Ecological Risk Assessment of Microplastic Pollution in Surface Water of the Kranji River Basin, Purwokerto, Indonesia

Ecological Risk Assessment of Microplastic Pollution in Surface Water of the Kranji River Basin, Purwokerto, Indonesia | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Ecological Risk Assessment of Microplastic Pollution in Surface Water of the Kranji River Basin, Purwokerto, Indonesia Muhammad Addin Rizaldi This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8334510/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Microplastics are defined as small plastic particles with a diameter of less than 5 mm. The formation of microplastics occurs as a result of the degradation and fragmentation of macroplastics within the environment. This study was conducted in the Kranji river basin located in Banyumas Regency, specifically in Baturraden Subdistrict and East Purwokerto Subdistrict, which are the upstream and downstream points of the river. The findings of the study indicated that the upstream section exhibited lower results in comparison to the downstream section. The results of the microplastic identification process revealed that the detected microplastics manifested as fibres, films, and fragments. The microplastics detected exhibited an average size of 0.5 mm. The colour of microplastics detected included blue, yellow, green, black, red, orange, brown, and transparent. The majority of microplastics identified were black. The findings of the FTIR test indicated that all the microplastic samples that were successfully identified were composed of a polymer known as polyethylene (PE). The results of the study demonstrate that the microplastic pollution risk analysis indicates a location that is both polluted and at medium risk. The analysis results indicate that elevated microplastic pollution levels in the Kranji River may potentially contribute to an escalation in the risk of microplastic-contaminated aquatic environments by 97.6%. A recent study has revealed the presence of microplastics in surface water samples collected from the Kranji River, indicating potential contamination in both the upstream and downstream areas of the river basin Microplastics Pollution Load Index Polymer Hazard Index Surface Water Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction Microplastics are defined as small plastic particles with a diameter of less than 5 mm. The formation of microplastics occurs as a result of the degradation and fragmentation of macroplastics within the environment ( 1 ). One such cause of microplastic formation is ultraviolet radiation from the sun, which has been demonstrated to cause macroplastics to degrade into micro- or nano-sized plastics ( 2 ). Indonesia is a country with a relatively high population density, distributed across a number of provinces from Sabang to Merauke. It is located in the tropics ( 3 ), meaning it experiences a high level of exposure to sunlight, which has the potential to cause the formation of microplastics. A significant proportion of the extant literature concerning the distribution of microplastics in the environment is derived from studies conducted in the open sea and oceans. These studies demonstrate that microplastics are widely distributed in aquatic areas ( 4 – 7 ). The presence of microplastic particles in seawater or oceans can be attributed to various sources, with one significant cause being the contamination of rivers that drain into the sea. A significant proportion of research has been dedicated to the marine environment, with approximately 80% of microplastic pollution in the sea being attributed to transport from rivers to the marine environment ( 8 , 9 ). The sources of microplastic pollution can be traced back to human anthropogenic activities, industry, wastewater disposal, or household activities that flow into rivers ( 10 ). As demonstrated by data obtained from the Indonesian waste management information system, plastic waste is the second most prevalent type of waste, exceeded only by household waste, accounting for 19.55% of the total waste recorded in Indonesia ( 11 ). Central Java Province has been identified as a region with a high rate of waste production, with Banyumas Regency being ranked as the fifth highest producer of waste within the province ( 12 ). Despite the presence of adequate waste management infrastructure in Banyumas Regency, both nationally and within the ASEAN framework, there remains a possibility that some waste may not be adequately managed, thereby contributing to environmental degradation, particularly in river basins. The Kranji River is located in Banyumas Regency. The Kranji River extends from its upper reaches to its lower reaches. The lower reaches of the Kranji River pass through urban areas, rendering it highly susceptible to microplastic contamination. Furthermore, the upper reaches of the Kranji River have gained popularity as a tourist destination and are in close proximity to residential areas. This proximity renders them vulnerable to microplastic contamination from anthropogenic activities The distribution of microplastics in water bodies poses a potential hazard to the environment and aquatic organisms ( 13 ), as previous studies have shown that microplastic particles can be ingested by aquatic organisms if they resemble the colour of their prey ( 13 – 15 ). Our preceding investigations have demonstrated that microplastics have the capacity to contaminate the food chain, encompassing fish, squid, bivalves, and other marine biota ( 16 , 17 ). Furthermore, other studies have demonstrated that MPs have the capacity to readily contaminate organisms inhabiting rivers ( 18 ). Consequently, it is imperative to monitor microplastic pollution in river waters to mitigate microplastic contamination of aquatic organisms, which can adversely impact the health of aquatic environments and the health of communities that consume aquatic organisms. In response to the issue of microplastic pollution on surface water, the present study aims to assess the risk of microplastic pollution in the Kranji River Basin and identify microplastics in the Kranji River Basin, including the distribution of microplastic abundance, shape, size, colour, and type of polymer contained in microplastics. Furthermore, a multi-index risk assessment will be conducted, encompassing the calculation of the Pollution Load Index (PLI), Concentration Factor of Microplastics (CF), and Polymer Hazard Index (PHI). It is recommended that, in the future, this study be utilised as a point of reference in the mitigation of microplastic pollution in river basins. Material and Methods Study Area and collection sampling procedure This study was conducted in the Kranji river basin located in Banyumas Regency, specifically in Baturraden Subdistrict and East Purwokerto Subdistrict, which are the upstream and downstream points of the river (Fig. 1). This study was conducted in both the upstream and downstream areas of the Kranji River in order to represent conditions in both parts of the river. There were six sampling points in total: three upstream and three downstream (see Fig. 2). A range of equipment and materials was used during the sampling process, including a 300-mesh plankton net for microplastic filtration, a 10-L bucket for surface water collection, glass jars for sample storage, and distilled water for rinsing and cleaning all apparatus. Surface water samples were collected using a 10-L bucket and subsequently filtered through the 300-mesh plankton net to retain microplastic particles. Following filtration, the plankton net was thoroughly rinsed with distilled water to ensure complete transfer of the captured materials. The collected samples were then transferred into clean glass jars, which were hermetically sealed to prevent contamination prior to laboratory analysis. Sample preparation and visual observation The preparation and analysis of microplastic samples were performed in accordance with a modified protocol of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) standard, as implemented by the Ecoton Laboratory (Indonesia). Each water sample was treated with approximately 20 mL of a 30% hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) solution to digest organic matter. Subsequently, five drops of a 30% ferrous sulfate (FeSO4) solution were added to act as a catalyst to enhance the oxidation process. The samples were then subjected to an incubation process for a period of approximately 24 hours, with the objective of ensuring complete degradation of the organic components. Subsequent to the process of incubation, the samples were subjected to heating in a water bath for a duration of 30 minutes, with the objective of accelerating the process of digestion. Subsequently, the digested solutions were filtered using a vacuum filtration system to separate microplastic particles from the aqueous phase. The retained residues were then rinsed with a saturated sodium chloride (NaCl) solution to promote density separation, after which they were transferred to clean Petri dishes for further observation. Microscopic examination was conducted using a binocular stereo microscope (40× magnification) equipped with a Ways Sangtid DX-300 digital camera. The identification and classification of microplastic particles was conducted based on their morphological characteristics, encompassing shape, colour, and size. The suspected particles were then subjected to further confirmation through visual inspection under consistent illumination, with the objective of distinguishing them from natural debris or organic fragments. Polymer identification The chemical composition of the isolated microplastic particles was determined by means of a Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer. The present analysis was carried out by the Division of Material Characterisation, Department of Materials Engineering and Metallurgy, Faculty of Industrial Technology and Systems Engineering, Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology (ITS), Surabaya, Indonesia. Prior to measurement, the FTIR spectrophotometer was calibrated and connected to the OMNIC analytical software. Each microplastic particle was meticulously positioned on the FTIR sample holder, and spectra were obtained within the wavenumber range of 400–4000 cm⁻¹. Subsequent to each measurement, the sample holder was meticulously cleaned in order to prevent cross-contamination. The recorded spectra were then transferred automatically to a computer and displayed as transmittance (in percentage form) versus wavenumber (in cm⁻¹). Peaks corresponding to specific functional groups were then compared with reference spectra from the OMNIC polymer library in order to identify the polymer types present in each sample. Quality control To ensure the integrity of sampling equipment and minimize external microplastic contamination, a series of rigorous cleaning and handling procedures were implemented. Prior to sampling, all apparatus were thoroughly rinsed with purified water. Glass jars used for water collection were pre-cleaned with distilled water and immediately sealed to prevent airborne contamination. Sampling buckets were similarly rinsed with purified water and, before field collection, were additionally cleansed three times with river water to eliminate any residual particles. During sampling, precautions were taken to avoid atmospheric deposition; hence, water samples were promptly sealed in airtight glass jars. The sealed samples were subsequently placed in an insulated cool box to maintain sample integrity during transport to the laboratory for further analysis. Abundance of microplastics To determine the abundance of microplastics, the number of detected particles was divided by the total volume of water filtered at each sampling site. The mean abundance and standard deviation for each station were then calculated. The following formula was applied to compute the abundance of microplastics: N = c/n Description: N: Microplastics abundance (Particle/litre) c: Number of microplastics v: volume of filtered water Risk assessment of microplastics pollution The Pollution Load Index (PLI) and Polymer Hazard Index (PHI) were utilised to assess the magnitude of microplastic contamination in the aquatic ecosystem and to estimate the potential ecological risks to flora and fauna. The PLI was employed as an indicator of the overall level of environmental pollution in the study area. In this research, the PLI method was employed to quantify the degree of microplastic contamination in the surface water of the Kranji River. The PLI value at each sampling station was determined based on the concentration factor of microplastic particles (CFi). The PLI was calculated using the following equation: ( 18 ): CF i = C i /C o Description: Ci = concentration of microplastics Co = The mean concentration, or standard concentration, of microplastics is referred to as the Sulistyowati et al. (2022) study ( 19 ). CF i = Concentration factor of Microplastics pollution The level of MP contamination at each sampling site is evaluated by CF by comparing the abundance of MPs to the location exhibiting the least contamination. The formula was utilised in order to calculate pollution hotspots and to assess variations in MP distribution across the river. An elevated CF value is indicative of a higher degree of contamination. ( 20 ). PLI = √CF i The Pollution Load Index (PLI) has been developed as an integrated measure of microplastic (MP) contamination across multiple sampling sites, thereby offering an overall assessment of pollution within the river system. The PLI value > 1 indicates that the environment is polluted, whereas a value < 1 denotes an unpolluted condition. This index is of particular value in understanding the cumulative impact of microplastic pollution within the study area ( 18 ). In order to evaluate the prospective environmental risk pertaining to differing polymer types, the Polymer Hazard Index (PHI) was determined ( 21 , 22 ). The PHI is defined as the product of the proportion of a specific polymer type identified at each sampling site (Pn) and its corresponding hazard score (Sn). The index was computed using the following equation: PHI=∑(Pn​×Sn​) Where Pn is the percentage of each polymer type identified in the samples and Sn is the hazard score for that polymer type, as derived from Lithner et al. ( 21 ). The total PHI value reflects the overall hazard level of microplastic contamination in the study area and can be used to classify the area into different risk categories based on the magnitude of the index. These polymers are categorised into four distinct hazard levels based on their PHI values: Level I (0–10): Low hazard level Level II (10–100): Medium hazard level Level III (100–1000): High hazard level Level IV (> 1000): Extremely high hazard level ( 23 ). Table 2 presents the specific polymer types and their associated hazard scores. Table 2 Polymer Hazard Score and primary hazard statement Polymer Monomer Density Primary hazard statement Score Polyethylene (PE) Ethylene 0.91–0.97 1. Extremely flammable gas 2. Can cause drowsiness or dizziness 11 Polypropylene (PP) Propylene 0.89–0.92 Extremely flammable gas 1 Polystyrene (PS) Styrene 0.28–1.04 1. Flammable liquid and vapour 2. Harmful if inhaled 30 Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) Ethanediol 1.37–1.38 Harmful if swallowed 4 Data analysis tools The data analysis in this study was conducted systematically and rigorously to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the results. Descriptive statistical methods were employed to calculate the mean, range and standard deviation of microplastic (MP) abundance in surface water. QGIS was used for mapping the locations for microplastic sampling in the upper and lower reaches of the Kranji River. Additionally, Smart PLS software was used to examine direct and indirect effect of total MPs pollution, the Pollution Load Index (PLI) and Polymer Hazard Index (PHI). Integrating statistical and spatial analytical techniques provided a comprehensive understanding of MP distribution patterns, supporting the subsequent environmental risk assessment. Results Abundance of Microplastic The research was conducted in two distinct locations: the upper and lower reaches of the river. The upper segment of the river is representative of areas with low density, operating under the assumption that these areas do not contain significant levels of microplastic. In contrast, the lower segment is representative of areas with high density. The geographical area under investigation is comprised of two distinct sections: the upper section is located in the Rempoah region, while the lower section is situated in the Kranji district. The findings of the research are illustrated in Table 1. No Location Abundance of MPs (Particle/Litre) Abundance MPs (Particle/Litre) 1 Kranji Village 1 (Downstream) 1.9 10.4 2 Kranji Village 2 (Downstream) 4.9 3 Kranji Village 3 (Downstream) 3.6 4 Rempoah Village 1 (Upstream) 1.4 7.7 5 Rempoah Village 2 (Upstream) 5.1 6 Rempoah Vilage 3 (Upstream) 1.2 Average abundance of MPs (Particle/Litre) 3.01 The findings of the study indicated that the upstream section exhibited lower results in comparison to the downstream section. The table illustrates that the abundance of microplastics in the upstream section was 7.7 particles/liter, while in the downstream section it was 10.4 particles/liter. The mean microplastic concentration in the upstream and downstream sections was found to be 3.01 particles/liter. Characteristic of Microplastic This study also identified the characteristics of microplastics, namely their shape, size, and colour. The results of the microplastic identification process revealed that the detected microplastics manifested as fibres, films, and fragments. The results of the study are illustrated in Figure 3. As demonstrated in Figure 3A, fibre-shaped MPs are detected more frequently than other shapes. The total number of fibre-shaped MPs detected in the upstream and downstream sections of the river is shown in Figure 3A. The illustration shape of microplastics can see in figure 3D. Furthermore, the study determined the size of microplastics. The microplastics detected exhibited an average size of 0.5 mm. The results of these measurements are illustrated in Figure 1B. Furthermore, the study identified the colours of microplastics. As demonstrated in Figure 1C, the colour of microplastics detected included blue, yellow, green, black, red, orange, brown, and transparent. The majority of microplastics identified were black. Type of Polymer Microplastics The microplastic samples that were identified were then subjected to analysis of their polymer content by means of FTIR. The FTIR test results can be found in Table 2 The findings of the FTIR test indicated that all the microplastic samples that were successfully identified were composed of a polymer known as polyethylene (PE). This polymer is ubiquitous in the environment due to its extensive use as a constituent of plastic bags and myriad other plastic materials that are utilised on a daily basis. Risk Assessment of Microplastic pollution The results of the study demonstrate that the microplastic pollution risk analysis indicates a location that is both polluted and at medium risk. The results of the study are presented in Table 3. Risk Category Location Downstream Upstream PLI 1.526 1.311 Category Polluted Polluted PHI 25.63 18.92 Category Medium Medium As demonstrated in Table 3, a medium PLI score (i.e. >1) indicates that the location is contaminated by microplastics. In contrast, the PHI scores 25.63 and 18.92, which places them within the medium hazard category (Level 2: 10-100 medium hazard level). Direct and indirect effect of MPs Pollution As demonstrated in Figure 4, the smart PLS model is displayed. The PLS algorithm analysis demonstrates that the model exhibits adequate fit, as evidenced by SRMR values falling below 0.08 and NFI scores exceeding 0.90. This finding signifies that the model is both fit and feasible for utilisation. The composite reliability score and Cronbach alpha are indicative of data validity and reliability for advanced analysis, with scores greater than 0.7 indicating such validity and reliability. The findings of the direct effect analysis demonstrate a substantial relationship between elevated microplastic pollution levels and PLI values. The analysis results demonstrate a positive correlation between microplastic pollution levels in the Kranji River and the impact on PLI values, with a 99.7% increase observed in the PLI values. The analysis further demonstrates a significant relationship between the PLI score and the PHI score, indicating that an increase in the PLI score results in a corresponding rise in the PHI value, with a 97.9% direct effect. The indirect effect analysis demonstrates a substantial relationship between microplastic pollution, PLI value, and PHI value. The analysis results demonstrate a positive correlation between microplastic contamination levels in the Kranji River and the PHI value, indicating a 97.6% increase in the PLI value with increasing microplastic contamination. Consequently, the analysis results indicate that elevated microplastic pollution levels in the Kranji River may potentially contribute to an escalation in the risk of microplastic-contaminated aquatic environments by 97.6%. Discussion Microplastics are defined as small plastic particles with a diameter of less than 5 mm ( 24 ). The presence of microplastics has been detected in all environments, including waterways. The presence of microplastics in marine waters can be attributed to the contamination of rivers by microplastics. The presence of microplastic particles in fluvial environments can be attributed to anthropogenic influences, including population density, urbanisation, and land use ( 25 ). The findings of the study demonstrate that the mean abundance of microplastics identified in the upstream and downstream areas is 3.01 particles/liter. The results of this study demonstrate that the downstream area of the Kranji River exhibits a higher abundance of species than the upstream area, which is characterised by its densely populated urban nature. This study corroborates earlier research that identified a correlation between microplastic abundance and rural-urban population density. It has been demonstrated by further studies that urbanisation is a contributing factor to microplastic pollution in rivers. A correlation has been identified between population density and microplastic pollution ( 25 ). Other studies also show that urbanization is a cause of microplastic pollution in rivers, where population density is related to microplastic pollution ( 26 ). In addition, there are several sources of microplastic pollution in rivers, such as industry, agriculture, domestic sewage, and water deposition ( 27 ). This study also succeeded in identifying the characteristics of microplastics. The results of the study demonstrated that the majority of microplastics identified were fibres (Fig. 3A). A further study conducted on rivers in China also demonstrated that the most prevalent form of microplastic identified was fibre ( 28 ). However, a contradictory study was conducted in Japan, which indicated that fragment-shaped microplastics were more frequently identified, while fibres were more commonly identified in mesoplastics (5–25 mm) ( 29 ). However, the majority of microplastics detected in the environment were fibres ( 30 ). Furthermore, the study determined the size of the microplastics detected. The majority of the microplastics identified were of a small size, with a diameter of less than 0.5 mm (see Fig. 3B). As demonstrated in other studies, the size of microplastics identified in water ranges from 0.002 to 0.249 millimetres, with a percentage of 99.81% being small microplastics ( 31 , 32 ). The utilisation of Plankton Nets in the filtration of microplastics from water has been demonstrated to exert an influence on the morphology of the microplastics identified ( 32 ). Nets with smaller mesh sizes have been shown to filter more fibre-shaped microplastic particles, while more fragment-shaped microplastics are able to pass through ( 33 ). A further study demonstrated that nets with a mesh size of 80 micrometers exhibited a higher capacity for filtering fibre-shaped microplastics in comparison to nets with a mesh size of 330 micrometers ( 34 ). The majority of microplastics identified in this study were black, specifically 122 particles, constituting 67% of the total particles identified. This finding aligns with the conclusions of previous studies, which identified a predominance of black microplastics, accounting for 45% of the total particles identified ( 35 ). The black colour of the microplastics found is indicative of the degradation of plastic bags commonly used by the community in their daily activities. The community in the study location predominantly utilises plastic bags in their quotidian activities, such as when shopping, where the bags most commonly employed are black plastic bags. Furthermore, the presence of black microplastics in rivers has been attributed to the friction of motor vehicle tires entering or being discarded into these water bodies. The presence of black microplastics has been observed in various sources, including food packaging, toys, electronic goods, motor vehicle tires, and other potential sources ( 36 ). The microplastics identified in this study were subjected to polymer content analysis using FTIR. The results indicated that all microplastic samples, both upstream and downstream, were identified as polyethylene (PE). As demonstrated by other studies, microplastics identified in surface water and sediment consist of polypropylene, polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, and polyethylene terephthalate ( 37 ). It has been demonstrated by other studies that the types of microplastics which have been identified are generally polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) microplastics. This is because these microplastic polymers are commonly used by the public ( 10 , 37 ). Polyethylene is one of the most prevalent polymers ( 38 ). The results of the microplastic pollution risk analysis demonstrate that the Pollution Load Index (PLI) values in the upstream and downstream areas exceed 1, indicating that the upstream and downstream locations of the Kranji watershed are contaminated by microplastics. The findings of this study are consistent with the results of a study conducted in India, which demonstrated that the PLI value of microplastics in river surface water was > 1, indicating that the river was contaminated with microplastics ( 18 ). The presence of microplastics in a water environment has been demonstrated to cause disruption to the ecosystem inhabiting that water body ( 39 ). The presence of microplastics in the aquatic environment poses a significant threat to the biota inhabiting these ecosystems, as microplastics themselves become a contaminant in the water, potentially affecting the health and well-being of aquatic organisms. In addition to contaminating biota living in aquatic ecosystems, microplastics have been shown to act as vectors for other pollutants, including heavy metals. These pollutants can be harmful if consumed by living creatures ( 40 ). The findings of the polymer hazard index (PHI) analysis indicate that the PHI value remains in the medium category. This outcome is inconsistent with the results of other studies, which have categorised PHI values as 'very dangerous'. The hazard score of the polymer in question, Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), is a critical factor in this regard. With a hazard score of 10001 ( 41 ), PVC exemplifies the influence of polymer type on the overall assessment. In this study, the PHI was found to be low, a phenomenon that can be attributed to the presence of microplastic polymers, specifically polyethylene, which had a hazard score of 11. It is well-documented that microplastics can have detrimental effects on the environment and human health ( 42 ). In order to ascertain the existence of a relationship between the amount of microplastics, PLI score, and PHI, an analysis was conducted using Partial Least Square (PLS). The findings of the analysis demonstrate a substantial correlation between the quantity of microplastics detected in the water area and the PLI score. Furthermore, a significant relationship is observed between PLI and PHI (p value = 0.000). Furthermore, an indirect effect analysis was conducted to ascertain the indirect effects that influence PHI. The findings indicated that the presence of microplastics in water bodies can exert a significant influence on the PHI value through the PLI mechanism by up to 97.6%, thereby underscoring the indirect impact of MPs on the escalation of PHI values or PHI levels in contaminated environments. However, other research results have indicated that the type of polymer is a determining factor for high PHI values. In this regard, PE, PP, PS, and PET polymers, despite having a higher proportion or quantity, have lower PHI scores ( 43 ). The types of microplastic polymers identified in water bodies have been shown to play a role in the level of danger of exposure to humans. A number of studies have demonstrated that PE and PET MPs have the capacity to augment reactive oxidative stress (ROS), which can result in health complications including dementia and immune system disorders ( 44 – 46 ). Limitation study The present study is subject to certain limitations; it is only able to identify microplastics and calculate the potential for microplastic pollution and the associated dangers. However, the potential dangers of microplastic pollution remain to be fully elucidated; further research is thus required to ascertain the full extent of the threat to the environment, aquatic ecosystems and public health. Conclusions A recent study has revealed the presence of microplastics in surface water samples collected from the Kranji River, indicating potential contamination in both the upstream and downstream areas of the river basin. The microplastics detected in this study exhibited an abundance of 3.01 particles/liter, with the identified microplastic particles characterised by their notably diminutive size, measuring less than 0.5 millimetres. The majority of the microplastics identified were black in colour, and the most prevalent shapes were fibres, fragments, and films, with fibres being predominant. This study also analysed the polymer content of microplastics, with the results indicating that the identified polymer was polyethylene (PE). In order to ascertain the extent of microplastic pollution and its associated dangers, an analysis of the Pollution Load Index (PLI) and Polymer Hazard (PHI) was also conducted. The Pollution Load Index (PLI) calculation results indicated that the PLI value obtained was greater than 1, thereby suggesting that the river basin had been contaminated with microplastics. In addition, the PHI calculation results demonstrated that the river basin was assigned to a medium or level 2 hazard category. In this study, the PLI and PHI can be influenced by the amount of microplastics identified. The direct effect analysis results demonstrate that the quantity of microplastics identified exhibits a substantial correlation with the PLI, with the potential to augment the PLI by 99.7%. The findings of the direct effect analysis demonstrate a substantial correlation between the PLI and the PHI outcomes, indicating that the PLI has the capacity to augment the PHI by up to 97.9%. Meanwhile, the results of the indirect effect analysis demonstrate that the quantity of microplastics identified has the capacity to exert an indirect influence on the PHI value through PLI. This suggests that the amount of microplastics can affect PHI through PLI by 97.6%. Declarations Author contributions MAR : Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing- Original draft; KA: Data Collection, investigation; YSV: Data Collection and Investigation; APM: Data Collection; AFN: Data Collection RPJ: Data Collection AK: Data Collection ; RAz: Supervisor and correction draft Acknowledgements The Author wishes to express their gratitude to Jenderal Soedirman University for their financial support of this research project. References Daud A (2020) Dampak Lingkungan dan Kesehatan Mikroplastik dan Nanoplastik, 1st edn. Gosyen Publishing, Sleman Burrows S, Colwell J, Costanzo S, Kaserzon S, Okoffo E, Ribeiro F et al (2024) UV sources and plastic composition influence microplastic surface degradation: Implications for plastic weathering studies. J Hazard Mater Adv [Internet]. ;14:100428. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2772416624000299 Azizah R, Martini S, Sulistyorini L, Mahmudah, Pawitra AS, Nagari SS et al (2021) Association between climatic conditions, population density and covid-19 in indonesia. Sains Malaysiana 50(3):879–887 Collignon A, Hecq JH, Galgani F, Collard F, Goffart A (2014) Annual variation in neustonic micro- and meso-plastic particles and zooplankton in the Bay of Calvi (Mediterranean-Corsica). Mar Pollut Bull [Internet]. ;79(1–2):293–8. Available from: https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84893847451&doi=10.1016%2Fj.marpolbul.2013.11.023&partnerID=40&md5=7754 fae5f5fdea62780535dafea7e71d Doyle MJ, Watson W, Bowlin NM, Sheavly SB (2011) Plastic particles in coastal pelagic ecosystems of the Northeast Pacific ocean. Mar Environ Res 71(1):41 Law KL, Moret-Ferguson S, Maximenko NA, Proskurowski G, Peacock EE, Hafner J et al (2010) Plastic accumulation in the North Atlantic subtropical gyre. Sci (80-) 329(5996):1185 Moore CJ, Moore SL, Leecaster MK, Weisberg SB (2001) A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Mar Pollut Bull 42(12):1297 Rochman CM (2020) From the Distant Ocean Gyres to the Global Policy Stage. Oceanography [Internet]. ;33(3):60–70. Available from: https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2020.308 He W, Huang J, Liu S, Shi L, Li E, Hu J et al (2025) Co-occurrence of microplastics and heavy metals to urban river sediments: The vertical distribution characterization and comprehensive ecological risk assessment. J Hazard Mater [Internet]. ;488. Available from: https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85216923245&doi=10.1016%2Fj.jhazmat.2025.137500&partnerID=40&md5=8af2c5cce2932feead47d8f84fd623a0 Liu Z, Bai Y, Zhao X, Liu X, Wei H, Wei M et al (2024) Contributions from typical sources to microplastics in surface water of a semiarid urban river. J Hazard Mater [Internet]. ;478:135570. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304389424021496 Kementerian Lingkungan Hidup. Sistem Informasi Pengelolaan Sampah Nasional (SIPSN) (2024) [cited 2025 Oct 9]. Waste Composition. Available from: https://sipsn.kemenlh.go.id/sipsn/public/data/komposisi Kementerian Lingkungan Hidup. Sistem Informasi Pengelolaan Sampah Nasional (SIPSN) (2024) Waste Generation. Available from: https://sipsn.kemenlh.go.id/sipsn/public/data/timbulan Xu P, Peng G, Su L, Gao Y, Gao L, Li D (2018) Microplastic risk assessment in surface waters: A case study in the Changjiang Estuary, China. Mar Pollut Bull [Internet]. ;133:647–54. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X1830417X Laurier F, Mason R (2007) Mercury concentration and speciation in the coastal and open ocean boundary layer. J Geophys Res Atmos [Internet]. ;112(D6). Available from: https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JD007320 Cera A, Secco S, Matarazzi I, Orsini M, De Santis S, Scalici M (2025) Ingestion of prey intensifies microplastic load in Mediterranean commercial fish. Cont Shelf Res [Internet]. ;292:105496. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278434325000962 Rizaldi MA, Azizah R, Sulistyorini L, Ali K (2025) Environmental health risk analysis of microplastics due to consumption of squid and mussels at coastal area. Environ Anal Heal Toxicol 40(1):e2025009–e2025000 Sulistyorini L, Arfiani ND, Rizaldi MA, Lutpiatina L, Samad NIA (2024) Assessment of Microplastic Pollution in Fresh Fish and Pindang Fish and its Potential Health Hazards in Coastal Communities of Banyuwangi Regency, Indonesia. Nat Environ Pollut Technol [Internet]. ;23(3):1671–6. Available from: https://doi.org/10.46488/NEPT.2024.v23i03.038 Rahman MH, Izlal S, Islam T, Ruhad FM, Jahin A, Islam MR et al (2025) Occurrence and risk assessment of microplastics in surface water, sediment, and biota of Surma River, Bangladesh. J Contam Hydrol [Internet]. ;273(May):104620. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconhyd.2025.104620 Sulistyowati L, Nurhasanah, Riani E, Cordova MR (2022) The occurrence and abundance of microplastics in surface water of the midstream and downstream of the Cisadane River, Indonesia. Vol. 291, Chemosphere. p. 133071 Amrutha K, Shajikumar S, Warrier AK, Sebastian JG, Sali YA, Chandran T et al (2023) Assessment of pollution and risks associated with microplastics in the riverine sediments of the Western Ghats: a heritage site in southern India. Environ Sci Pollut Res [Internet]. ;30(12):32301–19. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-24437-z Lithner D, Larsson A, Dave G (2011) Environmental and health hazard ranking and assessment of plastic polymers based on chemical composition. Sci Total Environ 409(18):3309 Ranjani M, Veerasingam S, Venkatachalapathy R, Mugilarasan M, Bagaev A, Mukhanov V et al (2021) Assessment of potential ecological risk of microplastics in the coastal sediments of India: A meta-analysis. Mar Pollut Bull [Internet]. ;163:111969. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X21000035 Ali MR, Anisuzzaman M, Lipi JA, Riya KK, Arai T, Ngah N et al (2025) Ecological risk profiling of microplastic load in commercial aquaculture of Bangladesh: A multi-approach analysis across species-specific ponds. J Environ Chem Eng [Internet]. ;13(5):118380. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213343725030763 Aulia A, Azizah R, Sulistyorini L, Rizaldi MA (2023) Literature Review: Dampak Mikroplastik Terhadap Lingkungan Pesisir, Biota Laut dan Potensi Risiko Kesehatan. J Kesehat Lingkung Indones 22(3):328–341 Kunz A, Schneider F, Anthony N, Lin HT (2023) Microplastics in rivers along an urban-rural gradient in an urban agglomeration: Correlation with land use, potential sources and pathways. Environ Pollut [Internet]. ;321(January):121096. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121096 Gutiérrez-Rial D, Villar I, Álvarez-Troncoso R, Soto B, Mato S, Garrido J (2024) Assessment of Microplastic Pollution in River Ecosystems: Effect of Land Use and Biotic Indices. Vol. 16, Water. p. 1369 Li Y, Lu Q, Yang J, Xing Y, Ling W, Liu K et al (2023) The fate of microplastic pollution in the Changjiang River estuary: A review. J Clean Prod [Internet]. ;425:138970. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652623031281 Akdogan Z, Guven B, Kideys AE (2023) Microplastic distribution in the surface water and sediment of the Ergene River. Environ Res [Internet]. ;234:116500. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S001393512301304X Nihei Y, Ota H, Tanaka M, Kataoka T, Kashiwada J (2024) Comparison of concentration, shape, and polymer composition between microplastics and mesoplastics in Japanese river waters. Water Res [Internet]. ;249:120979. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0043135423014197 Ali AAM, Khalid AA, Razak NIA, Maulana NSM, Roslan NS, Razmi RSB et al (2024) A review on the presence of microplastics in environmental matrices within Southeast Asia: elucidating risk information through an analysis of microplastic characteristics such as size, shape, and type. Water Emerg Contam Nanoplastics [Internet]. ;3(2):12. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.20517/wecn.2023.73 Kerubo JO, Onyari JM, Muthumbi AWN, Andersson DR, Kimani EN (2022) Microplastic Polymers in Surface Waters and Sediments in the Creeks Along the Kenya Coast, Western Indian Ocean (WIO). Eur J Sustain Dev Res 6(1):1–15 Nyaga MP, Shabaka S, Oh S, Osman DM, Yuan W, Zhang W et al (2024) Microplastics in aquatic ecosystems of Africa: A comprehensive review and meta-analysis. Environ Res [Internet]. ;248:118307. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935124002111 Razeghi N, Hamidian AH, Wu C, Zhang Y, Yang M (2021) Microplastic sampling techniques in freshwaters and sediments: a review. Environ Chem Lett [Internet]. ;19(6):4225–52. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-021-01227-6 Wagner M, Lambert S (2018) Freshwater Microplastics - The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry 58 [Internet]. 302 p. Available from: http://www.springer.com/series/698 Flores-Cortés M, Armstrong-Altrin JS (2022) Textural characteristics and abundance of microplastics in Tecolutla beach sediments, Gulf of Mexico. Environ Monit Assess [Internet]. ;194(10):752. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-022-10447-4 Huang Y, Xu EG (2022) Black microplastic in plastic pollution: undetected and underestimated? Water Emerg Contam Nanoplastics 1(3):1–7 Huang D, Li X, Ouyang Z, Zhao X, Wu R, Zhang C et al (2021) The occurrence and abundance of microplastics in surface water and sediment of the West River downstream, in the south of China. Sci Total Environ [Internet]. ;756:143857. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969720373885 Bouadil O, Benomar M, El Ouarghi H, Aboulhassan MA, Benbrahim S (2024) Identification and quantification of microplastics in surface water of a southwestern Mediterranean Bay (Al Hoceima, Morocco). Waste Manag Bull [Internet]. ;2(1):142–51. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2949750724000038 Jaikumar IM, Tomson M, Meyyazhagan A, Balamuralikrishnan B, Baskaran R, Pappuswamy M et al (2025) A comprehensive review of microplastic pollution in freshwater and marine environments. Green Anal Chem [Internet]. ;12:100202. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2772577424001113 Sharma S, Bhardwaj A, Thakur M, Saini A (2024) Understanding microplastic pollution of marine ecosystem: a review. Environ Sci Pollut Res [Internet]. ;31(29):41402–45. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-28314-1 Islam N, Akter F, Hossen MY, Bhuiyan T, Siddique MAM (2025) Microplastic pollution in the Jamuna River, Bangladesh: Abundance, polymer types, characteristics, and sources in riverbank and riverbed sediments. J Hazard Mater Plast [Internet]. ;1:100006. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S305106002500006X Karami A, Golieskardi A, Choo CK, Romano N, Ho Y, Bin, Salamatinia B (2017) A high-performance protocol for extraction of microplastics in fish. Sci Total Environ [Internet]. ;578:485–94. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.10.213 Yang H, Sun F, Liao H, Guo Y, Pan T, Wu F (2023) The pollution of microplastics in sediments of the Yangtze River Basin: Occurrence, distribution characteristics, and basin-scale multilevel ecological risk assessment. Water Res [Internet]. ;243:120322. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0043135423007583 Nihart AJ, Garcia MA, El Hayek E, Liu R, Olewine M, Kingston JD et al (2025) Bioaccumulation of microplastics in decedent human brains. Nat Med [Internet]. ; Available from: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-024-03453-1 Gecegelen E, Ucdal M, Dogu BB (2025) A novel risk factor for dementia: chronic microplastic exposure. Front Neurol 16(May):1–10 Yu YB, Choi JH, Choi CY, Kang JC, Kim JH (2023) Toxic effects of microplastic (polyethylene) exposure: Bioaccumulation, hematological parameters and antioxidant responses in crucian carp, Carassius carassius. Chemosphere [Internet]. ;138801. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0045653523010688 Table Table 2 is available in the Supplementary Files section Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Supplementary Files Table2.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8334510","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":558702415,"identity":"588e81a7-6aa9-46a4-9f37-aecbf7cc6b21","order_by":0,"name":"Muhammad Addin Rizaldi","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4280-5176","institution":"Universitas Jenderal Soedirman","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Muhammad","middleName":"Addin","lastName":"Rizaldi","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-12-11 08:49:25","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":true,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true,"humanSubjectConsent":true,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8334510/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8334510/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":98426900,"identity":"cdb11292-466f-4f3b-82f7-2fa308e769ac","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:39:00","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":1398329,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"ManuscriptEcologicalRiskAssessmentofMicroplastics.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/dced6b66fe92bf996e47cbe8.docx"},{"id":98044498,"identity":"6ef0fe8f-bba8-4d62-bc2a-5eb09f18f7e0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-12 07:55:56","extension":"json","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":342,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"rs8334510.json","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/181bc2daf98a5a4df1ff5823.json"},{"id":98427070,"identity":"f0b11ab9-d57a-43aa-9161-cdf768d4d099","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:39:28","extension":"xml","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":116763,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"rs83345100enriched.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/fda2f2d69ee02bdd84a71780.xml"},{"id":98428470,"identity":"e230bc8e-b832-487f-b74a-bafb337fc607","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:42:02","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":428391,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/e9ca84d8a400c59452e8ef69.jpeg"},{"id":98427297,"identity":"d7dafae4-15bb-4837-8562-1404c4a04a65","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:40:04","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":8138,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/337f548ebb4abe90513c8c08.png"},{"id":98044501,"identity":"8667e710-e7e9-41aa-b43a-b738ae93ff5d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-12 07:55:56","extension":"jpeg","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":443297,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/72f13f3114b5f6d046cef54f.jpeg"},{"id":98044510,"identity":"1970b7b8-b45e-4194-8818-047d4e70924b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-12 07:55:56","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":347559,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/b62bc59a5026531cc9c6d75b.png"},{"id":98044506,"identity":"1c540892-4c6f-4b53-9271-8995dfd084e4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-12 07:55:56","extension":"emf","order_by":7,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":74968,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.emf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/33ad4b4181d4524956ed2de2.emf"},{"id":98044504,"identity":"9bb9e1f5-6317-4644-a4fe-33fddfe9ae5b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-12 07:55:56","extension":"emf","order_by":8,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":71360,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.emf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/2fa67151c0cd75fd285ab407.emf"},{"id":98044523,"identity":"aab79d01-c535-4a51-b189-dc1746e72896","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-12 07:55:56","extension":"emf","order_by":9,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":71524,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.emf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/9d53de284f4175ef6545c7e5.emf"},{"id":98044519,"identity":"01e95d07-14d7-42fd-861d-9ebc955447b3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-12 07:55:56","extension":"emf","order_by":10,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":70096,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.emf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/585951538eee963760fc7d1a.emf"},{"id":98428114,"identity":"3a35519e-02bc-4afb-8955-0ff682ddfc5e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:41:36","extension":"emf","order_by":11,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":83156,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.emf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/d823bd1715a47c09060582c4.emf"},{"id":98427509,"identity":"d330b5c1-2298-4ed9-9f36-f4e179bfb654","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:40:36","extension":"emf","order_by":12,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":71472,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage9.emf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/d9413813f4318cf6efe03ade.emf"},{"id":98427276,"identity":"710c7bb9-1b3d-4e6e-8dac-80511c395ade","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:40:03","extension":"png","order_by":13,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":266166,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/11ddaabff0896ad0cd8e8e80.png"},{"id":98044502,"identity":"8f9e2492-16be-4b28-99db-22533dd0df34","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-12 07:55:56","extension":"png","order_by":14,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":2745,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/4106cc0b1fa703c27fc24598.png"},{"id":98428103,"identity":"28edd81b-b521-499e-923b-05c5e2806dbb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:41:36","extension":"png","order_by":15,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":300179,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/bbb262e87de0bac9af54095a.png"},{"id":98427365,"identity":"a2488b61-bd36-4739-a76e-6bfa5c025106","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:40:15","extension":"png","order_by":16,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":63187,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/654b3ba5697cf43d2a2478cd.png"},{"id":98044514,"identity":"cf2bf4fa-8805-4f89-990d-90ce888c6cde","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-12 07:55:56","extension":"png","order_by":17,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":34986,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/67eba0aa240bdee9441a0527.png"},{"id":98427063,"identity":"3383259b-1a87-4c0b-98c8-7c226c19aedf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:39:25","extension":"png","order_by":18,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":33989,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/daa33211dda686ffd319260b.png"},{"id":98427959,"identity":"71db3ab8-7492-4511-8b9d-caff9b474282","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:41:26","extension":"png","order_by":19,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":33781,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/5753d23e21591c6a784bce4e.png"},{"id":98044517,"identity":"895f56c6-ecd6-44e8-850e-5e2200f14e4b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-12 07:55:56","extension":"png","order_by":20,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":33100,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/adbdbf31cc70e2fbc0b91130.png"},{"id":98427936,"identity":"2e36e87e-af9b-42be-8ed7-7b95f637f6e8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:41:21","extension":"png","order_by":21,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":35828,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/20a7b14eec6a30f1d8832582.png"},{"id":98427017,"identity":"1ab52d3a-dded-4e88-b1a8-bf977206d0cd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:39:15","extension":"png","order_by":22,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":33858,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/9d9bdabe8d65ce18666d77b1.png"},{"id":98044521,"identity":"52db6f53-89bb-467c-8f2b-cf0e00cacb13","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-12 07:55:56","extension":"xml","order_by":23,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":114381,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"rs83345100structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/2cc3c0d6922ae3393b6b68f2.xml"},{"id":98427115,"identity":"0c95d1db-f1db-4e0d-9c16-0579727c634a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:39:37","extension":"html","order_by":24,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":127808,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/f3487adc0914d52dcd8628ed.html"},{"id":98425462,"identity":"bd055bae-826d-4a01-9447-b18b7f92fd34","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:34:49","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":355332,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFigure legend not provided with this version\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/4dc54b3b9fc157b1a1cf9d4d.png"},{"id":98044495,"identity":"8360d342-f7d5-4461-8d00-6c50e9d7adee","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-12 07:55:56","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":419567,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFigure legend not provided with this version\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/15685e8249201d18d2780377.png"},{"id":98427131,"identity":"390e90f7-b393-4344-8ce3-ea7955b1d736","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:39:41","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":147339,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFigure legend not provided with this version\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/820972b3630159e05bf7bc01.png"},{"id":98044496,"identity":"8f5191b8-b60a-4614-83d7-03d5b35909af","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-12 07:55:56","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":16109,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFigure legend not provided with this version\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/01d46f1573233c8a27e35ca3.png"},{"id":98444731,"identity":"f8c4cf47-4ec7-477f-9381-f2adeca422c8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 17:17:10","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1481046,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/b256e9d7-ad9e-43aa-85b8-d912a513efd5.pdf"},{"id":98044492,"identity":"51437a48-c11f-45b5-abb7-04f9d5554b73","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-12 07:55:56","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":97614,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Table2.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8334510/v1/68f0f859364a964baf739b95.docx"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eEcological Risk Assessment of Microplastic Pollution in Surface Water of the Kranji River Basin, Purwokerto, Indonesia\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eMicroplastics are defined as small plastic particles with a diameter of less than 5 mm. The formation of microplastics occurs as a result of the degradation and fragmentation of macroplastics within the environment (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). One such cause of microplastic formation is ultraviolet radiation from the sun, which has been demonstrated to cause macroplastics to degrade into micro- or nano-sized plastics (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Indonesia is a country with a relatively high population density, distributed across a number of provinces from Sabang to Merauke. It is located in the tropics (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), meaning it experiences a high level of exposure to sunlight, which has the potential to cause the formation of microplastics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA significant proportion of the extant literature concerning the distribution of microplastics in the environment is derived from studies conducted in the open sea and oceans. These studies demonstrate that microplastics are widely distributed in aquatic areas (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR5 CR6\" citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). The presence of microplastic particles in seawater or oceans can be attributed to various sources, with one significant cause being the contamination of rivers that drain into the sea. A significant proportion of research has been dedicated to the marine environment, with approximately 80% of microplastic pollution in the sea being attributed to transport from rivers to the marine environment (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). The sources of microplastic pollution can be traced back to human anthropogenic activities, industry, wastewater disposal, or household activities that flow into rivers (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs demonstrated by data obtained from the Indonesian waste management information system, plastic waste is the second most prevalent type of waste, exceeded only by household waste, accounting for 19.55% of the total waste recorded in Indonesia (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e). Central Java Province has been identified as a region with a high rate of waste production, with Banyumas Regency being ranked as the fifth highest producer of waste within the province (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e). Despite the presence of adequate waste management infrastructure in Banyumas Regency, both nationally and within the ASEAN framework, there remains a possibility that some waste may not be adequately managed, thereby contributing to environmental degradation, particularly in river basins.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Kranji River is located in Banyumas Regency. The Kranji River extends from its upper reaches to its lower reaches. The lower reaches of the Kranji River pass through urban areas, rendering it highly susceptible to microplastic contamination. Furthermore, the upper reaches of the Kranji River have gained popularity as a tourist destination and are in close proximity to residential areas. This proximity renders them vulnerable to microplastic contamination from anthropogenic activities\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe distribution of microplastics in water bodies poses a potential hazard to the environment and aquatic organisms (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e), as previous studies have shown that microplastic particles can be ingested by aquatic organisms if they resemble the colour of their prey (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR14\" citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e). Our preceding investigations have demonstrated that microplastics have the capacity to contaminate the food chain, encompassing fish, squid, bivalves, and other marine biota (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, other studies have demonstrated that MPs have the capacity to readily contaminate organisms inhabiting rivers (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, it is imperative to monitor microplastic pollution in river waters to mitigate microplastic contamination of aquatic organisms, which can adversely impact the health of aquatic environments and the health of communities that consume aquatic organisms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn response to the issue of microplastic pollution on surface water, the present study aims to assess the risk of microplastic pollution in the Kranji River Basin and identify microplastics in the Kranji River Basin, including the distribution of microplastic abundance, shape, size, colour, and type of polymer contained in microplastics. Furthermore, a multi-index risk assessment will be conducted, encompassing the calculation of the Pollution Load Index (PLI), Concentration Factor of Microplastics (CF), and Polymer Hazard Index (PHI). It is recommended that, in the future, this study be utilised as a point of reference in the mitigation of microplastic pollution in river basins.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Material and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eStudy Area and collection sampling procedure\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted in the Kranji river basin located in Banyumas Regency, specifically in Baturraden Subdistrict and East Purwokerto Subdistrict, which are the upstream and downstream points of the river (Fig.\u0026nbsp;1).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted in both the upstream and downstream areas of the Kranji River in order to represent conditions in both parts of the river. There were six sampling points in total: three upstream and three downstream (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;2).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA range of equipment and materials was used during the sampling process, including a 300-mesh plankton net for microplastic filtration, a 10-L bucket for surface water collection, glass jars for sample storage, and distilled water for rinsing and cleaning all apparatus. Surface water samples were collected using a 10-L bucket and subsequently filtered through the 300-mesh plankton net to retain microplastic particles. Following filtration, the plankton net was thoroughly rinsed with distilled water to ensure complete transfer of the captured materials. The collected samples were then transferred into clean glass jars, which were hermetically sealed to prevent contamination prior to laboratory analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample preparation and visual observation\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe preparation and analysis of microplastic samples were performed in accordance with a modified protocol of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) standard, as implemented by the Ecoton Laboratory (Indonesia). Each water sample was treated with approximately 20 mL of a 30% hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) solution to digest organic matter. Subsequently, five drops of a 30% ferrous sulfate (FeSO4) solution were added to act as a catalyst to enhance the oxidation process. The samples were then subjected to an incubation process for a period of approximately 24 hours, with the objective of ensuring complete degradation of the organic components.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubsequent to the process of incubation, the samples were subjected to heating in a water bath for a duration of 30 minutes, with the objective of accelerating the process of digestion. Subsequently, the digested solutions were filtered using a vacuum filtration system to separate microplastic particles from the aqueous phase. The retained residues were then rinsed with a saturated sodium chloride (NaCl) solution to promote density separation, after which they were transferred to clean Petri dishes for further observation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMicroscopic examination was conducted using a binocular stereo microscope (40\u0026times; magnification) equipped with a Ways Sangtid DX-300 digital camera. The identification and classification of microplastic particles was conducted based on their morphological characteristics, encompassing shape, colour, and size. The suspected particles were then subjected to further confirmation through visual inspection under consistent illumination, with the objective of distinguishing them from natural debris or organic fragments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolymer identification\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe chemical composition of the isolated microplastic particles was determined by means of a Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer. The present analysis was carried out by the Division of Material Characterisation, Department of Materials Engineering and Metallurgy, Faculty of Industrial Technology and Systems Engineering, Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology (ITS), Surabaya, Indonesia.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrior to measurement, the FTIR spectrophotometer was calibrated and connected to the OMNIC analytical software. Each microplastic particle was meticulously positioned on the FTIR sample holder, and spectra were obtained within the wavenumber range of 400\u0026ndash;4000 cm⁻\u0026sup1;. Subsequent to each measurement, the sample holder was meticulously cleaned in order to prevent cross-contamination. The recorded spectra were then transferred automatically to a computer and displayed as transmittance (in percentage form) versus wavenumber (in cm⁻\u0026sup1;). Peaks corresponding to specific functional groups were then compared with reference spectra from the OMNIC polymer library in order to identify the polymer types present in each sample.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuality control\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo ensure the integrity of sampling equipment and minimize external microplastic contamination, a series of rigorous cleaning and handling procedures were implemented. Prior to sampling, all apparatus were thoroughly rinsed with purified water. Glass jars used for water collection were pre-cleaned with distilled water and immediately sealed to prevent airborne contamination. Sampling buckets were similarly rinsed with purified water and, before field collection, were additionally cleansed three times with river water to eliminate any residual particles. During sampling, precautions were taken to avoid atmospheric deposition; hence, water samples were promptly sealed in airtight glass jars. The sealed samples were subsequently placed in an insulated cool box to maintain sample integrity during transport to the laboratory for further analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbundance of microplastics\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo determine the abundance of microplastics, the number of detected particles was divided by the total volume of water filtered at each sampling site. The mean abundance and standard deviation for each station were then calculated. The following formula was applied to compute the abundance of microplastics:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;c/n\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescription:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eN: Microplastics abundance (Particle/litre)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ec: Number of microplastics\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ev: volume of filtered water\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRisk assessment of microplastics pollution\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Pollution Load Index (PLI) and Polymer Hazard Index (PHI) were utilised to assess the magnitude of microplastic contamination in the aquatic ecosystem and to estimate the potential ecological risks to flora and fauna. The PLI was employed as an indicator of the overall level of environmental pollution in the study area. In this research, the PLI method was employed to quantify the degree of microplastic contamination in the surface water of the Kranji River. The PLI value at each sampling station was determined based on the concentration factor of microplastic particles (CFi). The PLI was calculated using the following equation: (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e):\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCF\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e = C\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e/C\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescription:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCi\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;concentration of microplastics\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCo\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;The mean concentration, or standard concentration, of microplastics is referred to as the Sulistyowati et al. (2022) study (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCF\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e = Concentration factor of Microplastics pollution\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe level of MP contamination at each sampling site is evaluated by CF by comparing the abundance of MPs to the location exhibiting the least contamination. The formula was utilised in order to calculate pollution hotspots and to assess variations in MP distribution across the river. An elevated CF value is indicative of a higher degree of contamination. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePLI = \u0026radic;CF\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Pollution Load Index (PLI) has been developed as an integrated measure of microplastic (MP) contamination across multiple sampling sites, thereby offering an overall assessment of pollution within the river system. The PLI value\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1 indicates that the environment is polluted, whereas a value\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1 denotes an unpolluted condition. This index is of particular value in understanding the cumulative impact of microplastic pollution within the study area (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn order to evaluate the prospective environmental risk pertaining to differing polymer types, the Polymer Hazard Index (PHI) was determined (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e). The PHI is defined as the product of the proportion of a specific polymer type identified at each sampling site (Pn) and its corresponding hazard score (Sn). The index was computed using the following equation:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePHI=\u0026sum;(Pn​\u0026times;Sn​)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere Pn is the percentage of each polymer type identified in the samples and Sn is the hazard score for that polymer type, as derived from Lithner et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e). The total PHI value reflects the overall hazard level of microplastic contamination in the study area and can be used to classify the area into different risk categories based on the magnitude of the index. These polymers are categorised into four distinct hazard levels based on their PHI values: Level I (0\u0026ndash;10): Low hazard level Level II (10\u0026ndash;100): Medium hazard level Level III (100\u0026ndash;1000): High hazard level Level IV (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1000): Extremely high hazard level (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e presents the specific polymer types and their associated hazard scores.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolymer Hazard Score and primary hazard statement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolymer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMonomer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDensity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimary hazard statement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScore\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolyethylene (PE)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthylene\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.91\u0026ndash;0.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Extremely flammable gas\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Can cause drowsiness or dizziness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolypropylene (PP)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePropylene\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.89\u0026ndash;0.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExtremely flammable gas\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolystyrene (PS)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStyrene\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28\u0026ndash;1.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Flammable liquid and vapour\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Harmful if inhaled\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolyethylene terephthalate (PET)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthanediol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.37\u0026ndash;1.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHarmful if swallowed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eData analysis tools\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data analysis in this study was conducted systematically and rigorously to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the results. Descriptive statistical methods were employed to calculate the mean, range and standard deviation of microplastic (MP) abundance in surface water. QGIS was used for mapping the locations for microplastic sampling in the upper and lower reaches of the Kranji River. Additionally, Smart PLS software was used to examine direct and indirect effect of total MPs pollution, the Pollution Load Index (PLI) and Polymer Hazard Index (PHI). Integrating statistical and spatial analytical techniques provided a comprehensive understanding of MP distribution patterns, supporting the subsequent environmental risk assessment.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eAbundance of Microplastic\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe research was conducted in two distinct locations: the upper and lower reaches of the river. The upper segment of the river is representative of areas with low density, operating under the assumption that these areas do not contain significant levels of microplastic. In contrast, the lower segment is representative of areas with high density. The geographical area under investigation is comprised of two distinct sections: the upper section is located in the Rempoah region, while the lower section is situated in the Kranji district. The findings of the research are illustrated in Table 1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"567\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNo\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 221px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLocation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAbundance of MPs (Particle/Litre)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAbundance MPs (Particle/Litre)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 221px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKranji Village 1 (Downstream)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 221px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKranji Village 2 (Downstream)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 221px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKranji Village 3 (Downstream)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 221px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRempoah Village 1 (Upstream)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 221px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRempoah Village 2 (Upstream)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 221px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRempoah Vilage 3 (Upstream)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 221px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAverage abundance of MPs (Particle/Litre)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings of the study indicated that the upstream section exhibited lower results in comparison to the downstream section. The table illustrates that the abundance of microplastics in the upstream section was 7.7 particles/liter, while in the downstream section it was 10.4 particles/liter. The mean microplastic concentration in the upstream and downstream sections was found to be 3.01 particles/liter.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCharacteristic of Microplastic\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study also identified the characteristics of microplastics, namely their shape, size, and colour. The results of the microplastic identification process revealed that the detected microplastics manifested as fibres, films, and fragments. The results of the study are illustrated in Figure 3. As demonstrated in Figure 3A, fibre-shaped MPs are detected more frequently than other shapes. The total number of fibre-shaped MPs detected in the upstream and downstream sections of the river is shown in Figure 3A. The illustration shape of microplastics can see in figure 3D.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the study determined the size of microplastics. The microplastics detected exhibited an average size of 0.5 mm. The results of these measurements are illustrated in Figure 1B. Furthermore, the study identified the colours of microplastics. As demonstrated in Figure 1C, the colour of microplastics detected included blue, yellow, green, black, red, orange, brown, and transparent. The majority of microplastics identified were black.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eType of Polymer Microplastics\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe microplastic samples that were identified were then subjected to analysis of their polymer content by means of FTIR. The FTIR test results can be found in Table 2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings of the FTIR test indicated that all the microplastic samples that were successfully identified were composed of a polymer known as polyethylene (PE). This polymer is ubiquitous in the environment due to its extensive use as a constituent of plastic bags and myriad other plastic materials that are utilised on a daily basis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRisk Assessment of Microplastic pollution\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results of the study demonstrate that the microplastic pollution risk analysis indicates a location that is both polluted and at medium risk. The results of the study are presented in Table 3. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"Left\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"415\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRisk Category\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 293px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLocation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDownstream\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUpstream\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePLI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.526\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.311\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePolluted\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePolluted\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePHI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMedium\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMedium\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs demonstrated in Table 3, a medium PLI score (i.e. \u0026gt;1) indicates that the location is contaminated by microplastics. In contrast, the PHI scores 25.63 and 18.92, which places them within the medium hazard category (Level 2: 10-100 medium hazard level).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDirect and indirect effect of MPs Pollution\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs demonstrated in Figure 4, the smart PLS model is displayed. The PLS algorithm analysis demonstrates that the model exhibits adequate fit, as evidenced by SRMR values falling below 0.08 and NFI scores exceeding 0.90. This finding signifies that the model is both fit and feasible for utilisation. The composite reliability score and Cronbach alpha are indicative of data validity and reliability for advanced analysis, with scores greater than 0.7 indicating such validity and reliability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg src=\"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAoMAAACsCAYAAAAAC6ZEAAAAAXNSR0IArs4c6QAAAARnQU1BAACxjwv8YQUAAAAJcEhZcwAADsMAAA7DAcdvqGQAADMISURBVHhe7d3LihtLtjfwld8DnJ4bb2OUeoaicatqUINKPYBhSx55ZEjNDntTmtTABzxJYc6eSVBwQKNKQfsBKmtQcErC3RT0GygSU208P/0C8Q2sFb0yFHnRrXT7/yCxKyKVkvISuRS39LTWmgAAAADgKP0/OwEAAAAAjgeCQQAAAIAjhmAQAAAA4IghGAQAAAA4YggGAQAAAI4YgkEAAACAI4ZgEAAAAOCIeVXnGfz48aOdBAAAAAA7YJU4rXIwCAAAAACHB83EAAAAAEcMwSAAAADAEUMwCAAAAHDEEAwCAOyhyWRCnueZZTKZ0Gg0oslkYq+6UfIzjEYjO3tlm94+ACAYBADYO5PJhE5PTymOY9Jak9aaPn36RO12216Ver2enbRWmx6DuOntAwCCQQCAvXNzc0NERK1Wy6Td3t6S7/tirZ9B4/X1dSYNAMCGYBAAYE/V6/XM358+fTL/T9OUTk9PM/kAAC4IBgEA9sy7d++IiEgpRZ7nUbPZJJrVFDYaDUrT1NQS8jrcXNzpdDL98Pi1dt5oNDL/t4NOmdfpdDJ5rF6vZ95HNlc3m02TPplMzN+8TpXtA8D6IBgEANgzjUaDxuOx+TtJEhPAsTiOiYjI933SWtPl5SVNJhMaDAYUBAFprcn3fUqSxLyu3++bILLdbpt1lFJmnclkQu1222z37OzMvCfr9XqklKIoikgpRURE3W6X0jQlmjVps9PTU7q6ujJ/V9k+AKwXgkEAgD3UaDRIa01hGJq0drtNo9GIarVaZl3Gr5HBWB4OJm3cX/HDhw9EVr9Fdnl5aQLQMnEcm891eXlZafsAsF4IBgEA9oxsOu33+6YGj4hoOByKNd3SNCXP80yt3dPTk71KLq7dq2I0GmUGtfz48SOTT0T08uXLzN+LbB8A1gPBIADAnknTdG7Ovel0mvk7T71eN02w9ujjKrjW8du3b3aWwcHmcDg0AWdVVbYPAOuFYBAOkj0hLy+L4o7tVWsruOP7Oud2W+XzPyc5KIAHJWy78/8hD0TgJmHG/3///r1Y6yeekJr78gVBQDQbXLIo7sN3d3dHNNu2jff1+fm5szawSJXt76JerzdX3riWvLKEA2heRrMJxO2gfx24fFz2mlj19fvIPj72ss4yfys0wIEJw1ATkfZ9P5NORJqIdBRFmfQivu9rItLj8djOcoqiSBORDsPQzlraeDw2n31XBUGQ2d/8mYMgyKy3DXw+rPOYbBvvV/5uvNjnKZ+/vL48l3ifyNfa2wuCIPO3UkprcZ7nrWPn8+eg2Tlsv8Zmv97e/i6KoihzvvPn5fNOKZX7+TlPlk18LOI4zqwbx7FzG0WUUpntxHFs9m0Vq77+kPBx4e/Ox27f98f8VQiwx+RNxC4w5Y3Qvmnusl0PBl03Mj27YexC4XiIwSDsniiKMmUOX7PyvLPXkemuMisIgrlg0LVeGdd2FrHq6w+JHQzqkvvOvkAzMRyUbrdLRERBEMyNqGw0Gub/cnJeWI9ut5tp0mq1WnPHAOBQXV5elp7vZevYfTjllDvkmGS8ik6nQ0mS2MmVrfp62A8IBuFgyL44eQUuF7ZcuNmT7PLfnU5nbmJcKug3Uq/Xnf3T5DZkvpzol0om6N11tVrN9EFrt9uZ/dXv9816dp8qeWOTeb1eL7Pf0jSdO072a2Q+v6aIfRwBtunt27fm//LaaDQaZmqder1u+nj6vm/KkKLrqtPp0GAwILKuTV6Xt2FfD7LPb5XXu7Yh+xPmfb5DkKapqYQIwzD33rPz7KpCgH0lm1PzmgTtvkt2WhzH2vd983pOH4/Hmb4hSinzfrKvnKtJkl/D68ltatHEwE1I8j30HjQTM7tvl9wv/L04jdeVTcvy9Xb/tTiOTT8luV1+DafJ/cfsY2L3Zwys/o4A68DnYV5ZZJPnLi/y+pDlAJcNZdeVUsqUb7KZl8sceQ3IPnDy/1Vez5+D/+bXKKV0GIaZ62vfrzVZLsll35vRUTMIB+PFixd2Ui67OYaIKIoiarVaNJ1OMzVaTI6KrNVq5v2UUqU1UVQw/9siE/Tustvb28zoVKWUqQWo1Wqkta40/UkURZkm/SAISice5gmKa7WaObZ5ozB5UuPz83Oi2WuUUnszahUOE18jURSZtG63a1oJXOVb2XVVtZaqVqtRkiTUbDapVquZScmrvv7z589E4pqaTqektaZarUavX7/OlAV5n3Xf8FN8eCkro3YdgkE4GDIQyAvOOFi5uLiws+jVq1d2UoYsjNM0NcGh7/uVC80iVSbo3UVy+gu+OfHTK1xBlud5ppl+E3PJ8U0nbyJlPje63S55nmeawb5//26tCfA8ZJMq/zjkrhfX19dizXyrXFf9fp/CMHQ+1rCKvPKWZt+HH0vo7VkXmGOCYBAOCg8MSZJkroCSBdzvv/+eyauCAx2aBYCnp6fk+/7Kv3S5r80yE/TuCruje6vVytRwkOg/Kee526S84J4D9zAMD+qXPew3O0i6vb11tmDY1nVdySfZtNvtuR9xRfiaur+/t7OIrADXHmgGuwHBIByUVqtlntUqa//SNKV2u000exbqsjV5nU6H4jg2AcSqgSCtOEHvrpDNQOz6+pp836dGo0Gj0YiSJDG1qOvYbxLfhNI0NbUjecEdT2o8GAzMD4Zer7fQzQ9g3WSTMM1q3JVSpguErdPpLHxd5U0Szduigu4sVPD6d+/eEc1+hMsBXpPJhHq9nvleru43sCPsToQAh8DVGdvVcdnuDCzniLIHRLi2yct4PDYDHHjhefZkmv23dkywKwe06J9VkZn8XTMej+cGv9if1c6zB4fIfWDn87bsfC2OkZ3Px9F1TFzp9hyJu8rej/ZSdbBCVTxoYdXt8vHd9072VdjnMi+ybLGFYaiVNVm3a3/J60I7zgf7utLWuT4ejzMDUWh27odhmHmtvB6qvN5eT6bz9jl91XNpW+x9LffJIUAwCLAAO0jhxRVowubZoyePhR0U2GlFgcci+Aa/6I8QDhoYf7ZjO04A+wLNxAAVTSYTGgwGmX5mejb6z24iBXhu/X7f9DFzDZBaRqvVIq21GV1alf18ZO6Ptu8j5gEOFYJBgIoajQYFQZCZQNXzPLq/v1/4Zgmr6/V6pn9gt9vN7c90TLh/mWsU93NpNpt7OxAK4FghGARYwO3t7VzNIALB7eARirygc3p2BPXXr1/N/+UTWrgzv/3kCp4iSP7N/5dPmrCf9iLzms2mCdBPT0+pXq/PPV2GyffyrOlM5BN5XE/2AYA1s9uNAQBgt7n6DGrrKRXcP4/7VcrO/zy4gAcsyE798v+cz30G7ae32E+nkJ3sZZ9Bu28n90Xk97IHmMjtBEGQ+Xtd/SEB4N9QMwgAcKDkVDuNRsNMnM7Th3AfPp5mJ01Tev36tdhCVqPRKKwNrzplE78/T/PDNZr2fJWE6UgAngWCQQCAAyGbht+8eZOZt9LzPDPARM5Hx/NyfvnyhR4fH+nt27cmLw9PlM59A/Oe9pInbz489DUE2A4EgwAAB4In3+bJvuUjFJVSpn+lDMZ4wuDr62t6enoqrd2r1+vk+z7p2dMq1mnd2wOAahAMwt6QHdd5KpdtdyjP62S/DK5tkeT25WKvs6mpbezBAnn7W3b493bk+aOe59H//u//zu07+zGF5BjMwN8h7/vuIjm6+u7ujsh6Xvfnz5/NuvJcbTQa5Ps+KaXozZs3Jt2l1+tlHntWVpOXt//4sZFco8j/cvo+4XMq73yxB+p4JWVFmqaZ69k+J/m9yHHduZZms+k8v+ViPx7Ovu5dS5qmzvJJfnb7u9Ps3BuNRhsttyT7M3hWOcaP8/NKjguT+8beb3vN7kQIsIu4wzzjDuW7MNmz3cl+Gdyh3jVRr/0duSO96ykBm+hcb8+8bxuPx3NPTdkme5CEtgZcuCY+zssPw3Bu/2+TfSzsxfXdtBjokXeMoiia+56uJ03YaXK/8bnL1wPNzkf5t1zPfmKFPF7y8/q+P/f3LrDPs2j2pA2JP7dMl/tQXu8siiJzHO3X8r7kfN/3c580wuvLcok/jyvN3q/yXJPnFX9+LmvswT42pVRm20EQzH3mTZRbktw3rmskjuO5Y1eE95k8Z/fdfKkAsIPsQlGLIGTbuIB2FYRVcGEqCxb7hirl3UzsgHldlFKZx73ZBSDfBDl/21wFfhiG5ju4zpm8YFDPCv5ljy0cLvtcsYPBovNNXt823/e1Usr5A1HPzlV+X/l+rmDQXscVDMpgTq6bFwzq2TZluVRUXkWzR1UyGQzqDZZbtqLjYd9byhxiMIhmYtgbg8Eg0/zYaDTW9qSFbeImi1arZdK63S4REQVBMNeHq9FomP/LZrXff/+daNYssm7n5+emubHoQfbbxvvSNQiCn4phT8g8Go1MvzmXT58+UZIkW5vEGXZP0XlGs64b3GTPE4FLsjleXq/chUFe86enp5muDXydU8WR1mXr1Go10+w/GAzs7Az+3v1+P/MZ5X748uWL+T+zyzBpk+WWlHf9p2lqRrUfMwSDsBd4xGO328301ZAFnatfjCuv0+lk+n1MJhPnxLj2a+R2qwQGcn1XPzUSU39wYcxpLK8Q5cCMbzgk+odxILluHHgmSWI+42QyKe1nJvvkyD42rv5Gcruc1mw2545XnsFgQL7vO/dbq9Uy++3m5sakPz09ZQZa2E5OToj2tD8bbEbReUZE9P37d/N/ORE4k+cbD/qhWSDFwaP8cej7Pnmz8qxWq639sX7ye+RdX2mamr6oNhlQXl9fm/Qq5cOmyy0m96e8/r98+ZLJI0c/w6K+jdzXmxeyyn5Jblf2W7TvXZsOjF0QDMJe6Pf7JiAkImq323MXWrvdJvrZ3mDWlbVunDYYDOjs7IyiKCKa/fImIhqPx0SiVs5+DY/E5NcUBXjebBoP/ix5oyQfHx+JrMJYTgeyKC608j7bKmSByb/+v379mqmptNXrdUqShJRSFMcxtdttc7ORv9T5WPDxajQaJi1JkszxygvKeLtFBTffaLkGJE1T581a4mOTNx0KHJcq59miU+2w6+vrTC0blzfMDiLWpWhuSZqViXllGHPVvJWVD2yT5ZYky/M8aZqa76u1piAISCmVG6DVajWK4ziTxvcSqdPpULfbpTiOSSmVaelqt9sURRFpree29VwQDMLe4IfdSzIglMFakTAM5351l/3SloEo/wJ2NYeQSOcmbC5oXSPPXDeNoloqW14BvUpAWYT3A//6//btm7XGv00mE1JKmRqUly9fEolf5dPplLTWubUrLAiCuV/uLrI2Jo+80Y5GI/ry5Yup+StTNnIWjkOV86zsB4bE57+riZhm5ZoMEAaDwUYCwiJRFDkDHCmv5m0Rmyq3mOwOwiOa7ZrLWq1G2pp+aR04AD05OTHHmMtRrhnt9XrUarVK70ebgGAQdl4qplKgWeEoCyY7yKrX65man3XjCzkvEOL0wWBAnueZmkZX4OfCzSZU8Pk5MHnuPpNcmCqlqNPpFPa145umUoo8zzM1sPZ3ajabZh+tuwC2yeas4XBI3759m7v5AqxK/sBwXfcy6OH+arKJmGZNinyttFqtTItHUc3WMmRTdV5NXpU+2vLzjUaj3D6V28LTKNHs+i+rufQ8z3TFySvvq5Blnmzy53J8Op2agNAr6Fa0SQgGYS/Y/UkajcZcdTr3KxsOh5mavE3Ja1rh9CAITG2l1tr5ay+vBsHVP4/J4Fd2Jn8OsjC9u7srLEi5JpBEra0WjzLj/jPv3783TcCrkO9XhJuzuPkZYBFVzrNarTZXiy5xzZnv+6ZG7f7+fi54knND0qx1RPYvXhcOeMrKTdlH29VsKn8cDofDnfyhxQG37G9t437Ock7NImXnhNwP4/E4Ux6y6XRqgsO8Fp9NQjAIe8PuI8ijWlutFk0mE/NrudFozAVQq5Idp/l97IKbcbODHIE6Go3majBJ1CDYn1f2V5S/xtM0NX0j4zieK2y5Zq0oSFsVF6auUZKS/Ax840jTlDqdjumXQ7N9sMqvbsbvV1a7KJuzqjQ/87GpclPYhp412bGciJjT+V85mCdvqdfrcx3a7cU+l+0O965lMpk4Bw0VTVLMExTvkqrnWb/fJ382mbc9WIDLEC5X0jSl6XQ6dz3bTcLpbMBZWdC2CJ5o2ff90pHHLK+ZWv5Y5B9dVTxHucVkue0qw0ejESVJYrq3lB1nF/lYSMblh+zzzPu+Xq9TmqZUq9XW8sN4KfZcMwC7Rill5oHiuaxc80XJPHveOHuCW5lPs3m37L+1mAPLzud5vOxJeHk+Lju9aB4r3raLnOuLF/t7M17XnhNsFfZ+0uJ9xuOx8/PZnyHvs/NcXWQdjzAM5/afvf/zviNvh+c1sz+fnJ/NPsb2wvLme9sFQRDM7VM5hxx/dj7/giBwnqNyEmB7e1RxkmItjrVrvjref/KYuOZvVNYkxb7vF14/22CfZ9oxzyCzyx57/2hrommZNh6P515vr6cdk4rb+9behr3Y53beNSGXvDn2eM7BPPY8g5sot8oEQeA897SjzJD7Ip5NTi3z+RyQZZT9f2aXY/zacDa5Pafbx+M55B8xADAXvl14rxMXPnmFa1X8WY8drfnGYgdYu8K+6XJwZ59HMkiR57ErGLTXcQWD8mZpXxd56RzYyL95XRlQcZ5M20awUIX9mfKCQciyg0GUW7sBzcQAW1abTU0gp11ZVK/Xo8FggBGvsz453W53Lc2L3IzD/Rx3BTezu5oL7fNI9lWt0gxYto4chFM2kIGbEy8vLzNNgItMUsz97+x+w9u2zvPsWKHc2h0IBgFyyL49g8Gg0kPMl9VqtUgpZUbcLmIymdD19TXpCtO0HINGo0Faa2q323N9MRfR6/WW7jO0aRxAyQEwsr/W6ekpeWJUYlmAtyh5nhX9gMkLFmVAWWWSYv6erkEL27Ku8+xYodzaLQgGAXLwdA68bLp2qDab32pRjUZjJwOWbVv1JnN5ebn2IGpdeCoQexQjT1HBfN/fyI+YvJH0jKdVKrLIJMX8Pdcx0Gjd+Dzb5fNll9ze3lKr1UK5tWMQDAIA7Jmim+h0Os3Mw5kkyUYCwiJhGJY2/S0zSTFq4AA2A8EgAMAB4CcqkGjClI/0W2cgVWWSYu7rV2TXJykGOBYIBgEA9kzec3Ht5zZfXl6WBmTLOKZJigGOAYJBAIA9c35+TuR4Tq6rSXgwGFAQBGsLtJaZpLjX6zn7+1WdpJi/J39vAFgvBIMAAHuGm1MfHh4y6XEc09XVVeYpHmEYzg1+ajabmZHr7XY7U9vITyDhfn9JkpjtJUlC4/E402+RnxzCeAAJL91uN3fQCT/JpuhpMPw9XY90BIDVeXqZ4YsAALBVvV6Put3uUiPQ90mapuT7PkVRhGAQYEMQDAIA7Klms0nT6bRwdPG+49rNqk3SALA4BIMAAHuM++MdYrDUbDbp/fv3hU3IALC6ysHgx48f7SQAAAAA2AGrxGmVg0EAAAAAODwYTQwAAABwxBAMAgAAABwxBIMHhuf7KntIPAAAAACtKxiUAUjRss5nY0ry/V2PPFpEp9Mx27If+dRsNjPfJ++97O89Go2oXq/PpfNiPzFgFZeXl2aiWA8BIQAAAJRYSzBIRBQEAWmtMxOghmFIWmsTnCxiNBpVDh4vLy8pCAI7eWG9Xo8GgwHFcUxBEMx97tvbWxqPx+bv6+vrTD7NPjc/Xsn3fdJaU6vVoul0SnEcm/V4X/m+b2b3X5darWY+px3QAgAAAEhrCwaL5riq1WoURZGdXKjdbttJG3d/f2/+f3t7mzuzPweeSimaTCaZvKenp4UCsOFwaP4/Go0yeatoNBo0Ho9JKbXQ5wEAAIDjspZg8PLysvQh6FXWYbsevMgHqt/c3GTydgkCQgAAACizlmBwUZPJJLfvXb1eN82zvu+b/nT84HS5LMrehqyJq9frlCQJ0axWMq8/IOOazsFgYNJGo5F5gHxVHFj6vk+tVovSNK3cn1D2b8xb+GH0CAgBAADA5dmDwclkQqenp6aPYRzH1O12TfAlm02VUnR7e0skmo211hSGIdEsGKpqNBpRu902/RijKKJ2u20Cwul0app/4zgufSC6DPp4G09PT5VrPzlYU0pRGIbm2aKdTsfsG7vP4qpczdoAAABw3J49GORm1fPzcyIievnyJRERdbtdIiJ68eKFWPvf7MEpi+Ig8+zsjIiIXr16RUREV1dXmfWqqtVqJngcDoeVB7sw/j5a60x/y1qtRkmSULPZpFqtZoJhl36/n9mOa+GBJDyYpdFo2JsBAACAI/bswWBR0FSUx+r1ummarbI+45o32yq1b9zEmyQJff78eeEmYpd+v09hGJoRxqsMKuFaWN/3c78/AAAAHLdnDwaLFDWxcv+44XBomonXgaeBWUar1TL/T9O08PMvgmv8fN+ndru9VNMuAkEAAACo4tmDQW6W/fbtGxERff/+nUgMyLB1Oh2aTCamNrDRaCxUI8g+ffpENOvXJ//ldBK1h5xXBQemcoTxKjqdjqkNlP0nF5GmqRk4gkAQAAAACuk1iqJIE9HcopTKrDcejzP5URRl8sMwNHlMri/zoyiae9/xeJzZHovjOLNeHMcmz/f9ws+ktdZBEJh83/e1Ft9FKTX3veT72NvPe48wDOe+3yLkvoBy8pyQ50MeeQ64jk1RvjyucrGvj0PF3zcIAjtrjjwufK0tm39M+7gqLo9c+86lbP2yfC4bq1xjx2SRMkGW7cvks6IySmutlVKZz5J3vVZ9v11HH8ksVZStv2r+tuzWpwF4RhykM9/3C29WQRDoMAzN33ZhWpZvF7xKqdyb56Eh8SMtiqLcG4wWgRwLwzCzn8ryOfDg9+O/4Sd5ntvXgEvZ+mX5MuApur6OUdUygfdfnrJ8VlZG6dnxKlP1/XYdfST9619/1Vpr/etffy0N0MrWXzV/m3bnkwA8Mzv4c93IGP9almRQUpbvqq2O43iuID5EruBPBmu2IAjmggYZSJTlR1E0dxxpz2sv1sV1jtvXgVS2flk+4+vDTj9mrvPfVSZQQe2crpDPysooXsd+f1vV99t1vyW/afpI+o+//aG11vqPv/2h6SPp35Lf7FW1rrD+qvnb9ux9BgF2QZqmpJSik5MTk3ZyckJKKWef1MfHRzvJvHYymZTmu6b0GQ6H9ObNGzv54Nzf35uppFgQBPT169dMGuPJ36UgCOjh4aFS/qtXr5zHcV0DvPbZw8MDXVxcZNIuLi7MvrOVrV+WD/mqlAmdTod838+dYqwsXyoro4iIPn/+TN1ulzzPcw5cXOT9dt3fv//dTiJaIX3V/G1DMAhHiQtGV4Dw48cPO8lwFZBSWT5L05Sm06nzhnBokiQx83pKPIjMpSyYKMpvtVrk+76ZKaDZbK40hdQhubu7o9evX9vJc4EzK1u/LB+qc5UJg8GAPnz4kHmqlNy3ZfkuRWXU77//Tnr2MIjT09O5J2At83676un/3ANFl01fNX/bEAwCVMDTCMnR5zJoLMu3PT4+0ocPH+xkmI3QHwwGmZuMHBVfli//9jyPrq6unEE/wC6xywQO2u7v72nWpYt83zc1sWX5tiplFF8nrVaLlFKUJImZ3WLR99tX//zXP+2kQmXrr5r/XBAMAlTEhSP/Iubpe/iXfFm+ZDcHwb/1+30KgoB83zf7Uillnh5Ulk+zR0RGUURhGNLp6elKk7cDPAe7TOBp12ST7HA4NI8VLct3WaSMqtVqFEWRqYVf5v320S//8YudVKhs/VXznwuCQThK3FdG1i7xr+S8RyLWajXzi5h/Fcv5Mcvymas56JAFQTA3d+d0OnU2L7Lb21uzH6MoIt/3M5O8F+VPJhO6urqiy8tL6vf7FMfx0pO3H5qLi4u55vm0YML8svXL8qGaqmVCXtnEyvKrllGs7Adr2fvtsld/mu+6Qiukr5q/bQgG4SjVajXyfT/Tqfr79+8UBEGlG1mv1yMiosvLSzuLqCT/8fHx4JpWipyfn9P9/X0mTSlV6fGNaZpSt9vNnYDdlX9zc0P1et383Wq1CgesHJOzszO6u7vLpE2nU3r37l0mjZWtX5YP1bjKBHtwh/TixYvS/DJFZRT7+vWrqXFf9f12zZ9f/tlOIlohfdX8rbOHFy9DTmJpL3LaAdd69rQEzF6PZpNNA6yLPS0GFUx3IvmzCXbzlOUHQVDpfQ6J3Lc8sXoZntQ2bzqSvHyeLkPuY/vvYyanfnFN+2MrW78sX2NqmVJ5ZYI9TZJ97ZTl5ykro/Rs6hv7WC77fruqaN4//pvzy9ZfR/42re2TyKdv8HxeMvjjNLleWcHAhb18PcA6yXNMno9yFn77b9c8XGX5LG9S2UMn9499g+Fygvc//523n8rytXVcCYHgHN4v9j7kCaLtczhvfVaUbx8L+/gfu7IyQU7a7Qq88vJXKcOKjlPe++0rynkiyF/+5y8m/R8//lG6Pls1f1vW9mlcwaDr5EMwCPskjmOce8/EdYOC7cCxOBwow1bzy3//YicdJPQZBHBI05Q8z6OHh4dKfQhhec1mkzzPK+y7BM+j0+mQ53mV+nPCbkMZtrrWlxa9+aV4EM2h2Ggw2Ol0zP9R0MM+4VF3/X7fzoI145HBsH39fp+01ggeDgDKsNW0vvycnWD09jimpdpIMMjzfyVJQkEQoKAHAACAvTF6OzqaQJA2FQwqpWjWH/EgnmEIAAAAcKg2EgwCAAAAwH7YuWBQ9jMEAAAAgM3aqWCw1+vNzWYPAAAAAJvj6TWM7mg2m5QkSSYtDMO5UUyu9WxBENDt7S15nmdnObcJAAAAAMtbSzAIAAAAAPtpp5qJAQAAAOB5Va4Z/Pjxo50EAAAAADtglTitcjAIAAAAAIcHzcQAAAAARwzBIAAAAMARQzAIAAAAcMQONhjs9XrkeZ5zvkIAAAAA+GktwWCz2TSBl73U6/XC9WS+ZK/ned5Cj6q7vLwkpRTRbFvLGI1Gc59BLpPJhGj2CD07z/O83NdPJhOq1+tz6c1m0/4IsGHyGI1GIzt7jjyHe71eJi/vPEjTtNLrD90i57k8LnYZMZlM5vaxa3/a5Y08DseOyx973+YpW98+97lsTNN07jh5C5blx6jZbDr3tb2fq5zbZWWcvE6Krs3RaOT8TPvO+y/PLFWUrb9q/tboNRmPx5qINBFppZTWWusgCObS5HpxHFtbyYqiaO71i+L3833fzqrM931NRDqKIq211nEcm8/FaUqpuTT79UEQZNLldsbjcSYPNi+O48x54ft+4TkZBIEOw9D8bR9r+7grpTLbL3v9IZPneBRFc9eCxNcFC8Mwsx9d+ywIgsw1NB6PC4/lMZPnuX0NuJStr5RyHhOdc6zCMMSxySHvI/Z+1o79aZcxNvt42WWcfW2FYZgpo6S8z7TP6CPpX//6q9Za61//+qumj8UhUdn6q+Zv01pqBvPIR8d9+fIlk/dcGo0GjcdjUkqt7VdNq9WiIAiIiOj6+trOhj1xdXVFnz59Mn9/+vSJrq6uMuuwNE0pSZLMOR3HMXW7XaJZbdXl5aV4BdHj4yN9+PCBqMLrD1mv16MgCKjRaBDNau2TJDG1R7bhcEhxHJu/+/0+KaVMrcabN2/E2j9Np1OzfSKim5sbarVamXXgZ+0Ozcow+a+rxogqrv/58+e5c5+5jtXd3R2OTY5arUZaawrD0M4qLWNcysq4u7u7zOvPzs6ctYydToeiKLKT99rvd78TEdGfX/458y+n28rWXzV/2zYaDO6KTQSEsN/SNCWlFJ2cnJi0k5MTUko5C8PHx0c7ybx2MplkAhE2HA7NzbDs9Yfs/v6ezs/PM2lBENDXr18zacz1/PIgCOjh4YFodj1Lo9GILi4uzN+TyYQGgwGaIx0eHh4y+4qI6OLiwuxbW9n6aZqafe1qYrSPFXeRgcXZ+5KsMsZWpYyr1+t0f38vXvUzIJUmkwmdnZ1l0g7B37//3U4iWiF91fxt22gwKAti+xfNOuX1o5DL6ekpEdFaAsLRaGRuWPJXF+wPDs7sgo+I6MePH3aSUTVwS9N0rraKFnj9IUmShF69emUn07dv3+wkIy84cRkOh/Tu3Tvz94sXL0hrTVprE6i4AvxjdHd3R69fv7aTc/dPlfV5X0+nU/JEf0GXm5sbev/+vZ0MS8grY1iVMu7q6oqSJKFOp0NpmtJwOMy0XtDsHneINblP//dkJxGtkL5q/rZtJBj0fZ88z6MkSSgIAtq1h5wopQoLrDzdbpc8z6N2u000247rIuH1eOGBLLC/+DjL4L8oaLSbbxZ9/TELw5AGg0Em4JhOp5l1JPuGKG9+WmsKggA1hBsi9/V0OqUwDAuDPTQRr49dxiyj0WhQHMc0GAzo4uKCbm9vM/mdTmcu7dD981//tJMKla2/av5z2UgwqJQyvxaf40Tq9/vm/fKW8XhMNAtUtda5v6aKRFGU2abrFxc51vN9314F9pBSipIkmattdp1LruabRV5/zPr9PgVBYH5U8g8qV1OV3UTs0u/3nU3PsH7cv9NV04gm4vVylTHLGA6HpJQipRR5YuaNQ20eLvPLf/xiJxUqW3/V/OeykWBw10wmEzo9PSXf9wtrGOB4cD8aedPimroXL16YNIk7d8sg39WpOq/5purrD00QBPT0lG0KmU6nzuZHdnt7a/ZTFEXk+76zRsluInap1Wr4QTZzcXEx1zyfpmnuD9tF16fZ8XZBE/H65JUxUpUyrtPp0Pn5uSmbgiAwAfvNzQ21223zg6zb7ZqAMW/A0T559af5riu0Qvqq+du2c8HguptzEAiCCwcIcmDH9+/fKQiCwhsd4zntXH1hHx8fS2uril5/aM7Pz+c6qSul6O3bt5k0lzRNqdvt0nA4tLOIZv0Ri26INNsGaqR+Ojs7o7u7u0zadDrNDagXXZ9m+a5r6O7uLjOYAZZXpYypUsYNBoNMf15Zs2u3uPGPMq2184fZvuHRvLZl01fN37adCgZ7vd5cwbOKNE1NUxwCQbDZ0yy02+3cqWWker1O3W4395wqq60qe/2hsaeS6XQ6FIahM2CQer0e+b5PcRw7A77RaOScgsN2cXEx1yn+WNlTw/R6ParX6879S0us32w2nYE7NxGXHXOopqyMYWVlXBAEmb8fHx/J9/2jOE6fLz4TOUb7cnrrS4u8//Ko9eXnNVC2/qr5W2dPPLgMObk0L66JK13r2QtPRmun520zj5ywellyUmi52MIwnFuHZpNq22k0m3yXJ6KWS9FEvLAZ8jyRk7HKyV/tv+2JX6W8SWCrvv5Qye9vn+dcLvD+579d+1GyJ5qW6fK6WnbC+kPG+8bex1yW2edo2fq8uI6HxkTTC5H707VPq5QxUl4Zx+S9yLVdFkVRYf6+oo9kFukv//MXk/6PH/8oXZ+tmr8tnv558gGAw2g0opOTk6P4pbxtvV7vKJrN9wGOxf5CmbVer/54RU//uRvTv2zSTjUTA+yKdPZM1YeHBxSqG8bPRkXwsX08Z2uV/pywW1BmrV/rS4ve/LL6iO19gJpBAAAAAIH7Co7e7v/I6SoQDAIAAAAcscrB4MePH+0kAAAAANgBq8RplYNBAAAAADg8GEACAAAAcMQQDAIAAAAcMQSDB6bX65lnSQIAAACUWUswKAOQokU+MHud5PvzM1+XxfNseZ439zxTng+t7L3s7z0ajaher8+l89JsNu1NLO3y8pKUUkSzzwEAAABQZC3BIM2eccgPtGZhGJLW2gQnixiNRpWDx8vLSwqCwE5eWK/Xo8FgQHEcUxAEc5/79vaWxuOx+fv6+jqTT7PP7fs+EVHmod7T6ZTiODbr8b7yfZ+SJFlr4Far1czntANaAAAAAGltwWDRg+BrtRpFUWQnF2q323bSxt3f35v/397eZgJbiQNPpRRNJpNM3tPT00IBmHyoOz8Mfh0ajQaNx2NSSi30eQAAAOC4rCUYvLy8LH38TZV12K4HL+/fvzf/v7m5yeTtEgSEAAAAUGYtweCiJpNJbt+7er1ummd93zf96Uaj0Vxfu0XZ25A1cfV6nZIkIZrVSub1B2Rc0zkYDEzaaDRa+JmeHFj6vk+tVss8X7JKf0LZvzFvOT09JZrVYiIgBAAAANuzB4OTyYROT09NH8M4jqnb7ZrgSzabKqXo9vaWSDQba60pDEOiWTBU1Wg0ona7bfoxRlFE7XbbBITT6dQ0/8ZxTJeXl9YWsmTQx9t4enqqXPvJwZpSisIwpOl0SjT7Trxv7D6Lq3I1awMAAMBxe/ZgkJtVz8/PiYjo5cuXRETU7XaJiOjFixdi7X+zB6csioPMs7MzIiJ69eoVERFdXV1l1quqVquZ4HE4HFYe7ML4+2itM/0ta7UaJUlCzWaTarWaCYZd+v1+ZjuuhQeS8GCWRqNhbwYAAACO2LMHg0VBU1Eeq9frpmm2yvqMa95sq9S+cRNvkiT0+fPnhZuIXfr9PoVhaEYYrzKohGthfd/P/f4AAABw3J49GCxS1MTK/eOGw6FpJl4HngZmGa1Wy/w/TdPCz78IrvHzfZ/a7fZSTbsIBAEAAKCKZw8GuVn227dvRET0/ft3IjEgw9bpdGgymZjawEajsVCNIPv06RPRrF+f/JfTSdQecl4VHJjKEcar6HQ6pjZQ9p9cRJqmZuAIAkEAAAAopNcoiiJNRHOLUiqz3ng8zuRHUZTJD8PQ5DG5vsyPomjufcfjcWZ7LI7jzHpxHJs83/cLP5PWWgdBYPJ939dafBel1Nz3ku9jbz/vPcIwnPt+i5D7AsrJc0KeD3nkOWAfG3nc5GKf/9o6Tq78Q8TfNwgCO2uOPC58rbG860weD3mcwjDMvB7+Xd7Z+zZP2fr2uc9lsFJq7jjhmJQLgsC5r+39zEtRGVJWxslrpejaPNQyiz6SWaooW3/V/G3ZrU8D8Iw4SGe+7zsLSxYEQeYmRlYAYgeHSilngc4F6jEhESBEUVR40+GbFwvDMLMf7f2sZ8eGtx+G4VwwUnRcj408z+1rwKVsfaWU85jonGMVhiGORw4ZPNv7WTv2Z14Zw+zjZZdx9rXFlRG2Qy2z6CPpX//6q9Za61//+mtpgFa2/qr527Q7nwTgmdkFo11wSlxISzJocdVGx3E8V3iX/fo+RK7gTwaHtiAI5oIFGdC5XiePm11rEQTB3HE4Vq5z3L4OpCrru4IHVnaswM0O0nTOvnSVMZJ9rOzj6ft+5vVxHDuvVTvtEPyW/KbpI+k//vaH1lrrP/72h6aPpH9LfrNX1brC+qvmb9uz9xkE2AVpmpJSik5OTkzayckJKaWcfVIfHx/tJPPayWTinLJnOBzSmzdvzN+dTod83y+cLugQ3d/fm6mkWBAE9PXr10wa48nfpSAI6OHhgWjWb1gajUZ0cXFh/rYHck2n09J5Q4/Fw8NDZl8REV1cXJh9aytbP01TGgwGuRPk28dqMplg8vsl2fuSHGWMVKWMq9frmcewknX9HHKZ9ffvf7eTiFZIXzV/2xAMwlHi4M4OHIiIfvz4YScZVUd2p2lK0+k0U4APBgP68OFD5gkxrsDz0CRJYub1lHgQmUtecOIyHA7p3bt3djIRETWbTbq7u7OTj9bd3R29fv3aTs49D6usP2thoul0Sp7nFV4jNzc3axtsd+xcZYxUpYy7urqiJEmo0+lQmqY0HA4z894ecpn19H/ugaLLpq+av20IBgEq4GmE5OjzoqDx8fGRPnz4YP7mG+T9/b25efq+P1frAj9H6A8Gg8xNp2hUvOuGmM4e65gkCfm+v9J8nZBPBhrT6ZTCMCwM9u7u7jJTcsHy7DJmGY1Gg+I4psFgQBcXF5kawGMts/75r3/aSYXK1l81/7kgGASoSCllJgOXz322AxFyNN/wFEqysB0Oh3hEoEO/36cgCMj3/cxjG/npQZLdRMxqtRpp8QSeZZ80BIvp9/u5XS3QRLxedhmzLC6HlFLkeZ5JP9Yy65f/+MVOKlS2/qr5zwXBIBwl7kcjb1pc05f3SEQOMOSvZNf8mGXNNyzvfQ5NEARzc3dOp1Nn8yO7vb01+zmKIvJ931mjVNRETKLmA366uLiYa55PCybMX3R9mh1vFzQRr0+VMqZKGdfpdOj8/NyUbUEQFAbsh1RmvfrTfNcVWiF91fxtO9hgsNfrmVoFAFutViPf9zMDQ75//05BEBTe6Fiv1yMicg5MeHx8nKutkoNNbIdUwLqcn5/PdVJXSlV6fGOaptTtdnMnYE+SpPCGSLPnnxfd4I7J2dnZXB/K6XSaG1Avuj7N8l3X0N3dXWYwAyzPVcbYqpRxg8Eg059X1uweepn155d/tpOIVkhfNX/r7OHFy5CTVtqLHMbuWs8ePs/s9WiJiUrlnE3L4KlD8hY5r5mdR7OpMOw0fp3vmIT6EIfv7zJ7mgV5TIvwscsj57yToijKvF/enF6HSO7bqt+bJ7ktmvakynZ833cej2MlpxtxTftjW2T9vHN/PB4Xvg6yXFPLSHn72VZWxgXW5Nb2+odeZhXN+8d/c37Z+uvI36a1fZKxeCoAz/Mlgz9Ok+vlFfKMbwby9Yvi9yu6sMrwzZ/nY5JBHqfJwNOe94lfbxeGcjtVLmxYP3mOyfPR/iFRdHylsklg5Q+HQypUy8j9Z18HXE7w/ue/i/ajLrgh8vvwsmzZcch439j7mM9P+xwvW58X1/HQmGh6Ifb5a+/TvDLGLrNYXhnH+P7kOr76CMosynkiyF/+5y8m/R8//lG6Pls1f1vW9mlcwaDrBvrcwaBeQ0BoB4PaccNyfVeGYHB/xXG80rkH1dnXDWwPjsX+Qpm1Xr/89y920kE62D6DUqPRoPF4TEop9B2CSnhqkoeHB2f/J1ifZrNJnuc5+1/C8+p0OuR5XqX+nLBbUGatX+tLi978svqI7X2w0WCw0+mY/2+yoOcCrGjhaUDWERCORiPzlAQ57xwcDh5dJydghc3gkcOwff1+n7TWCCb2EMqs9Wp9+Tl7wejtccxRupFgkOcHS5KEgiDYuYJ+2XmSut0ueZ5H7XabaLYd13QXvB4vSil7FQAAANhRo7ejowkEaVPBoFKKZv0Rn+WZhvxrtmjhyWd93yetdel0FC5RFGW2mffr2V7P9317FQAAAICdsJFgcNdMJhM6PT0l3/cLH2sFAAAAcGx2LhiU/QzXAYEgAAAAQL6dCgZ7vd7cbPerSNPUDBxBIAgAAADgYM81sww5uTQvrskpXevZC8/FZ6fnbTOPnKNwWXIeQLnY7IlXecl7/RhPIAEAAIAd4emfgRcAAAAAHKGdaiYGAAAAgOdVuWbw48ePdhIAAAAA7IBV4rTKwSAAAAAAHB40EwMAAAAcMQSDAAAAAEcMwSAAAADAEUMwCAAAAHDEEAwCAAAAHDEEgwAAAABHDMEgAAAAwBFDMAgAAABwxBAMAgAAABwxBIMAAAAARwzBIAAAAMAR+/8E7uIpyziZmwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings of the direct effect analysis demonstrate a substantial relationship between elevated microplastic pollution levels and PLI values. The analysis results demonstrate a positive correlation between microplastic pollution levels in the Kranji River and the impact on PLI values, with a 99.7% increase observed in the PLI values. The analysis further demonstrates a significant relationship between the PLI score and the PHI score, indicating that an increase in the PLI score results in a corresponding rise in the PHI value, with a 97.9% direct effect.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe indirect effect analysis demonstrates a substantial relationship between microplastic pollution, PLI value, and PHI value. The analysis results demonstrate a positive correlation between microplastic contamination levels in the Kranji River and the PHI value, indicating a 97.6% increase in the PLI value with increasing microplastic contamination.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsequently, the analysis results indicate that elevated microplastic pollution levels in the Kranji River may potentially contribute to an escalation in the risk of microplastic-contaminated aquatic environments by 97.6%.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eMicroplastics are defined as small plastic particles with a diameter of less than 5 mm (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e). The presence of microplastics has been detected in all environments, including waterways. The presence of microplastics in marine waters can be attributed to the contamination of rivers by microplastics. The presence of microplastic particles in fluvial environments can be attributed to anthropogenic influences, including population density, urbanisation, and land use (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e). The findings of the study demonstrate that the mean abundance of microplastics identified in the upstream and downstream areas is 3.01 particles/liter. The results of this study demonstrate that the downstream area of the Kranji River exhibits a higher abundance of species than the upstream area, which is characterised by its densely populated urban nature. This study corroborates earlier research that identified a correlation between microplastic abundance and rural-urban population density. It has been demonstrated by further studies that urbanisation is a contributing factor to microplastic pollution in rivers. A correlation has been identified between population density and microplastic pollution (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e). Other studies also show that urbanization is a cause of microplastic pollution in rivers, where population density is related to microplastic pollution (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, there are several sources of microplastic pollution in rivers, such as industry, agriculture, domestic sewage, and water deposition (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study also succeeded in identifying the characteristics of microplastics. The results of the study demonstrated that the majority of microplastics identified were fibres (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3A). A further study conducted on rivers in China also demonstrated that the most prevalent form of microplastic identified was fibre (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e). However, a contradictory study was conducted in Japan, which indicated that fragment-shaped microplastics were more frequently identified, while fibres were more commonly identified in mesoplastics (5\u0026ndash;25 mm) (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e). However, the majority of microplastics detected in the environment were fibres (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, the study determined the size of the microplastics detected. The majority of the microplastics identified were of a small size, with a diameter of less than 0.5 mm (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;3B). As demonstrated in other studies, the size of microplastics identified in water ranges from 0.002 to 0.249 millimetres, with a percentage of 99.81% being small microplastics (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e). The utilisation of Plankton Nets in the filtration of microplastics from water has been demonstrated to exert an influence on the morphology of the microplastics identified (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e). Nets with smaller mesh sizes have been shown to filter more fibre-shaped microplastic particles, while more fragment-shaped microplastics are able to pass through (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e). A further study demonstrated that nets with a mesh size of 80 micrometers exhibited a higher capacity for filtering fibre-shaped microplastics in comparison to nets with a mesh size of 330 micrometers (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe majority of microplastics identified in this study were black, specifically 122 particles, constituting 67% of the total particles identified. This finding aligns with the conclusions of previous studies, which identified a predominance of black microplastics, accounting for 45% of the total particles identified (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e). The black colour of the microplastics found is indicative of the degradation of plastic bags commonly used by the community in their daily activities. The community in the study location predominantly utilises plastic bags in their quotidian activities, such as when shopping, where the bags most commonly employed are black plastic bags. Furthermore, the presence of black microplastics in rivers has been attributed to the friction of motor vehicle tires entering or being discarded into these water bodies. The presence of black microplastics has been observed in various sources, including food packaging, toys, electronic goods, motor vehicle tires, and other potential sources (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe microplastics identified in this study were subjected to polymer content analysis using FTIR. The results indicated that all microplastic samples, both upstream and downstream, were identified as polyethylene (PE). As demonstrated by other studies, microplastics identified in surface water and sediment consist of polypropylene, polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, and polyethylene terephthalate (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e). It has been demonstrated by other studies that the types of microplastics which have been identified are generally polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) microplastics. This is because these microplastic polymers are commonly used by the public (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e). Polyethylene is one of the most prevalent polymers (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of the microplastic pollution risk analysis demonstrate that the Pollution Load Index (PLI) values in the upstream and downstream areas exceed 1, indicating that the upstream and downstream locations of the Kranji watershed are contaminated by microplastics. The findings of this study are consistent with the results of a study conducted in India, which demonstrated that the PLI value of microplastics in river surface water was \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1, indicating that the river was contaminated with microplastics (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e). The presence of microplastics in a water environment has been demonstrated to cause disruption to the ecosystem inhabiting that water body (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e). The presence of microplastics in the aquatic environment poses a significant threat to the biota inhabiting these ecosystems, as microplastics themselves become a contaminant in the water, potentially affecting the health and well-being of aquatic organisms. In addition to contaminating biota living in aquatic ecosystems, microplastics have been shown to act as vectors for other pollutants, including heavy metals. These pollutants can be harmful if consumed by living creatures (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of the polymer hazard index (PHI) analysis indicate that the PHI value remains in the medium category. This outcome is inconsistent with the results of other studies, which have categorised PHI values as 'very dangerous'. The hazard score of the polymer in question, Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), is a critical factor in this regard. With a hazard score of 10001 (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e), PVC exemplifies the influence of polymer type on the overall assessment. In this study, the PHI was found to be low, a phenomenon that can be attributed to the presence of microplastic polymers, specifically polyethylene, which had a hazard score of 11. It is well-documented that microplastics can have detrimental effects on the environment and human health (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn order to ascertain the existence of a relationship between the amount of microplastics, PLI score, and PHI, an analysis was conducted using Partial Least Square (PLS). The findings of the analysis demonstrate a substantial correlation between the quantity of microplastics detected in the water area and the PLI score. Furthermore, a significant relationship is observed between PLI and PHI (p value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.000). Furthermore, an indirect effect analysis was conducted to ascertain the indirect effects that influence PHI. The findings indicated that the presence of microplastics in water bodies can exert a significant influence on the PHI value through the PLI mechanism by up to 97.6%, thereby underscoring the indirect impact of MPs on the escalation of PHI values or PHI levels in contaminated environments. However, other research results have indicated that the type of polymer is a determining factor for high PHI values. In this regard, PE, PP, PS, and PET polymers, despite having a higher proportion or quantity, have lower PHI scores (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e). The types of microplastic polymers identified in water bodies have been shown to play a role in the level of danger of exposure to humans. A number of studies have demonstrated that PE and PET MPs have the capacity to augment reactive oxidative stress (ROS), which can result in health complications including dementia and immune system disorders (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR45\" citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLimitation study\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe present study is subject to certain limitations; it is only able to identify microplastics and calculate the potential for microplastic pollution and the associated dangers. However, the potential dangers of microplastic pollution remain to be fully elucidated; further research is thus required to ascertain the full extent of the threat to the environment, aquatic ecosystems and public health.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eA recent study has revealed the presence of microplastics in surface water samples collected from the Kranji River, indicating potential contamination in both the upstream and downstream areas of the river basin. The microplastics detected in this study exhibited an abundance of 3.01 particles/liter, with the identified microplastic particles characterised by their notably diminutive size, measuring less than 0.5 millimetres. The majority of the microplastics identified were black in colour, and the most prevalent shapes were fibres, fragments, and films, with fibres being predominant. This study also analysed the polymer content of microplastics, with the results indicating that the identified polymer was polyethylene (PE).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn order to ascertain the extent of microplastic pollution and its associated dangers, an analysis of the Pollution Load Index (PLI) and Polymer Hazard (PHI) was also conducted. The Pollution Load Index (PLI) calculation results indicated that the PLI value obtained was greater than 1, thereby suggesting that the river basin had been contaminated with microplastics. In addition, the PHI calculation results demonstrated that the river basin was assigned to a medium or level 2 hazard category.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, the PLI and PHI can be influenced by the amount of microplastics identified. The direct effect analysis results demonstrate that the quantity of microplastics identified exhibits a substantial correlation with the PLI, with the potential to augment the PLI by 99.7%. The findings of the direct effect analysis demonstrate a substantial correlation between the PLI and the PHI outcomes, indicating that the PLI has the capacity to augment the PHI by up to 97.9%. Meanwhile, the results of the indirect effect analysis demonstrate that the quantity of microplastics identified has the capacity to exert an indirect influence on the PHI value through PLI. This suggests that the amount of microplastics can affect PHI through PLI by 97.6%.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMAR : Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing- Original draft; KA: Data Collection, investigation; YSV: Data Collection and Investigation; APM: Data Collection; AFN: Data Collection RPJ: Data Collection AK: Data Collection ; RAz: Supervisor and correction draft\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Author wishes to express their gratitude to Jenderal Soedirman University for their financial support of this research project.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDaud A (2020) Dampak Lingkungan dan Kesehatan Mikroplastik dan Nanoplastik, 1st edn. Gosyen Publishing, Sleman\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBurrows S, Colwell J, Costanzo S, Kaserzon S, Okoffo E, Ribeiro F et al (2024) UV sources and plastic composition influence microplastic surface degradation: Implications for plastic weathering studies. J Hazard Mater Adv [Internet]. ;14:100428. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2772416624000299\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2772416624000299\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAzizah R, Martini S, Sulistyorini L, Mahmudah, Pawitra AS, Nagari SS et al (2021) Association between climatic conditions, population density and covid-19 in indonesia. Sains Malaysiana 50(3):879\u0026ndash;887\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCollignon A, Hecq JH, Galgani F, Collard F, Goffart A (2014) Annual variation in neustonic micro- and meso-plastic particles and zooplankton in the Bay of Calvi (Mediterranean-Corsica). Mar Pollut Bull [Internet]. ;79(1\u0026ndash;2):293\u0026ndash;8. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84893847451\u0026amp;doi=10.1016%2Fj.marpolbul.2013.11.023\u0026amp;partnerID=40\u0026amp;md5=7754\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84893847451\u0026amp;doi=10.1016%2Fj.marpolbul.2013.11.023\u0026amp;partnerID=40\u0026amp;md5=7754\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003efae5f5fdea62780535dafea7e71d\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDoyle MJ, Watson W, Bowlin NM, Sheavly SB (2011) Plastic particles in coastal pelagic ecosystems of the Northeast Pacific ocean. Mar Environ Res 71(1):41\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLaw KL, Moret-Ferguson S, Maximenko NA, Proskurowski G, Peacock EE, Hafner J et al (2010) Plastic accumulation in the North Atlantic subtropical gyre. Sci (80-) 329(5996):1185\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMoore CJ, Moore SL, Leecaster MK, Weisberg SB (2001) A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Mar Pollut Bull 42(12):1297\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRochman CM (2020) From the Distant Ocean Gyres to the Global Policy Stage. Oceanography [Internet]. ;33(3):60\u0026ndash;70. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2020.308\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.5670/oceanog.2020.308\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHe W, Huang J, Liu S, Shi L, Li E, Hu J et al (2025) Co-occurrence of microplastics and heavy metals to urban river sediments: The vertical distribution characterization and comprehensive ecological risk assessment. J Hazard Mater [Internet]. ;488. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85216923245\u0026amp;doi=10.1016%2Fj.jhazmat.2025.137500\u0026amp;partnerID=40\u0026amp;md5=8af2c5cce2932feead47d8f84fd623a0\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85216923245\u0026amp;doi=10.1016%2Fj.jhazmat.2025.137500\u0026amp;partnerID=40\u0026amp;md5=8af2c5cce2932feead47d8f84fd623a0\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLiu Z, Bai Y, Zhao X, Liu X, Wei H, Wei M et al (2024) Contributions from typical sources to microplastics in surface water of a semiarid urban river. J Hazard Mater [Internet]. ;478:135570. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304389424021496\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304389424021496\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKementerian Lingkungan Hidup. Sistem Informasi Pengelolaan Sampah Nasional (SIPSN) (2024) [cited 2025 Oct 9]. Waste Composition. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://sipsn.kemenlh.go.id/sipsn/public/data/komposisi\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://sipsn.kemenlh.go.id/sipsn/public/data/komposisi\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKementerian Lingkungan Hidup. Sistem Informasi Pengelolaan Sampah Nasional (SIPSN) (2024) Waste Generation. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://sipsn.kemenlh.go.id/sipsn/public/data/timbulan\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://sipsn.kemenlh.go.id/sipsn/public/data/timbulan\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eXu P, Peng G, Su L, Gao Y, Gao L, Li D (2018) Microplastic risk assessment in surface waters: A case study in the Changjiang Estuary, China. Mar Pollut Bull [Internet]. ;133:647\u0026ndash;54. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X1830417X\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X1830417X\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLaurier F, Mason R (2007) Mercury concentration and speciation in the coastal and open ocean boundary layer. J Geophys Res Atmos [Internet]. ;112(D6). Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1029/2006JD007320\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1029/2006JD007320\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCera A, Secco S, Matarazzi I, Orsini M, De Santis S, Scalici M (2025) Ingestion of prey intensifies microplastic load in Mediterranean commercial fish. Cont Shelf Res [Internet]. ;292:105496. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278434325000962\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278434325000962\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRizaldi MA, Azizah R, Sulistyorini L, Ali K (2025) Environmental health risk analysis of microplastics due to consumption of squid and mussels at coastal area. Environ Anal Heal Toxicol 40(1):e2025009\u0026ndash;e2025000\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSulistyorini L, Arfiani ND, Rizaldi MA, Lutpiatina L, Samad NIA (2024) Assessment of Microplastic Pollution in Fresh Fish and Pindang Fish and its Potential Health Hazards in Coastal Communities of Banyuwangi Regency, Indonesia. Nat Environ Pollut Technol [Internet]. ;23(3):1671\u0026ndash;6. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.46488/NEPT.2024.v23i03.038\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.46488/NEPT.2024.v23i03.038\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRahman MH, Izlal S, Islam T, Ruhad FM, Jahin A, Islam MR et al (2025) Occurrence and risk assessment of microplastics in surface water, sediment, and biota of Surma River, Bangladesh. J Contam Hydrol [Internet]. ;273(May):104620. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconhyd.2025.104620\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jconhyd.2025.104620\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSulistyowati L, Nurhasanah, Riani E, Cordova MR (2022) The occurrence and abundance of microplastics in surface water of the midstream and downstream of the Cisadane River, Indonesia. Vol. 291, Chemosphere. p. 133071\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAmrutha K, Shajikumar S, Warrier AK, Sebastian JG, Sali YA, Chandran T et al (2023) Assessment of pollution and risks associated with microplastics in the riverine sediments of the Western Ghats: a heritage site in southern India. Environ Sci Pollut Res [Internet]. ;30(12):32301\u0026ndash;19. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-24437-z\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s11356-022-24437-z\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLithner D, Larsson A, Dave G (2011) Environmental and health hazard ranking and assessment of plastic polymers based on chemical composition. Sci Total Environ 409(18):3309\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRanjani M, Veerasingam S, Venkatachalapathy R, Mugilarasan M, Bagaev A, Mukhanov V et al (2021) Assessment of potential ecological risk of microplastics in the coastal sediments of India: A meta-analysis. Mar Pollut Bull [Internet]. ;163:111969. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X21000035\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X21000035\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAli MR, Anisuzzaman M, Lipi JA, Riya KK, Arai T, Ngah N et al (2025) Ecological risk profiling of microplastic load in commercial aquaculture of Bangladesh: A multi-approach analysis across species-specific ponds. J Environ Chem Eng [Internet]. ;13(5):118380. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213343725030763\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213343725030763\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAulia A, Azizah R, Sulistyorini L, Rizaldi MA (2023) Literature Review: Dampak Mikroplastik Terhadap Lingkungan Pesisir, Biota Laut dan Potensi Risiko Kesehatan. J Kesehat Lingkung Indones 22(3):328\u0026ndash;341\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKunz A, Schneider F, Anthony N, Lin HT (2023) Microplastics in rivers along an urban-rural gradient in an urban agglomeration: Correlation with land use, potential sources and pathways. Environ Pollut [Internet]. ;321(January):121096. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121096\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121096\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGuti\u0026eacute;rrez-Rial D, Villar I, \u0026Aacute;lvarez-Troncoso R, Soto B, Mato S, Garrido J (2024) Assessment of Microplastic Pollution in River Ecosystems: Effect of Land Use and Biotic Indices. Vol. 16, Water. p. 1369\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLi Y, Lu Q, Yang J, Xing Y, Ling W, Liu K et al (2023) The fate of microplastic pollution in the Changjiang River estuary: A review. J Clean Prod [Internet]. ;425:138970. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652623031281\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652623031281\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAkdogan Z, Guven B, Kideys AE (2023) Microplastic distribution in the surface water and sediment of the Ergene River. Environ Res [Internet]. ;234:116500. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S001393512301304X\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S001393512301304X\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNihei Y, Ota H, Tanaka M, Kataoka T, Kashiwada J (2024) Comparison of concentration, shape, and polymer composition between microplastics and mesoplastics in Japanese river waters. Water Res [Internet]. ;249:120979. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0043135423014197\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0043135423014197\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAli AAM, Khalid AA, Razak NIA, Maulana NSM, Roslan NS, Razmi RSB et al (2024) A review on the presence of microplastics in environmental matrices within Southeast Asia: elucidating risk information through an analysis of microplastic characteristics such as size, shape, and type. Water Emerg Contam Nanoplastics [Internet]. ;3(2):12. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://dx.doi.org/10.20517/wecn.2023.73\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.20517/wecn.2023.73\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKerubo JO, Onyari JM, Muthumbi AWN, Andersson DR, Kimani EN (2022) Microplastic Polymers in Surface Waters and Sediments in the Creeks Along the Kenya Coast, Western Indian Ocean (WIO). Eur J Sustain Dev Res 6(1):1\u0026ndash;15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNyaga MP, Shabaka S, Oh S, Osman DM, Yuan W, Zhang W et al (2024) Microplastics in aquatic ecosystems of Africa: A comprehensive review and meta-analysis. Environ Res [Internet]. ;248:118307. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935124002111\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935124002111\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRazeghi N, Hamidian AH, Wu C, Zhang Y, Yang M (2021) Microplastic sampling techniques in freshwaters and sediments: a review. Environ Chem Lett [Internet]. ;19(6):4225\u0026ndash;52. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-021-01227-6\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s10311-021-01227-6\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWagner M, Lambert S (2018) Freshwater Microplastics - The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry 58 [Internet]. 302 p. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://www.springer.com/series/698\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.springer.com/series/698\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFlores-Cort\u0026eacute;s M, Armstrong-Altrin JS (2022) Textural characteristics and abundance of microplastics in Tecolutla beach sediments, Gulf of Mexico. Environ Monit Assess [Internet]. ;194(10):752. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-022-10447-4\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s10661-022-10447-4\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHuang Y, Xu EG (2022) Black microplastic in plastic pollution: undetected and underestimated? Water Emerg Contam Nanoplastics 1(3):1\u0026ndash;7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHuang D, Li X, Ouyang Z, Zhao X, Wu R, Zhang C et al (2021) The occurrence and abundance of microplastics in surface water and sediment of the West River downstream, in the south of China. Sci Total Environ [Internet]. ;756:143857. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969720373885\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969720373885\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBouadil O, Benomar M, El Ouarghi H, Aboulhassan MA, Benbrahim S (2024) Identification and quantification of microplastics in surface water of a southwestern Mediterranean Bay (Al Hoceima, Morocco). Waste Manag Bull [Internet]. ;2(1):142\u0026ndash;51. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2949750724000038\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2949750724000038\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJaikumar IM, Tomson M, Meyyazhagan A, Balamuralikrishnan B, Baskaran R, Pappuswamy M et al (2025) A comprehensive review of microplastic pollution in freshwater and marine environments. Green Anal Chem [Internet]. ;12:100202. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2772577424001113\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2772577424001113\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSharma S, Bhardwaj A, Thakur M, Saini A (2024) Understanding microplastic pollution of marine ecosystem: a review. Environ Sci Pollut Res [Internet]. ;31(29):41402\u0026ndash;45. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-28314-1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s11356-023-28314-1\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eIslam N, Akter F, Hossen MY, Bhuiyan T, Siddique MAM (2025) Microplastic pollution in the Jamuna River, Bangladesh: Abundance, polymer types, characteristics, and sources in riverbank and riverbed sediments. J Hazard Mater Plast [Internet]. ;1:100006. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S305106002500006X\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S305106002500006X\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKarami A, Golieskardi A, Choo CK, Romano N, Ho Y, Bin, Salamatinia B (2017) A high-performance protocol for extraction of microplastics in fish. Sci Total Environ [Internet]. ;578:485\u0026ndash;94. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.10.213\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.10.213\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYang H, Sun F, Liao H, Guo Y, Pan T, Wu F (2023) The pollution of microplastics in sediments of the Yangtze River Basin: Occurrence, distribution characteristics, and basin-scale multilevel ecological risk assessment. Water Res [Internet]. ;243:120322. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0043135423007583\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0043135423007583\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNihart AJ, Garcia MA, El Hayek E, Liu R, Olewine M, Kingston JD et al (2025) Bioaccumulation of microplastics in decedent human brains. Nat Med [Internet]. ; Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-024-03453-1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1038/s41591-024-03453-1\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGecegelen E, Ucdal M, Dogu BB (2025) A novel risk factor for dementia: chronic microplastic exposure. Front Neurol 16(May):1\u0026ndash;10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYu YB, Choi JH, Choi CY, Kang JC, Kim JH (2023) Toxic effects of microplastic (polyethylene) exposure: Bioaccumulation, hematological parameters and antioxidant responses in crucian carp, Carassius carassius. Chemosphere [Internet]. ;138801. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0045653523010688\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0045653523010688\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Table","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 2 is available in the Supplementary Files section\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[{"identity":"e9ecc0fe-98c8-4a0a-a593-5fcd1ec06add","identifier":"10.13039/501100015654","name":"Jenderal Soedirman University","awardNumber":"14.506/UN23.34/PT.01/V/2025","order_by":0}],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Jenderal Soedirman University","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Microplastics, Pollution Load Index, Polymer Hazard Index, Surface Water","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8334510/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8334510/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eMicroplastics are defined as small plastic particles with a diameter of less than 5 mm. The formation of microplastics occurs as a result of the degradation and fragmentation of macroplastics within the environment. This study was conducted in the Kranji river basin located in Banyumas Regency, specifically in Baturraden Subdistrict and East Purwokerto Subdistrict, which are the upstream and downstream points of the river. The findings of the study indicated that the upstream section exhibited lower results in comparison to the downstream section. The results of the microplastic identification process revealed that the detected microplastics manifested as fibres, films, and fragments. The microplastics detected exhibited an average size of 0.5 mm. The colour of microplastics detected included blue, yellow, green, black, red, orange, brown, and transparent. The majority of microplastics identified were black. The findings of the FTIR test indicated that all the microplastic samples that were successfully identified were composed of a polymer known as polyethylene (PE). The results of the study demonstrate that the microplastic pollution risk analysis indicates a location that is both polluted and at medium risk. The analysis results indicate that elevated microplastic pollution levels in the Kranji River may potentially contribute to an escalation in the risk of microplastic-contaminated aquatic environments by 97.6%. A recent study has revealed the presence of microplastics in surface water samples collected from the Kranji River, indicating potential contamination in both the upstream and downstream areas of the river basin\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Ecological Risk Assessment of Microplastic Pollution in Surface Water of the Kranji River Basin, Purwokerto, Indonesia","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-12 07:55:46","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8334510/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"71e5d61b-8dc2-4587-9232-e4d299b9d2c0","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 12th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-12T07:55:46+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-12 07:55:46","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8334510","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8334510","identity":"rs-8334510","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}