b SE R 2 Irritability Anger ReaAgg Hyp/Imp Opp ProAgg Conduct -0.13** -0.11** -0.11** -0.09* -0.16** -0.24** -0.21* -0.60 -0.75 -0.53 -0.93 -1.45 -1.14 -4.58 0.19 0.28 0.12 0.42 0.38 0.19 0.86 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.06 0.05 0.70** 0.70** 0.72** 0.62** 0.70** 0.90** 0.90** 2.31 3.28 2.32 4.33 4.41 2.93 13.44 0.09 0.13 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.06 0.33 0.49 0.48 0.51 0.38 0.48 0.81 0.81 0.70** 0.73** 0.73** 0.66** 0.73** 0.78** 0.79** 2.65 3.93 2.70 5.32 5.29 2.92 13.55 0.10 0.14 0.08 0.22 0.17 0.10 0.53 0.49 0.53 0.53 0.44 0.53 0.61 0.62 Note: ** p <.01, * p <.05. Models 1-3 estimated each parenting path separately, as a single predictor. The reader should note that in contrast to Tables 5A-5B, predictor variables are listed across the top, while dependent variables are listed across the left. ReaAgg = Reactive Aggression; Hyp/Imp = Hyperactivity/Impulsivity; Opp = Oppositionality; ProAgg = Proactive Aggression Table 5A Path Model Results for Models 4-5 (Part 1 of 2) Dependent Variables Irritability Anger Reactive Aggression Hyperactivity/ Impulsivity Predictor Variables Std. b b SE Std. b b SE Std. b b SE Std. b b SE Model 4 Positive Parenting 0.03 0.13 0.14 0.04 0.25 0.21 0.04 0.21 0.12 0.03 0.34 0.32 Poor Monitoring & Supervision 0.40** 1.30 0.20 0.32** 1.50 0.23 0.38** 1.24 0.17 0.24** 1.69 0.42 Inconsistent Discipline 0.38** 1.43 0.22 0.47** 2.54 0.26 0.42** 1.55 0.18 0.47** 3.76 0.49 R 2 0.54 0.56 0.57 0.45 Model 5 Positive Parenting 0.03 0.12 0.14 0.03 0.23 0.21 0.04 0.20 0.12 0.02 0.25 0.32 Poor Monitoring & Supervision 0.38** 1.26 0.20 0.31** 1.46 0.23 0.37** 1.19 0.17 0.26** 1.82 0.42 Inconsistent Discipline 0.39** 1.47 0.22 0.48** 2.57 0.26 0.43** 1.60 0.18 0.45** 3.65 0.48 Parent Gender a 0.06* 0.34 0.17 0.04 0.33 0.25 0.03 0.18 0.16 0.1** 1.30 0.48 Parent Age a -0.08* -0.03 0.01 -0.05 -0.03 0.02 -0.06* -0.02 0.10 -0.04 -0.03 0.03 Child Gender a -0.02 -0.14 0.15 -0.01 -0.06 0.22 0.00 0.01 0.12 -0.03 -0.35 0.37 Child Age a 0.08** 0.10 0.04 0.04 0.07 0.06 0.08** 0.10 0.04 -0.02 -0.06 0.09 R 2 0.55 0.56 0.58 0.47 Note : * p <.05, ** p <.01. a Covariate. The reader should note that in contrast to Table 4, predictor variables are listed on the left, while dependent variables are listed across the top. See Figure 4 for a visual representation of this model. Table 5B Path Model Results for Models 4-5 (Part 2 of 2) Dependent Variables Oppositionality Proactive Aggression Conduct Problems Predictor Variables Std. b b SE Std. b b SE Std. b b SE Model 4 Positive Parenting -0.02 -0.16 0.26 -0.02 -0.07 0.09 0.01 0.30 0.46 Poor Monitoring & Supervision 0.29** 1.83 0.35 0.79** 2.57 0.11 0.78** 11.63 0.52 Inconsistent Discipline 0.49** 3.54 0.39 0.13** 0.49 0.12 0.15** 2.59 0.52 R 2 0.56 0.81 0.81 Model 5 Positive Parenting -0.02 -0.21 0.27 -0.02 -0.08 0.1 0.01 0.31 0.46 Poor Monitoring & Supervision 0.29** 1.80 0.35 0.79** 2.58 0.11 0.77** 11.59 0.52 Inconsistent Discipline 0.50** 3.63 0.39 0.12** 0.45 0.12 0.14** 2.37 0.5 Parent Gender a 0.07* 0.84 0.36 0.01 0.05 0.11 -0.01 -0.19 0.49 Parent Age a -0.05 -0.04 0.02 -0.03 -0.01 0.01 -0.05* -0.08 0.04 Child Gender a -0.02 -0.27 0.28 0.00 -0.01 0.11 0.01 0.26 0.48 Child Age a 0.08** 0.19 0.08 -0.03 -0.04 0.03 -0.05* -0.28 0.12 R 2 0.57 0.81 0.82 Note: * p <.05, ** p <.01. a Covariate. The reader should note that in contrast to Table 4, predictor variables are listed on the left, while dependent variables are listed across the top. See Figure 1 for a visual representation of this model. Table 6 Uncorrected p-values for Moderation Model Interaction Terms Dependent Variables Interaction terms (moderator × predictor) Irr Anger ReaAgg Hyp/Imp Opp ProAgg Con p p p p p p p Child Age × Pos Par .090 .040 >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 × Poor Mon&Sup .080 >.1 .067 >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 × InconsisDisc .096 >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 Child Gender × Pos Par >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 .084 × Poor Mon&Sup >.1 >.1 >.1 .096 >.1 .022 .070 × InconsisDisc >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 .045 >.1 Parent Age × Pos Par >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 .020 × Poor Mon&Sup >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 × InconsisDisc >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 Parent Gender × Pos Par >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 × Poor Mon&Sup .067 >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 × InconsisDisc .079 >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 >.1 Note: For clarity of presentation, only the p-values associated with interaction term coefficients are presented here, but each moderation model also included the respective demographic variable as well as all 3 parenting variables as predictors. With the Bonferroni adjustment, an uncorrected p-value of <.0024 was required for significance. Thus, all four interaction terms seen here at p < .05 (child age × anger, child gender × poor monitoring and supervision, child gender × inconsistent discipline, and parent age × positive parenting), with p s = .022 to .045, are not considered statistically significant. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4559598","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":318940396,"identity":"82629b6b-93c8-4fa8-ab47-3be9b289c09d","order_by":0,"name":"Ashley R. Karlovich","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA4ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACHiB+AKIkmA8wJED4BoS1gFVKsCWQpoWBQYIHrhK/Fv6ew88+JFQcluGf3fN1w4OabTIM7M3bJPBpkTjbZjwj4cxhHok7Z7fdSDh2m4eB51gZXi0M5xmMGRLb0ngMJHKBWtiAWiRyzPBqkT/P/hmqJefZjYR/QC3yb/BrMTjbA7LFBqSF7UZiG8gWHvxaDM+cKWZIOGPDI3EjzexGYt9tHjaetGILfFrkzqRvZvhQIWHPPyP52c0f327b87Mf3ngDnxZMwEaa8lEwCkbBKBgF2AAAn1hG/2wyaJwAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"University of Miami","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ashley","middleName":"R.","lastName":"Karlovich","suffix":""},{"id":318940397,"identity":"de4e556a-fe21-4e72-adbc-087a64941408","order_by":1,"name":"Spencer C. Evans","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Miami","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Spencer","middleName":"C.","lastName":"Evans","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-06-10 18:01:46","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4559598/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4559598/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":59871394,"identity":"0581d6db-d0ac-4425-af1a-ac09d63028a5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-08 17:05:42","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":411892,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eModel 4: Full Path Model Estimated\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e: Only the visual model is represented here. See Tables 5A and 5B for path model statistics\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4559598/v1/7d6ff64850ed14476a146068.jpeg"},{"id":59873363,"identity":"64f88a76-1e47-48d3-8e4c-27d9af2e3e5c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-08 17:21:45","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1536805,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4559598/v1/69354e03-1e62-4a28-bccf-e5a1fc2baf2d.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Examining parenting behaviors as predictors of fine-grained dimensions of externalizing psychopathology in youth","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eExternalizing-spectrum problems are common and impairing among children and adolescents (herein \u0026ldquo;youths\u0026rdquo;), and make up some of the most common complaints among treatment-seeking families\u0026nbsp;(e.g., Evans et al., 2022). Youths exhibiting concerns across the externalizing spectrum (i.e., disinhibited emotional and behavioral problems, including, but not limited to, anger, aggression, irritability, conduct problems, oppositionality, and hyperactivity/impulsivity) may experience significant impairment in a range of settings, causing problems and difficulties within the family system more broadly. Parenting behaviors\u003ca href=\"#_ftn1\" name=\"_ftnref1\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e play a crucial role in the development and maintenance of these problems. Bidirectional and transactional associations between parenting behaviors and youth externalizing problems across all stages of development are well documented empirically (e.g., Awada \u0026amp; Shelleby, 2021; Pardini et al., 2008; Serbin et al., 2015) and are implicated in theoretical models. For instance, Patterson and colleagues\u0026rsquo; coercion model suggests there are cyclical, bidirectional associations between youth defiance, aggression, or oppositional behaviors and caregiver hostile punishments or harsh parenting, ultimately resulting in fewer positive parent-child interactions over time (Eddy et al., 2001; Patterson, 1993; Shaw \u0026amp; Bell, 1993). However, little is known about how specific dimensions of youth externalizing affect and behaviors may contribute to the cycle of coercion and maladaptive parenting patterns. Understanding varying dimensions of parenting behaviors, as well as their contributions to specific youth externalizing problems, has critical implications for assessment, prevention, and intervention efforts related to youth and family wellbeing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParenting Behaviors\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough parenting is often discussed in general terms, specific dimensions of parenting behaviors have been theoretically and empirically delimited. Some of these parenting behaviors are more strongly linked to youths\u0026rsquo; behavior than others. Three of particular interest here are Inconsistent Discipline, Parental Monitoring \u0026amp; Supervision, and Positive Parenting, discussed in turn below.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eInconsistent Discipline\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003erefers to the use of parenting practices that vary across time and/or between caregivers (Gardner, 1989). Parents who use discipline inconsistently often have difficulty setting and adhering to rules for their children, resulting in variable punishments for recurring, similar behaviors (Varshal \u0026amp; Slobodskaya, 2022). Social learning and social-cognitive theories suggest that youths\u0026rsquo; behaviors are heavily influenced by the consistency of caregiver discipline, and that youths may learn either antisocial and prosocial behaviors through reinforcement by consistent parental discipline (Bandura, 1986; Bandura et al., 1996; Bandura \u0026amp; Walters, 1959; Halgunseth et al., 2013). Maternal inconsistent discipline is also associated with youth ADHD symptoms, even after controlling for child ODD and CD (Ellis \u0026amp; Nigg, 2009). Additionally, inconsistent discipline has also been shown to predict subsequent delinquency and antisocial behaviors in early adolescent samples (Halgunseth et al., 2013).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA recent systematic review defines \u003cem\u003eParental Monitoring\u003c/em\u003e as \u0026ldquo;the set of all behaviors performed by a caregiver to gather information about youths\u0026rsquo; activities and life\u0026rdquo; (Pelham et al., 2023), while \u003cem\u003eParental Supervision\u003c/em\u003e suggests the parent is present and directly watching their child engage in a given activity (Racz \u0026amp; McMahon, 2011). Both Parental Monitoring and Supervision have been found to play an important role in reducing deviant, risk-taking behaviors in youth. For example, higher levels of parental monitoring are associated with lower levels of externalizing symptoms in youth across both community and foster care samples (Cooley et al., 2021; Racz \u0026amp; McMahon, 2011). Research has also indicated that poor parental supervision, as well as inconsistent discipline, are both associated with youth externalizing problems in community and clinic-referred samples more broadly (Dadds et al., 2003; Hawes \u0026amp; Dadds, 2006). Further, a recent systematic review of longitudinal studies suggested that poor parental supervision was found to predict later criminal offending in youth (Flanagan et al., 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/em\u003e is a set of behaviors that are characterized by a caregiver providing unconditionally and consistently for the needs of their child, praising, and teaching or leading through communication and modeling (Seay et al., 2014). Positive parenting promotes youth mental well-being and protects against the development of emotional or behavioral concerns, with less positive parenting behaviors in toddlerhood also subsequently predicting elevations in childhood externalizing problems (Boeldt et al., 2012; Tabak \u0026amp; Zawadzka, 2017). Children with warm, supportive parents are less likely to develop antisocial behavioral problems later on, even when controlling for socioeconomic status (Odgers et al., 2012). Furthermore, meta-analytic findings suggest positive parenting and positive parent-child interactions are key components in therapeutic interventions aimed at reducing youth disruptive behaviors (e.g., Behavioral Parent Training; Wyatt Kaminski et al., 2008).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHeterogeneity of Youth Externalizing Problems\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; The research reviewed above pools across various ways of defining parenting behaviors and their relationship to externalizing problems in youth; we focus here on 7 specific externalizing variables. As shown in Table 1, externalizing spectrum problems are extremely heterogenous and share many common features. For instance, irritability is thought to be an increased propensity to anger which may manifest as either temper outbursts and/or generally sullen mood (Leibenluft, 2017). Similarly, anger is broadly defined a response to a socially driven frustration or threat, or attributions about one\u0026rsquo;s general environment as anger-inducing, generally resulting in a heightened arousal state (Spielberger, 1985). Reactive aggression occurs when an individual responds to or reacts to a perceived threat and may include physical or relational/interpersonal aggressive acts, whereas children displaying proactive aggression may engage in planned, goal-oriented aggressive behaviors causing harm or destruction (Dodge \u0026amp; Coie, 1987). Hyperactive-impulsive youths may display behaviors inconsistent with developmental level, including difficulties sitting still or staying in their seat, running about even if they are expected to sit still, or interrupting others/talking out of turn (APA, 2022). Oppositionality in youth may include generally defiant or headstrong behavior (Evans, Roberts, et al., 2021), and conduct problems typically include acts of delinquency, destruction or violence, or aggression towards people or animals (Kazdin, 1995; Litschge et al., 2010). Taken together, there is significant heterogeneity of these constructs. No known studies to date have included multiple dimensions of parenting behaviors as predictors of these fine-grained dimensions of externalizing problems in youth.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePresent Study\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo summarize, parenting behavior patterns\u0026mdash;including Inconsistent Discipline, Poor Parental Monitoring \u0026amp; Supervision, and Positive Parenting\u0026mdash;are robust predictors of youth externalizing problems. Examining a caregiver\u0026rsquo;s role in each of these domains may have significant implications for evidence-based assessment, prevention, and intervention practices. To that end, the current study investigated associations between parenting behaviors and externalizing problems in youth, inclusive of irritability, anger, reactive aggression, proactive aggression, hyperactivity/impulsivity, oppositionality, and conduct problems. Generally, we hypothesized that greater maladaptive parenting behaviors (i.e., Inconsistent Discipline and Poor Parental Monitoring \u0026amp; Supervision) would show positive associations with each externalizing problem, while Positive Parenting would show negative associations, or lower levels of externalizing problems, in youth.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParticipants and Procedures\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA survey study of caregivers in the community was conducted to examine mental health symptoms and service needs of youth and families in the community. Multiple recruitment methods (MTurk, Qualtrics Panels, Prolific) were used to obtain a broad and varied sample. Respondents were considered eligible if they were at least 18 years of age, the primary caregiver of a youth 6.0 to 14.9 years of age and were able to complete consent and surveys in either English or Spanish. Respondents were excluded if they were unable to consent, below the age of 18, or otherwise unable to complete study consent and measures. On some platforms, caregivers completed a pre-screening survey to confirm their eligibility status. Caregivers were compensated for completing survey measures. All participants completed electronic consent to participate in the survey study. All study procedures were approved by the University\u0026rsquo;s Institutional Review Board.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of \u003cem\u003eN\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 827 caregivers clicked on the survey link and provided informed consent; respondents who failed to complete the surveys (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 265) were excluded. Two attention check items were included in the surveys to promote valid data collection; respondents who failed one (\u003cem\u003en\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 29) or both (\u003cem\u003en\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 1) of these attention checks were excluded from the present analyses. Next, due to limited data collected in Spanish, participants who completed valid surveys in Spanish (\u003cem\u003en\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 13) were also excluded from the present analyses. This resulted in a final total sample of \u003cem\u003eN\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 576 for analysis (Qualtrics Panels \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 121, 21%; MTurk \u003cem\u003en\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 217, 38%; Prolific \u003cem\u003en =\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e238, 41%). \u0026nbsp;The final caregiver sample was 55% female, 76% White, 23% Hispanic, and reported a median household income of $70,000 per year. Youths were 53% male, 74% White, and 25% Hispanic, and the average age was 9 years. See Table 2 for full demographics of the sample.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMeasures\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eADHD and ODD Symptom Dimensions.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e Symptoms of oppositionality and hyperactivity/impulsivity were assessed using the Swanson, Nolan, and Pelham-IV (SNAP-IV) (Swanson et al., 2001). The SNAP-IV was developed such that the items map directly on to the diagnostic criteria symptoms for ADHD and ODD, per DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association, 1994), which largely remained the same for DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The version of the SNAP-IV used here consists of 26 items asking caregivers to choose the columns that best describe their child on a four-point Likert scale from 0 (\u003cem\u003eNot at all)\u003c/em\u003e to \u003cem\u003e3 (Very much)\u003c/em\u003e, and includes 9 items for inattention, 9 for hyperactivity/impulsivity, and 8 for oppositionality/defiance\u003cem\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eAlthough inattention is a core symptom domain of ADHD, it is not considered to be an externalizing problem on its own. Accordingly, the inattention scale of the SNAP-IV was excluded from the current analyses. To score the SNAP-IV, items in each of the subscales are totaled, and greater scores indicate greater symptom levels.\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eThe SNAP-IV has demonstrated excellent internal validity, test-retest reliability, and internal consistency (Bussing et al., 2008; Swanson et al., 2001). Internal consistency for the hyperactivity/impulsivity and oppositionality subscales in the current sample was excellent, (\u0026alpha; = .94 and .91, respectively).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eProactive \u0026amp; Reactive Aggression.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003eProactive and reactive aggression were assessed using the Proactive \u0026amp; Reactive Aggression Questionnaire (PRA;\u0026nbsp;Dodge \u0026amp; Coie, 1987). The PRA is comprised of 6-items designed to measure both proactive (e.g., \u0026ldquo;My child threatens or bullies others in order to get his or her way\u0026rdquo;) and reactive (e.g., \u0026ldquo;When my child has been teased or threatened, she or he gets angry easily and strikes back\u0026rdquo;) aggression. Caregivers respond on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;(Never)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eto\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e5 (\u003cem\u003eAlways)\u003c/em\u003e. Item totals are summed, with higher scores reflecting higher levels of aggressive behaviors. Reliability and validity for the PRA-Caregiver report have been well-established (e.g., Fite et al., 2011; Pederson \u0026amp; Fite, 2014; Waschbusch \u0026amp; Willoughby, 1998). The present sample showed good to excellent internal consistency for proactive and reactive aggression subscales, (\u0026alpha; = .88 and .93, respectively).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eConduct Disorder Symptoms.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003eConduct Disorder Symptoms were assessed using the Conduct Disorder Rating Scale (CDRS;\u0026nbsp;Waschbusch \u0026amp; Elgar, 2007)\u003cem\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eThe CDRS consists of 15 items in which caregivers are asked to rate the frequency of their child\u0026rsquo;s behaviors over the past 12 months (e.g., starts physical fights, skips school). Caregivers are asked to rate how much of a problem any of the endorsed behaviors cause their child at home, at school, and in other settings. The CDRS includes a 5-point Likert scale, with responses ranging from 0\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;(Never)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eto 4 \u003cem\u003e(Daily).\u003c/em\u003e The CDRS-parent report version has shown moderate to good internal consistency in both community and treatment-seeking samples, with established norms/clinical cutoffs and criterion validity for youths with Conduct Disorder (Waschbusch \u0026amp; Elgar, 2007). Internal consistency for the CDRS was excellent (\u0026alpha; = .98).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eIrritability.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003eYouth irritability was assessed using the Affective Reactivity Index (ARI;\u0026nbsp;Stringaris et al., 2012), a 6-item scale, plus 1 impairment item, which asks caregivers to report on their child\u0026rsquo;s irritability in relation to frequency, duration, and threshold over the past 6 months. Caregivers respond on a three-point scale from 0 (\u003cem\u003eNot True\u003c/em\u003e) to 2 (\u003cem\u003eCertainly True\u003c/em\u003e). The caregiver-report version of the ARI has been validated for use in clinical and community samples of children (Evans et al., 2021; Stringaris et al., 2012). The ARI-parent report has also shown good convergent validity with Child Behavior Checklist items in early childhood and early childhood clinical samples (Wilson et al., 2022) and with adolescent community-based samples (Dougherty et al., 2021) \u0026nbsp; Internal consistency for the present sample was excellent, (\u0026alpha; = .91).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnger.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003eAnger was assessed using the National Institutes of Health Patient Reported Outcomes Measurement System (PROMIS) Anger \u0026ndash; Parent Proxy\u0026nbsp;(Irwin et al., 2012). The PROMIS-anger scale is comprised of six items in which caregivers report on their child\u0026rsquo;s angry mood over the past 7 days. Items are rated from 0 (\u003cem\u003eNever\u003c/em\u003e) to 4 (\u003cem\u003eAlways\u003c/em\u003e); higher scores indicate higher levels of anger. The PROMIS parent proxy scales have demonstrated good psychometric properties for the measurement of anger in youth\u0026nbsp;(Kaman et al., 2022; Varni et al., 2012). Internal consistency in the sample was excellent, (\u0026alpha; = .92).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eParenting Behaviors.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e Poor parental monitoring and supervision, inconsistent discipline, and positive parenting were measured using the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire (APQ; Frick, 1991). In its original form, the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire is a 42-item scale which measures parenting behaviors across five domains: Inconsistent Discipline, Parental Involvement, Positive Parenting, Poor Parental Monitoring \u0026amp; Supervision, and Corporal Punishment. In the present study, only the Inconsistent Discipline, Positive Parenting, and Poor Monitoring \u0026amp; Supervision subscales were included, leaving a total of 22 items. The Parental Involvement and Corporal Punishment scales were excluded due to potential concerns with contemporary and cross-cultural applicability of the item content of the two scales. The APQ asks caregivers to rate how often their behaviors typically occur in the home on a five-point scale, ranging from 1 (\u003cem\u003eNever\u003c/em\u003e) to 5 (\u003cem\u003eAlways\u003c/em\u003e)\u003cem\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eReliability and validity of the APQ has been well-established in a variety of cross-cultural clinical and research samples\u0026nbsp;(Florean et al., 2022; Frick et al., 1999; Shelton et al., 1996). Predictive validity for the APQ in predicting youth externalizing behaviors has also been established\u0026nbsp;(Nichols et al., 2022). In the present sample, internal consistency for Inconsistent Discipline (\u0026alpha; = .88), Positive Parenting. (\u0026alpha; = 79), and Poor Monitoring \u0026amp; Supervision (\u0026alpha; = .96) ranged from good to excellent.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eDemographic Variables, Covariates, and Moderators.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e As part of the survey, participants were also asked to report on several items related to child and parent demographics and family background variables. These included age, gender, race, and ethnicity for both parent and child, as well as parent marital status and household income.\u003ca href=\"#_ftn1\" name=\"_ftnref1\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e The age variable was collected as continuous numerical value, rounded down to the nearest whole year. Based on prior literature, many of these variables were considered as candidate covariates and moderators for analyses described below. To select covariates/moderators, bivariate correlations were examined between all candidate demographic variables and all externalizing constructs of interest. These analyses\u003ca href=\"#_ftn2\" name=\"_ftnref2\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e led to the selection of four variables as covariates and moderators: parent age, parent gender, child age, and child gender.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Analytic Plan\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFirst, missing data, distributional characteristics (e.g., \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e, % above clinical cut-offs), and correlations for the primary variables of interest were examined and presented with attention to modeling assumptions. Modeling adjustments were made as indicated to account for missing data and deviations from normality, described in greater detail below. Data were also screened for invalid responses using attention check items and invalid responses were removed from future analyses, as described above. Analyses were conducted using SPSS, Version 28 for observed item values and distributional characteristics and in the \u003cem\u003elavaan\u003c/em\u003e package in R, version 0.6-13 (Rosseel, 2012) for path models within a structural equation model (SEM) framework. Internal consistencies for all scales of interest were examined using Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha and McDonald\u0026rsquo;s omega coefficients using the following conventions: \u0026lt;.60 = unacceptable; .60-.69 = questionable; .70-.79 = acceptable; .80-.89 = good; \u0026ge;.90 = excellent.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo examine the role of\u0026nbsp;Positive Parenting, Poor Monitoring \u0026amp; Supervision, and Inconsistent Discipline in predicting these externalizing problems,\u0026nbsp;SEM path models were used\u0026nbsp;using WLSMV estimation.\u0026nbsp;Model fit statistics, including the chi-square (c\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) test of model fit, RMSEA, and CFI, were considered; however, since each model was fully saturated, model fit statistics were not applicable. Therefore, models were evaluated based on significance and magnitude of standardized path coefficients, and in relation to their bivariate correlations from the preliminary steps.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese models were estimated in a series of steps. First (Models 1-3), three separate path models were estimated, one for each parenting variable as the single predictor of all externalizing dependent variables. Next, Model 4 combined these models together, with paths from all parenting variables predicting all externalizing problems within the same model. Finally, Model 5 estimated these effects with the inclusion of covariates\u0026mdash;child age, child gender, parent age, and parent gender\u0026mdash;as direct predictors of all externalizing variables.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinally, moderator analyses were conducted to assess whether the associations between parenting behaviors and externalizing problems might vary depending on parent or child age or gender. In the moderation analyses, interaction terms for parent gender, parent age, child gender, and child age, with each externalizing problem were entered one at a time (i.e., 4 moderation models) to evaluate whether the strength or direction of specific associations between parenting and externalizing variables was conditional upon the parent\u0026apos;s or child\u0026rsquo;s age or gender. Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons were made given the exploratory nature of these analyses. With 3 interaction terms per model, and 7 different dependent variables, 21 moderator tests were employed in each moderation model.\u003ca href=\"#_ftn3\" name=\"_ftnref3\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e Applying the Bonferroni adjustment with each moderator model, the threshold for statistical significance came to \u0026alpha; = \u0026nbsp;.05 / 21 = .0024. Thus, an unadjusted p-value of less than .0024 was required to indicate statistical significance for this set of analyses.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"ftn3\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eFor continuous variables, univariate distributions were examined through visual inspection and estimates of skewness and kurtosis. All parenting scales and most externalizing scales were roughly normally distributed. The exceptions were proactive aggression (PRA) and conduct problems (CDRS), which were both positively skewed. Distributional characteristics, descriptive statistics, and bivariate correlations are presented in Table 3. All externalizing scales were significantly and highly correlated with one another (\u003cem\u003ers \u0026ge;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e.68, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es \u0026lt; .001)\u003cem\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eSimilarly, each externalizing scale correlated with Positive Parenting (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003es = -.09 to -.24, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es \u0026lt; .01), Poor Monitoring \u0026amp; Supervision (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003es = .62 to .90, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es \u0026lt; .001, and Inconsistent Discipline (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003es = .66 to .78, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es \u0026lt;.001). Means, standard deviations, and percentage of youths falling above clinical cutoffs (where applicable) are also presented in Table 3. Results indicated that roughly 24.3% to 42.5% of the sample fell at or above established clinical cutoffs on the SNAP, ARI, CDRS, and PROMIS-Anger. As shown in Table 3, all scales showed good to excellent internal consistencies, with Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha coefficients ranging from .88-.98, and McDonald\u0026rsquo;s omega coefficients ranging from .80-.98.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParenting Path Models as Predictors of Externalizing Problems.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eDescriptive Statistics and Correlations.\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eAt the zero-order level, correlations showed support for the hypothesized links between parenting and externalizing variables (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003es = |.09-.90|, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es \u0026lt; .01; see Table 3). Given high correlations among the three parenting variables, multicollinearity was examined in a separate regression model with each parenting variable predicting one individual externalizing outcomes without demographic covariates. The Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) was 1.102 for Positive Parenting, 3.381 for Poor Monitoring \u0026amp; Supervision, and 3.201 for Inconsistent Discipline. Based on established guidelines (Hair et al., 2006), each of the three parenting variables fell in the 1.0-5.0 range for multicollinearity, suggesting a meaningful but acceptable level of multicollinearity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegarding correlations between parenting and externalizing problems, Positive Parenting showed significant, but small associations with lower levels of all externalizing variables (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003es = -.09 to -.24), accounting for roughly 1-6% of their variance. Poor Monitoring \u0026amp; Supervision showed medium to large correlations across all externalizing variables (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003es = .62 to .90), accounting for 38-81% of their variance, and was most strongly related to proactive aggression and conduct problems (both \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003es = .90). Inconsistent Discipline was also strongly associated with all externalizing problems (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003es = .66 to .79), accounting for approximately 44-62% of their variance at the zero-order level.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eMain Path Model Results.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ePath model results are presented in Tables 4 (Models 1-3), 5A, and 5B (Models 4-5), and a visual of the full path model estimated without covariates is presented in Figure 4. When examined as separate, individual predictors (Models 1-3), each parenting variable was observed to significantly predict each observed externalizing problem separately in the expected direction. In other words, negative path coefficients for Positive Parenting indicated that lower levels of Positive Parenting significantly predicted each externalizing problem (standardized \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003es = -.092 to -.241, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es \u0026lt; .05). Further, higher levels of Poor Monitoring and Supervision significantly predicted each externalizing problem in the expected direction (standardized \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003es = 0.617 \u0026ndash; 0.898, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es \u0026lt; .01), and the same was true for Inconsistent Discipline (standardized \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003es = 0.661 \u0026ndash; 0.790, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es \u0026lt; .01). In Models 1-3, Positive Parenting explained about 1-6% of the variance in specific externalizing problems, while Poor Monitoring and Supervision explained 38-81%, and Inconsistent Discipline explained 43-62%. See Table 4 for full results of these models. However, when these three parenting variables were entered as predictors of externalizing problems within the same model (Model 4), the Positive Parenting paths were all attenuated to non-significance, while the Inconsistent Discipline and Poor Monitoring and Supervision paths remained significant. See Tables 5A-5B for full results of the final models.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ePath Models with Covariates and Moderators.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eModel 5 examined these effects when controlling for parent and child age and gender. With the inclusion of all four covariates, the pattern of results remained stable. Specifically, none of the Positive Parenting paths emerged as significant; however, all paths from Poor Monitoring \u0026amp; Supervision and Inconsistent Discipline remained positive and significant (standardized \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003es = 0.120 \u0026ndash; 0.788). In Model 5, \u003cem\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003evalues ranged from 0.47 (hyperactivity/impulsivity) to 0.82 (conduct), suggesting that parenting practices explained 47-82% of the variance in parent-reported externalizing problems, when controlling for parent and child age and gender. \u0026nbsp;The \u003cem\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003evalue of 0.81 for proactive aggression also suggested parenting practices explained 81% of the variance in proactive aggression, regardless of parent and child age and gender. \u0026nbsp;Regarding main effects for covariates, there was a significant main effect of parent age on irritability (standardized \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e = -0.081, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .01), and reactive aggression (standardized \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e = -0.058, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .05). For child age, there was similarly a main effect on irritability (standardized \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e = 0.076, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .01), reactive aggression (standardized \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e = 0.076, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .01), and on oppositionality (standardized \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e = 0.078, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .01). For parent gender, there was a significant main effect on hyperactivity/impulsivity (standardized \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e = 0.099, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .01) and oppositionality (standardized \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e = 0.071, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .05). There were no main effects for child age. See Tables 5A and 5B for results of Model 5, including covariates.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLastly, four separate moderation models were examined to determine whether parent and child age and gender moderated the paths from each of the three parenting variables to the externalizing variables. With the Bonferroni adjustment applied, no interaction effects were found across any of the moderators examined (unadjusted p-values were all \u0026ge;.02, with 71 of 84 p-values being \u0026gt;.10). Significance results for each interaction term tested are presented in Table 6.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe current study aimed to address the ways in which specific parenting practices may be related to externalizing concerns in youth. Results showed that Poor Parental Supervision \u0026amp; Monitoring, Inconsistent Discipline, and Positive Parenting\u0026mdash;when examined in isolation\u0026mdash;all emerged as significant predictors of all seven externalizing problems; however, when examined in the same model, controlling for parent and child age and gender, only the effects of Poor Parental Supervision \u0026amp; Monitoring and Inconsistent Discipline remained significant. No moderation effects were found, suggesting the strength of these effects do not change depending on parent or child age and gender. Broadly speaking, findings are consistent with a large and longstanding body of literature suggesting that parenting practices play a significant role in the development and maintenance of externalizing problems in youth\u0026nbsp;(e.g., Dishion \u0026amp; McMahon, 1998; Tabak \u0026amp; Zawadzka, 2017; Varshal \u0026amp; Slobodskaya, 2022). However, many of these studies have not included several parenting behaviors within the same sample or as predictors of multiple externalizing constructs.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWith respect to these findings, the parent-report and self-report nature of the data should be considered, particularly with caregivers rating their own parenting behaviors. For example, it may be that parents tend to self-report positive parenting items at an inflated level due to social desirability bias (Morsbach \u0026amp; Prinz, 2006). Indeed, parents with ADHD symptoms have been found to over-estimate their own positive parenting behaviors on self-report measures when compared to clinician-rated observations\u0026nbsp;(Lui et al., 2013). Similarly, it is possible that the directionality of these items (where higher ratings are more favorable) differing from those of Inconsistent Discipline and Poor Monitoring \u0026amp; Supervision (where higher ratings are less favorable) contributed to differences in how this dimension was rated or in how it was associated with the externalizing outcome variables.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLimitations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe current study has some limitations to consider. First, there was some content overlap and a moderate degree of multicollinearity between measures. Although steps were taken to handle these concerns (e.g., examining associations across multiple model steps), this does not eliminate the challenges. At the same time, there are additional constructs on the externalizing spectrum that were not included here (e.g., delinquency, substance use, callous-unemotional traits) as well as parenting behaviors which were not considered (e.g., harsh parenting, corporal punishment, parental involvement). The cross-sectional nature of the study design limits inferences regarding causality or directionality. For example, some longitudinal work suggests that externalizing problems in youth may predict more maladaptive parenting behaviors\u0026nbsp;(Fletcher \u0026amp; Johnston, 2016; Verhoeven et al., 2010).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, sample and sampling platform characteristics may limit the generalizability of the findings. The current sample obtained is primarily White, non-Hispanic, and primarily residing in South Florida, limiting inferences for generalizability to other populations. However, the current sample is fairly representative with respect to household income, as U.S. Census Bureau reports a median household income of $74,580 in 2022, similar to that of the current sample (\u003cem\u003eMdn\u003c/em\u003e = $70,000). While efforts were made to ensure validity of the data collected (e.g., using attention checks and screening items, as well as well-validated assessment instruments), because the survey was available across several platforms, it also cannot be guaranteed that one respondent did not complete the survey across each platform.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere are some potential challenges with online data collection, including possibilities of social desirability bias, inconsistent English language fluency levels, and self-selection bias or self-misrepresentation\u0026nbsp;(Aguinis et al., 2021). However, MTurk specifically has been described as a valid and feasible approach to research involving youth and families\u0026nbsp;(Jensen-Doss et al., 2022; Schleider \u0026amp; Weisz, 2015). We also took several steps to limit the possibility of bias in the sample or in any single platform, such as including the use of screening and attention check items and expanding recruitment across three data collection platforms\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eImplications and Future Directions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese findings lay a foundation for future work which may consider more integrative, person-centered approaches (e.g., latent profile analyses inclusive of multiple parenting variables)\u0026nbsp;(Hukkelberg \u0026amp; Ogden, 2021), to capture a more complete picture of their relation to externalizing problems. As such, it may also be important to consider the \u003cem\u003esalience\u003c/em\u003e of certain parenting practices in the context of others (e.g., consistency in discipline and parental monitoring \u0026amp; supervision in the context of positive parenting), particularly in community-based samples of parent-child dyads. Lastly, given prior research linking parent psychopathology and parental stress to youth externalizing outcomes, as well as parenting behaviors, these potential correlates or moderators should be considered in the context of these relationships as well\u0026nbsp;(Breaux et al., 2014; Kochanova et al., 2021).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWith respect to clinical implications, several well-supported prevention and intervention programs exist that are aimed at increasing positive parent-child interactions, supported by numerous randomized trials, as well as meta-analyses and systematic reviews (e.g., Triple P, Parent-Child Interaction Therapy [PCIT];\u0026nbsp;Kaminski \u0026amp; Claussen, 2017; Sanders, 2012; Sanders et al., 2014; Thomas et al., 2017). In other words, despite the absence of a unique association between positive parenting and externalizing problems in this analysis, there is a large body of experimental, longitudinal, and clinical research indicating that positive parenting can help improve child behavior problems. If the current findings are replicated and extended, future work in this area may consider examining effects of more integrative components of parent-directed interventions to include consistency in discipline and monitoring and supervision. Further, the finding that when considering levels of Positive Parenting, Poor Monitoring \u0026amp; Supervision and Inconsistent Discipline significantly predict myriad externalizing problems may also be relevant for community-based parenting education and prevention programming, potentially placing greater emphasis in supporting these practices. This finding may also guide in treatment personalization and tailoring for families already in treatment; for example, a clinician administering a behavioral parent training intervention may choose to emphasize consistency and structure for children showing little improvement as a response to positive parental attention.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLastly, the measurement and assessment of both externalizing problems and parenting behaviors varies considerably across cultures and contexts; therefore, future work should investigate these effects both within and across varying groups, inclusive of factors such as race, ethnicity, geographic location, educational attainment, marital status, presentations, and populations (e.g., clinical, juvenile justice). Taken together, findings from the current study contribute to the understanding of potential parenting behaviors associated with an array of externalizing spectrum concerns, which may have further implications for treatment selection and planning with youth and families as well.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFuture work should consider examining these effects using multi-informant instruments along with parent-report, as well as observational methods to obtain more objective measurement of parenting behaviors in relation to youth externalizing problems. Similarly, future work may also benefit from an emphasis on bidirectionality or within a longitudinal framework. Lastly, subsequent research would benefit from considering this even broader range of affective and behavioral phenomena as well as parenting behaviors which may contribute to these concerns along the externalizing spectrum as well.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eS.E. led the larger study design and overall project management. A.K. assisted with study design, recruitment, and data collection and management. A.K. led conceptualization of this analysis, conducted all analyses, and drafted the initial manuscript. S.E. provided ongoing mentorship and consultation throughout all phases of the project, and critically reviewed and revised several versions of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis manuscript was adapted from ARK\u0026rsquo;s master\u0026rsquo;s thesis, completed at the University of Miami in 2024 under the mentorship of SCE. The authors would like to thank Dr. Kristin Lindahl and Dr. Eileen Davis, members of the thesis committee, for their insightful feedback on this project.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData for this study are available by request to the authors.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAguinis H, Villamor I, Ramani RS (2021) MTurk research: Review and recommendations. J Manag 47(4):823\u0026ndash;837\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAmerican Psychiatric Association (1994) \u003cem\u003eDiagnostic and Statistical Mental Disorders (DSM-IV)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAmerican Psychiatric Association (2013) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5\u0026reg;). American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAwada SR, Shelleby EC (2021) Bidirectional Associations between Child Conduct Problems and Parenting Practices in Early Childhood. J Child Fam stud 30(11):2705\u0026ndash;2717\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBandura A (1986) Prentice-Hall series in social learning theory. Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBandura A, Barbaranelli C, Caprara GV, Pastorelli C (1996) Mechanisms of moral disengagement in the exercise of moral agency. J Personal Soc Psychol 71(2):364\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBandura A, Walters RH (1959) \u003cem\u003eAdolescent aggression: A study of the influence of child-training practices and family interrelationships.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBoeldt DL, Rhee SH, DiLalla LF, Mullineaux PY, Schulz-Heik RJ, Corley RP, Young SE, Hewitt JK (2012) The association between positive parenting and externalizing behaviour. Infant Child Dev 21(1):85\u0026ndash;106\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBreaux RP, Harvey EA, Lugo-Candelas CI (2014) The role of parent psychopathology in the development of preschool children with behavior problems. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 43(5):777\u0026ndash;790\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBussing R, Fernandez M, Harwood M, Hou W, Garvan CW, Eyberg SM, Swanson JM (2008) Parent and teacher SNAP-IV ratings of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms: Psychometric properties and normative ratings from a school district sample. Assessment 15(3):317\u0026ndash;328\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCooley ME, Thompson HM, Wojciak AS, Mihalec-Adkins BP (2021) Parental monitoring by foster parents, youth behaviours and the youth\u0026ndash;foster parent relationship. Child Family Social Work 26(4):629\u0026ndash;641\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDadds MR, Maujean A, Fraser JA (2003) Parenting and conduct problems in children: Australian data and psychometric properties of the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire. Australian Psychol 38(3):238\u0026ndash;241\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDishion TJ, McMahon RJ (1998) Parental monitoring and the prevention of child and adolescent problem behavior: A conceptual and empirical formulation. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 1(1):61\u0026ndash;75\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDodge KA, Coie JD (1987) Social-information-processing factors in reactive and proactive aggression in children\u0026rsquo;s peer groups. J Personal Soc Psychol 53(6):1146\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDougherty LR, Galano MM, Chad-Friedman E, Olino TM, Bufferd SJ, Klein DN (2021) Using item response theory to compare irritability measures in early adolescent and childhood samples. Assessment 28(3):918\u0026ndash;927\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEddy JM, Leve LD, Fagot BI (2001) Coercive family processes: A replication and extension of Patterson\u0026rsquo;s coercion model. Aggressive Behavior: Official J Int Soc Res Aggress 27(1):14\u0026ndash;25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEllis B, Nigg J (2009) Parenting practices and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: New findings suggest partial specificity of effects. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 48(2):146\u0026ndash;154\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEvans SC, Abel MR, Doyle RL, Skov H, Harmon SL (2021) Measurement and correlates of irritability in clinically referred youth: Further examination of the Affective Reactivity Index. J Affect Disord 283:420\u0026ndash;429\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEvans SC, Corteselli KA, Edelman A, Scott H, Weisz JR (2022) Is irritability a top problem in youth mental health care? A multi-informant, multi-method investigation. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev, 1\u0026ndash;15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFite PJ, Stoppelbein L, Gaertner AE, Greening L, Elledge LC (2011) Further evaluation of the forms and functions of aggression measure within a child inpatient population. Residential Treat Child Youth 28(1):1\u0026ndash;16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFlanagan IM, Auty KM, Farrington DP (2019) Parental supervision and later offending: A systematic review of longitudinal studies. Aggress Violent Beh 47:215\u0026ndash;229\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFletcher AC, Johnston CA (2016) Parenting behaviors and child externalizing: A short-term investigation of directionality. J Child Fam stud 25:3150\u0026ndash;3159\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFlorean IS, Dobrean A, Balazsi R, Roșan A, Păsărelu CR, Predescu E, Rad F (2022) Measurement Invariance of Alabama Parenting Questionnaire Across Age, Gender, Clinical Status, and Informant. \u003cem\u003eAssessment\u003c/em\u003e, 10731911211068178\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFrick PJ (1991) The Alabama parenting questionnaire. Unpublished Rating Scale, University of Alabama\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFrick PJ, Christian RE, Wootton JM (1999) Age trends in the association between parenting practices and conduct problems. Behav Modif 23(1):106\u0026ndash;128\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGardner FE (1989) Inconsistent parenting: Is there evidence for a link with children\u0026rsquo;s conduct problems? J Abnorm Child Psychol 17(2):223\u0026ndash;233\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGhosh D, Vogt A (2012) \u003cem\u003eOutliers: An evaluation of methodologies\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003e12\u003c/em\u003e(1), 3455\u0026ndash;3460\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHalgunseth LC, Perkins DF, Lippold MA, Nix RL (2013) Delinquent-oriented attitudes mediate the relation between parental inconsistent discipline and early adolescent behavior. J Fam Psychol 27(2):293\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHawes DJ, Dadds MR (2006) Assessing parenting practices through parent-report and direct observation during parent-training. J Child Fam stud 15(5):554\u0026ndash;567\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHukkelberg SS, Ogden T (2021) Parenting practices and child conduct problems in a norwegian subclinical sample: Variable and person-centered approaches. Fam Relat 70(4):1102\u0026ndash;1116\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eIrwin DE, Stucky BD, Langer MM, Thissen D, DeWitt EM, Lai J-S, Yeatts KB, Varni JW, DeWalt DA (2012) PROMIS Pediatric Anger Scale: An item response theory analysis. Qual Life Res 21(4):697\u0026ndash;706\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJensen-Doss A, Patel ZS, Casline E, Mora Ringle VA, Timpano KR (2022) Using mechanical turk to study parents and children: An examination of data quality and representativeness. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 51(4):428\u0026ndash;442\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKaman A, Otto C, Devine J, Erhart M, D\u0026ouml;pfner M, Banaschewski T, G\u0026ouml;rtz-Dorten A, Hanisch C, K\u0026ouml;lch M, Roessner V (2022) Assessing anger and irritability in children: Psychometric evaluation and normative data for the German version of the PROMIS\u0026reg; Parent Proxy Anger Scale. Qual Life Res 31(3):831\u0026ndash;839\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKaminski JW, Claussen AH (2017) Evidence Base Update for Psychosocial Treatments for Disruptive Behaviors in Children. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 46(4):477\u0026ndash;499. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2017.1310044\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/15374416.2017.1310044\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKochanova K, Pittman LD, Pabis JM (2021) Parenting stress, parenting, and adolescent externalizing problems. J Child Fam stud 30(9):2141\u0026ndash;2154\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLui JH, Johnston C, Lee CM, Lee-Flynn SC (2013) Parental ADHD symptoms and self-reports of positive parenting. J Consult Clin Psychol 81(6):988\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMorsbach SK, Prinz RJ (2006) Understanding and improving the validity of self-report of parenting. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 9:1\u0026ndash;21\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNichols LM, Fleming CM, Pedroza JA, O\u0026rsquo;Brien KM, Tanner-Smith EE (2022) Psychometric Properties of the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire among Adolescents with Substance Use Disorder Histories. Child Adolesc Soc Work J, 1\u0026ndash;14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOdgers CL, Caspi A, Russell MA, Sampson RJ, Arseneault L, Moffitt TE (2012) Supportive parenting mediates neighborhood socioeconomic disparities in children\u0026rsquo;s antisocial behavior from ages 5 to 12. Dev Psychopathol 24(3):705\u0026ndash;721\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePardini DA, Fite PJ, Burke JD (2008) Bidirectional associations between parenting practices and conduct problems in boys from childhood to adolescence: The moderating effect of age and African-American ethnicity. J Abnorm Child Psychol 36(5):647\u0026ndash;662\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePatterson GR (1993) Orderly change in a stable world: The antisocial trait as a chimera. J Consult Clin Psychol 61(6):911\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePederson CA, Fite PJ (2014) The impact of parenting on the associations between child aggression subtypes and oppositional defiant disorder symptoms. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 45(6):728\u0026ndash;735\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePelham III, Racz WE, Davis SJ, Aks IS, Patel IR, McMahon H, Thornburg RJ, Huang MA, Gonzalez Y-TW, O., Tapert SF (2023) \u003cem\u003eWhat is parental monitoring?\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRacz SJ, McMahon RJ (2011) The relationship between parental knowledge and monitoring and child and adolescent conduct problems: A 10-year update. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 14(4):377\u0026ndash;398\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRosseel Y (2012) lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. J Stat Softw 48:1\u0026ndash;36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSanders MR (2012) Development, evaluation, and multinational dissemination of the Triple P-Positive Parenting Program. Ann Rev Clin Psychol 8:345\u0026ndash;379\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSanders MR, Kirby JN, Tellegen CL, Day JJ (2014) The Triple P-Positive Parenting Program: A systematic review and meta-analysis of a multi-level system of parenting support. Clin Psychol Rev 34(4):337\u0026ndash;357\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSchleider JL, Weisz JR (2015) Using Mechanical Turk to study family processes and youth mental health: A test of feasibility. J Child Fam stud 24:3235\u0026ndash;3246\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSeay A, Freysteinson WM, McFarlane J (2014) \u003cem\u003ePositive parenting\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003e49\u003c/em\u003e(3), 200\u0026ndash;208\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSerbin LA, Kingdon D, Ruttle PL, Stack DM (2015) The impact of children\u0026rsquo;s internalizing and externalizing problems on parenting: Transactional processes and reciprocal change over time. Dev Psychopathol 27(4pt1):969\u0026ndash;986\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShaw DS, Bell RQ (1993) Developmental theories of parental contributors to antisocial behavior. J Abnorm Child Psychol 21(5):493\u0026ndash;518\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShelton KK, Frick PJ, Wootton J (1996) Assessment of parenting practices in families of elementary school-age children. J Clin Child Psychol 25(3):317\u0026ndash;329\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eStringaris A, Goodman R, Ferdinando S, Razdan V, Muhrer E, Leibenluft E, Brotman MA (2012) The Affective Reactivity Index: A concise irritability scale for clinical and research settings. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 53(11):1109\u0026ndash;1117\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSwanson JM, Kraemer HC, Hinshaw SP, Arnold LE, Conners CK, Abikoff HB, Clevenger W, Davies M, Elliott GR, Greenhill LL (2001) Clinical relevance of the primary findings of the MTA: success rates based on severity of ADHD and ODD symptoms at the end of treatment. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 40(2):168\u0026ndash;179\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTabak I, Zawadzka D (2017) The importance of positive parenting in predicting adolescent mental health. J Family Stud 23(1):1\u0026ndash;18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eThomas R, Abell B, Webb HJ, Avdagic E, Zimmer-Gembeck MJ (2017) Parent-child interaction therapy: A meta-analysis. Pediatrics, \u003cem\u003e140\u003c/em\u003e(3)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVarni JW, Thissen D, Stucky BD, Liu Y, Gorder H, Irwin DE, DeWitt EM, Lai J-S, Amtmann D, DeWalt DA (2012) PROMIS\u0026reg; Parent Proxy Report Scales: An item response theory analysis of the parent proxy report item banks. Qual Life Res 21(7):1223\u0026ndash;1240\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVarshal АV, Slobodskaya HR (2022) Inconsistent Discipline as a Mediator between Maternal Distress and Children\u0026rsquo;s Conduct Problems in a Population Sample of Russian Children. Child Fam Behav Ther 44(1):1\u0026ndash;17\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVerhoeven M, Junger M, van Aken C, Deković M, van Aken MA (2010) Parenting and children\u0026rsquo;s externalizing behavior: Bidirectionality during toddlerhood. J Appl Dev Psychol 31(1):93\u0026ndash;105\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWaschbusch DA, Elgar FJ (2007) Development and validation of the conduct disorder rating scale. Assessment 14(1):65\u0026ndash;74\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWaschbusch DA, Willoughby MT (1998) Criterion validity and the utility of reactive and proactive aggression: Comparisons to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, and other measures of functioning. J Clin Child Psychol 27(4):396\u0026ndash;405\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWilson MK, Cornacchio D, Brotman MA, Comer JS (2022) Measuring Irritability in Early Childhood: A Psychometric Evaluation of the Affective Reactivity Index in a Clinical Sample of 3-to 8-Year-Old Children. Assessment 29(7):1473\u0026ndash;1481\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWorld Health Organization (2024) \u003cem\u003eClinical descriptions and diagnostic requirements for ICD-11 mental, behavioural and neurodevelopmental disorders (CDDR)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWyatt Kaminski J, Valle LA, Filene JH, Boyle CL (2008) A meta-analytic review of components associated with parent training program effectiveness. J Abnorm Child Psychol 36(4):567\u0026ndash;589\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Footnotes","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e \u0026ldquo;Parent\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;parenting\u0026rdquo; refer to the primary caregivers involved with and processes of day-to-day child rearing. This could include, but is not limited to, biological parents, adoptive parents, grandparents, stepparents, foster parents, aunts/uncles, older siblings, etc.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFor descriptive statistics (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), household income was analyzed as reported. For analyses concerning covariate/moderator selection, outliers on annual household income were winsorized by recoding extreme observations (below the 5th percentile [\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e12,700] and at or above the 95th percentile [\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e2,200,000]) with the more the plausible values defined by these percentiles (Ghosh \u0026amp; Vogt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Next, winsorized income was log-transformed to help bring the income closer to a normal distribution and scaled in a way that is comparable other variables.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e Child gender (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;boys, 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;girls) was not significantly correlated with any externalizing variable (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.56), and neither was parent marital status (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;single or non-married, 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;married; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.25) or household income (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.09). Child age was significantly correlated with proactive aggression, hyperactivity/impulsivity, and conduct problems (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.10 to \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.12, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.005-.02). Parent age was significantly related to externalizing problems, such that younger parents tended to report higher scores on all externalizing scales (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.19 to \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.26, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). Parent gender (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;male, 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;female) was significantly correlated with reactive aggression, proactive aggression, and conduct symptoms (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.09 to \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.17, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001-.04). Despite no significant correlations in the current sample, child gender was also selected as a covariate based on empirical and theoretical support for gender differences in externalizing problems in youth.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e For example, in the child age moderation model, three interaction terms (Positive Parenting*Child Age, Inconsistent Discipline*Child Age, and Poor Monitoring \u0026amp; Supervision*Child Age) were specified as predictors of all 7 externalizing variables, for a total of 21 statistical tests exploring whether any of these results are conditional upon the age of the child.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe Heterogeneity of Externalizing Constructs\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" align=\"left\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"NaN%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConstruct\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"NaN%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDefinition\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"NaN%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIrritability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"NaN%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAn increased propensity to anger, which may manifest as sullen mood and/or temper outbursts (Leibenluft, 2017)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"NaN%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOppositionality\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"NaN%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGenerally headstrong or defiant behaviors (American Psychiatric Association, 2022;\u0026nbsp;World Health Organization, 2024)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"NaN%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAnger\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"NaN%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCognitions and behaviors in a heightened arousal state, resulting from socially or environmentally driven threat or frustration (Spielberger, 1985)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"NaN%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eReactive Aggression\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"NaN%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAggressive behaviors (intended to cause harm to another) that occur as a result of responding or reacting to perceived threat (Dodge \u0026amp; Coie, 1987)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"NaN%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eProactive Aggression\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"NaN%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAggressive behaviors (intended to cause harm to another) characterized by planned, goal-oriented action (Dodge \u0026amp; Coie, 1987)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"NaN%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConduct Problems\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"NaN%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePatterns of behavior involving aggression to people and animals, destruction of property, deceitfulness or theft, and serious violations of rules (American Psychiatric Association, 2022; Kazdin, 1995; Litschge et al., 2010)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"NaN%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHyperactivity/Impulsivity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"NaN%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBehaviors inconsistent with developmental level, including fidgeting, interrupting others, or talking excessively, and discomfort with being still for long periods of time (American Psychiatric Association, 2022)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2 \u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSociodemographic Characteristics of Parents and Youth\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e%\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM (SD)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParent Gender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Male\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Female\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Non-binary or transgender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e251\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e318\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParent Race\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; White or Caucasian\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Black or African American\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Asian\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Another Race or Multiracial\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e442\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e76.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParent Ethnicity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Not Hispanic/Latinx\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Hispanic/Latinx\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e427\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e133\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e74.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParent Marital Status\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Married\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Non-married\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e435\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e141\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e75.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParent Age in Years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e576\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.86 (8.69)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnnual Household Income, \u003cem\u003eMdn [IQR]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e573\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e$70,000 [$45,000, $100,000]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYouth Gender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Male\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Female\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Non-binary or transgender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e306\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e261\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYouth Race\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; White or Caucasian\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Black or African American\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Asian\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Another Race or Multiracial\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e426\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e74.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYouth Ethnicity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Not Hispanic/Latinx\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Hispanic/Latinx\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e412\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e146\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e71.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYouth Age in Years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e575\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.47 (2.67)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBivariate Correlations and Descriptive Statistics Among Included Scales\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"26.804123711340207%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.24742268041237%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"26.804123711340207%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1. Hyp/Imp\u0026nbsp;(SNAP-IV)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.24742268041237%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"26.804123711340207%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2. Opp (SNAP-IV)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.81**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.24742268041237%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"26.804123711340207%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3. ProAgg (PRA)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.68**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.76**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.24742268041237%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"26.804123711340207%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4. Conduct (CDRS)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.68**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.76**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.91**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.24742268041237%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"26.804123711340207%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5. Irritability (ARI)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.73**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.88**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.76**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.24742268041237%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.76**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"26.804123711340207%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6. Anger (PROMIS)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.74**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.85**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.75**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.24742268041237%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.75**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.84**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"26.804123711340207%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7. ReaAgg (PRA)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.70**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.82**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.78**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.24742268041237%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.74**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.78**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.77**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"26.804123711340207%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8. Positive Parenting (APQ)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.09*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.16**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.24**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.24742268041237%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.21**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.13**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.11**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.11**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"26.804123711340207%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9. Poor Mon/Sup (APQ)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.62**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.70**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.90**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.24742268041237%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.90**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.70**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.70**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.72**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.27**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"26.804123711340207%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10. Inconsistent Discipline (APQ)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.66**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.73**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.78**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.24742268041237%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.79**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.70**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.73**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.73**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.13**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.82**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"26.804123711340207%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.80\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(7.34)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.06\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(6.61)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.37\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(3.41)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.24742268041237%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.99\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(15.64)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.09\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(3.44)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.78\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(4.92)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.78\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(3.34)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.97\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.72)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.90\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(1.04)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.35\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.91)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"26.804123711340207%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(%) above cutoffs\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e195\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(33.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e245\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(42.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.24742268041237%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e140\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(24.3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e211\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(36.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e162\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(28.1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"26.804123711340207%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSkewness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.24742268041237%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.89\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"26.804123711340207%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKurtosis\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.24742268041237%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"26.804123711340207%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eObserved Range\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0-27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0-24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3-15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.24742268041237%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0-60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0-12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5-25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3-15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1-5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1-5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1-5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"26.804123711340207%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCronbach\u0026rsquo;s Alpha (\u0026alpha;)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.24742268041237%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"26.804123711340207%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMcDonald\u0026rsquo;s Omega (\u0026omega;)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.24742268041237%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.216494845360825%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote:\u003c/em\u003e **\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.01, *\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.05.\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e Hyp/Imp = Hyperactivity/Impulsivity; Opp = Oppositionality; ProAgg = Proactive Aggression; ReaAgg = Reactive Aggression; Poor Mon/Sup = Poor Monitoring \u0026amp; Supervision; SNAP-IV = Swanson, Nolan, \u0026amp; Pelham \u0026ndash; IV; PRA = Proactive-Reactive Aggression Scale; CDRS = Conduct Disorder Rating Scale; ARI = Affective Reactivity Index; PROMIS = Patient-Reported Outcome Information System; APQ = Alabama Parenting Questionnaire\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo calculate percentage of youth above clinical cutoffs, \u0026ldquo;mild\u0026rdquo; symptoms present was used for the SNAP-IV (sum scores of \u003cu\u003e\u0026gt;\u003c/u\u003e 13 for hyperactivity/impulsivity and \u003cu\u003e\u0026gt;\u003c/u\u003e 8 for oppositionality). For the CDRS, clinical significance was defined by sum scores \u003cu\u003e\u0026gt;\u003c/u\u003e 15, the ARI was defined by total scores \u003cu\u003e\u0026gt;\u003c/u\u003e 3, and clinical significance for the PROMIS-anger was defined by raw scores \u003cu\u003e\u0026gt;\u003c/u\u003e 15 (T-Score conversion = 60). \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePath Model Results for Models 1-3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"98%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.121212121212121%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.272727272727273%\" colspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eModel 1: Positive Parenting as Predictor\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"28.282828282828284%\" colspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eModel 2: Poor Monitoring/ Supervision as Predictor\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.323232323232325%\" colspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eModel 3: Inconsistent Discipline as Predictor\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.76595744680851%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDependent Variables\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.51063829787234%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStd. b\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.382978723404255%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.382978723404255%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStd. b\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.382978723404255%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.382978723404255%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.51063829787234%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStd. b\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.382978723404255%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.638297872340425%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.76595744680851%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Irritability\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Anger\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; ReaAgg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Hyp/Imp\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Opp\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; ProAgg\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Conduct\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.51063829787234%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.13**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.11**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.11**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;-0.09*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.16**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.24**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;-0.21*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-4.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.382978723404255%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.382978723404255%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.70**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.70**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.72**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.62**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.70**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.90**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.90**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.382978723404255%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.382978723404255%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.51063829787234%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.70**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.73**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.73**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.66**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.73**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.78**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.79**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.382978723404255%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.638297872340425%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.49 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.53 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.01, *\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.05. Models 1-3 estimated each parenting path separately, as a single predictor. The reader should note that in contrast to Tables 5A-5B, \u003cem\u003epredictor\u003c/em\u003e variables are listed across the top, while \u003cem\u003edependent\u003c/em\u003e variables are listed across the left.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eReaAgg = Reactive Aggression; Hyp/Imp = Hyperactivity/Impulsivity; Opp = Oppositionality; ProAgg = Proactive Aggression\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5A\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePath Model Results for Models 4-5 (Part 1 of 2)\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"100%\" colspan=\"13\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDependent Variables\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"26.53061224489796%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.367346938775512%\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIrritability\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.367346938775512%\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnger\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.367346938775512%\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReactive\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAggression\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.367346938775512%\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHyperactivity/\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eImpulsivity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.659574468085108%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePredictor Variables\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStd. b\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp; b\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStd. b\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp; b\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStd. b\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp; b\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStd. b\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp; b\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.659574468085108%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eModel 4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.659574468085108%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.659574468085108%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePoor Monitoring \u0026amp; Supervision\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.40**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.32**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.38**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.24**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.659574468085108%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInconsistent Discipline\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.38**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.47**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.42**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.47**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.659574468085108%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.659574468085108%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eModel 5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.659574468085108%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.659574468085108%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePoor Monitoring \u0026amp; Supervision\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.38**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.31**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.37**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.82\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.659574468085108%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInconsistent Discipline\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.39**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.48**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.43**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.45**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.659574468085108%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParent Gender\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.659574468085108%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParent Age\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.08*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.06*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.659574468085108%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChild Gender\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.659574468085108%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChild Age\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.659574468085108%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.319148936170213%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e: *\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.05, **\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.01. \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003eCovariate. The reader should note that in contrast to Table 4, \u003cem\u003epredictor\u003c/em\u003e variables are listed on the left, while \u003cem\u003edependent\u003c/em\u003e variables are listed across the top. See Figure 4 for a visual representation of this model.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5B\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePath Model Results for Models 4-5 (Part 2 of 2)\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"100%\" colspan=\"10\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Dependent Variables\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"26.53061224489796%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.489795918367346%\" colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOppositionality\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.489795918367346%\" colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProactive\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAggression\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.489795918367346%\" colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConduct\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProblems\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.36842105263158%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePredictor Variables\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStd. b\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp; b\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStd. b\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp; b\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStd. b\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.421052631578947%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp; b\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.315789473684211%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.36842105263158%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eModel 4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.421052631578947%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.315789473684211%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.36842105263158%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.421052631578947%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.315789473684211%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.36842105263158%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePoor Monitoring \u0026amp; Supervision\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.29**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.79**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.78**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.421052631578947%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.315789473684211%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.36842105263158%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInconsistent Discipline\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.49**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.13**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.421052631578947%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.315789473684211%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.36842105263158%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.421052631578947%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.315789473684211%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.36842105263158%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eModel 5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.421052631578947%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.315789473684211%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.36842105263158%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.421052631578947%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.315789473684211%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.36842105263158%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePoor Monitoring \u0026amp; Supervision\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.29**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.79**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.77**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.421052631578947%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.315789473684211%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.36842105263158%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInconsistent Discipline\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.14**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.421052631578947%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.315789473684211%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.36842105263158%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParent Gender\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.421052631578947%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.315789473684211%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.36842105263158%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParent Age\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.05*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.421052631578947%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.315789473684211%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.36842105263158%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChild Gender\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.421052631578947%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.315789473684211%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.36842105263158%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChild Age\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.05*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.421052631578947%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.315789473684211%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.36842105263158%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.82\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.421052631578947%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.315789473684211%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote:\u003c/em\u003e *\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.05, **\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.01. \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003eCovariate. The reader should note that in contrast to Table 4, \u003cem\u003epredictor\u003c/em\u003e variables are listed on the left, while \u003cem\u003edependent\u003c/em\u003e variables are listed across the top. See Figure 1 for a visual representation of this model.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 6\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUncorrected p-values for Moderation Model Interaction Terms\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"center\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"100%\" colspan=\"10\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Dependent Variables\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.473684210526315%\" colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInteraction terms\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(moderator \u0026times; predictor)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"4.2105263157894735%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIrr\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.473684210526315%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnger\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.578947368421053%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReaAgg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.631578947368421%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHyp/Imp\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOpp\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.526315789473685%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProAgg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.368421052631579%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCon\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.970149253731344%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.447761194029852%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.432835820895523%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.417910447761194%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.91044776119403%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.447761194029852%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.925373134328359%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.447761194029852%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.638297872340425%\" rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChild\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.085106382978722%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026times;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ePos Par\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"4.25531914893617%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.090\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.574468085106384%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.040\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.702127659574469%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.76595744680851%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.638297872340425%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\" colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026times;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ePoor Mon\u0026amp;Sup\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.333333333333334%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.080\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.714285714285714%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.095238095238095%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.067\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.285714285714286%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.333333333333334%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.904761904761905%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.333333333333334%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"20.238095238095237%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026times;\u003c/strong\u003e InconsisDisc\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"4.761904761904762%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.333333333333334%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.096\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.714285714285714%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.095238095238095%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.285714285714286%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.333333333333334%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.904761904761905%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.333333333333334%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.638297872340425%\" rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChild\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.085106382978722%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026times;\u003c/strong\u003e Pos Par\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"4.25531914893617%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.574468085106384%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.702127659574469%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.76595744680851%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.638297872340425%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.084\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\" colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026times;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ePoor Mon\u0026amp;Sup\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.333333333333334%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.714285714285714%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.095238095238095%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.285714285714286%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.096\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.333333333333334%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.904761904761905%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.022\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.333333333333334%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.070\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"20.238095238095237%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026times;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eInconsisDisc\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"4.761904761904762%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.333333333333334%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.714285714285714%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.095238095238095%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.285714285714286%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.333333333333334%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.904761904761905%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.045\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.333333333333334%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.638297872340425%\" rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParent\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.085106382978722%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026times;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ePos Par\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"4.25531914893617%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.574468085106384%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.702127659574469%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.76595744680851%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.638297872340425%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.020\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\" colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026times;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ePoor Mon\u0026amp;Sup\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.333333333333334%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.714285714285714%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.095238095238095%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.285714285714286%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.333333333333334%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.904761904761905%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.333333333333334%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"20.238095238095237%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026times;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eInconsisDisc\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"4.761904761904762%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.333333333333334%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.714285714285714%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.095238095238095%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.285714285714286%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.333333333333334%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.904761904761905%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.333333333333334%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.638297872340425%\" rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParent\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.085106382978722%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026times;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ePos Par\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"4.25531914893617%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.574468085106384%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.702127659574469%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.76595744680851%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.638297872340425%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.446808510638298%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\" colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026times;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ePoor Mon\u0026amp;Sup\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.333333333333334%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.067\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.714285714285714%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.095238095238095%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.285714285714286%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.333333333333334%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.904761904761905%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.333333333333334%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"20.238095238095237%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026times;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eInconsisDisc\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"4.761904761904762%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.333333333333334%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.079\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.714285714285714%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.095238095238095%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.285714285714286%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.333333333333334%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.904761904761905%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.333333333333334%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote:\u003c/em\u003e For clarity of presentation, only the p-values associated with interaction term coefficients are presented here, but each moderation model also included the respective demographic variable as well as all 3 parenting variables as predictors. With the Bonferroni adjustment, an uncorrected p-value of \u0026lt;.0024 was required for significance. Thus, all four interaction terms seen here at\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;p\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .05 (child age \u0026times; anger, child gender \u0026times; poor monitoring and supervision, child gender \u0026times; inconsistent discipline, and parent age \u0026times; positive parenting), with \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es = .022 to .045, are not considered statistically significant.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Parenting, Externalizing, Children, Families, Community Survey","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4559598/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4559598/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eAlthough the associations between specific dimensions of parenting behaviors (e.g., inconsistent discipline, poor monitoring/supervision, positive parenting) and youth externalizing problems are well-studied, externalizing constructs have often been measured broadly, imprecisely, or inconsistently. To clarify this picture, we examined the links between parenting behaviors and fine-grained dimensions of externalizing-spectrum problems. Caregiver-report survey data were collected for 576 youths ages 6-14. Path models revealed that poor monitoring/supervision and inconsistent discipline emerged as robust, independent predictors of all seven types of externalizing variables examined; however, the effects of positive parenting were attenuated to non-significance in combined models. These results held when controlling for, and were not moderated by, demographic variables (parent/child age/gender). Findings underscore the importance of parents’ inconsistent discipline and poor monitoring/supervision in accounting for child externalizing problems, while also revealing the consistency of associations with various externalizing-spectrum problems (e.g., irritability, aggression, ODD, ADHD). Replication using multiple methods and informants is needed.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Examining parenting behaviors as predictors of fine-grained dimensions of externalizing psychopathology in youth","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-07-08 17:05:37","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4559598/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"f4dc5a0c-89c9-4765-8364-9a61843aa8ba","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 8th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-07-08T17:05:39+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-07-08 17:05:37","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4559598","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4559598","identity":"rs-4559598","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}