Buoyancy-Latent Heat Reconstructed Energy Gain-Challenging the Thermodynamic Conservation Boundary

Buoyancy-Latent Heat Reconstructed Energy Gain-Challenging the Thermodynamic Conservation Boundary | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Buoyancy-Latent Heat Reconstructed Energy Gain-Challenging the Thermodynamic Conservation Boundary Zhengyi Feng This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7740156/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Classical thermodynamics posits that in an isolated system, energy cannot be created or destroyed. However, in this study, an experimental setup based on a buoyancy-gravity-driven cycle using phase-change refrigerant (R134a) was constructed in an insulated isolated system. The phenomenon where the system's input heat is less than the output heat was observed for the first time. The input heat power was 60W, and the output heat power was 145W, resulting in an energy gain ratio of 2.42 times, with the total environmental heat exchange amount being less than 2%. The authors propose that this phenomenon arises from the traditional conservation laws confusing phase-change latent heat and buoyant force. The actual energy expression should be Eout = Ein + ρVgh. The experiment simulates the atmospheric circulation process and derives the total energy generated by the rising water vapor and the rainfall process, which far exceeds solar radiation heat. This further suggests that there exists an energy proliferation mechanism in the Earth's and planetary energy systems that is not covered by traditional theories. The results of this study prompt a reconsideration of the boundary conditions of the first law of thermodynamics and provide a new theoretical framework for energy technology, atmospheric science, and astrophysics. Physical sciences/Energy science and technology Physical sciences/Engineering Physical sciences/Physics Buoyancy work Energy gain Isolated system Phase-change refrigerant Thermodynamic boundary Atmospheric circulation Non-conservative energy Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Introduction As one of the fundamental laws of physics, the first law of thermodynamics has long been regarded as the cornerstone of energy conservation. Its classical statement is: in an isolated system, energy can only be transformed, not created or destroyed. The total energy of an isolated system remains constant at any moment. The mathematical expression is: Eout = Ein or ΔU = Q - W, where: Eout: Output energy of the system. Ein: Input energy of the system. ΔU: Change in the system's internal energy. Q: Heat absorbed by the system. W: Work done by the system on its surroundings. However, with a deeper understanding of complex systems, especially natural energy cycles, the authors found that under certain conditions, the above thermodynamic theory has boundary explanations. In particular, in the Earth's atmospheric system, water vapor evaporates under solar radiation and rises to high altitudes. It then condenses, releasing latent heat, and falls as rain. This cycle involves multiple steps of energy absorption, transformation, and transfer. However, the buoyant work carried by the rising gas has not been fully quantified and theoretically integrated. This study mimics the natural atmospheric cycle, focusing on the synergistic mechanism of bubble buoyancy and condensation gravity. A 4.5-meter-high isolated ring experimental system was designed and constructed, where the refrigerant R134a undergoes a cycle of vaporization, buoyancy, heat release, condensation, descent, and heat absorption. This system explores the energy gain path that was not accounted for in the closed system. This experiment not only verifies that the output energy of the system is significantly greater than the input energy but also traces back through the energy path to the major confusion in traditional thermodynamics between buoyancy and latent heat. The boundaries of both were reconstructed, providing experimental evidence and theoretical support for understanding natural energy flow mechanisms. “Buoyancy–latent heat synergy: Vapor bubbles rising from heated liquid reconstruct energy beyond classical conservation, demonstrating Eout = Ein + ρVgh.” Experimental Method To verify the energy gain potentially caused by buoyant forces in an isolated system, this study constructed a closed-loop refrigerant circulation system with a vertical height of 4.5 meters and a closed structure. A detection and recording system was set up: • Multiple temperature sensors + electronic recording device • Precision water meter and kilogram scale for rechecking water volume • Constant heat input from an electric heating system • Generation of experimental input-output energy curve data. Buoyancy Power Tube • Inner diameter: 10 mm, wall thickness: 2 mm, height: 4 m • Transparent vertical tube used to observe the rise of refrigerant bubbles. • Corresponding to the rising section after refrigerant evaporation, associated with the heat source. Heating Module (mounted on the ground support) • 60W constant electric heater, located inside the evaporator water tank. • Responsible for providing heat to the refrigerant evaporator, generating bubbles to drive the cycle. • The input power in the experimental data (60W) comes from this source. Cooling Module (mounted on the ceiling) • Shell-and-tube heat exchanger, with copper pipes circulating refrigerant inside and an external shell connecting to the water output metering system. • Corresponds to the "inlet water temperature" and "outlet water temperature" in the curve graphs. Liquid Power Tube • Inner diameter: 4 mm, height: 4.5 m, transparent vertical tube with an inner diameter of 4 mm. • The cooled liquid refrigerant is re-pressurized via gravity through this segment before being sent back to the throttling component. Throttling Component • Controls the throttling of the liquid refrigerant to maintain the dynamic balance of the gas-liquid cycle. • The above five main components are connected in series to form the refrigerant circulation loop. Thermal Insulation System • All pipes are first covered with 30 mm thick EPE insulation material (thermal conductivity <0.025 W/m·K). • Then, a secondary insulation layer of 30 mm thick XPE foam board is applied to the condenser and heating module, with a total thickness of 60 cm. The experimental working fluid is R134a, with a vaporization latent heat of 182 kJ/kg at 20°C, much lower than that of water, making it easier to generate more bubbles and observe the buoyancy effect. By adjusting the heating power and throttling, the system continuously cycles and performs work. Experimental Results and Analysis The laboratory temperature was maintained within 21±0.3°C, with hourly input heat of 216 kJ (60W). The measured inlet-outlet water temperature difference was 5.4°C, with a flow rate of 23.1 L/h. The corresponding output heat was 521 kJ (145W). The 60 cm thick foam insulation kept the total environmental heat exchange below 2% (2.6W). The recorded data show that, under the assumption that external heat exchange is negligible, the output thermal power significantly exceeds the input power, exceeding the expected results based on the classical first law of thermodynamics. The buoyant work is expressed by ρVgh, where V is the bubble volume, ρ is the liquid density, and h is the rise height. The input heat equals the latent heat of the bubble (energy conservation completed), and the condensation heat release energy is: Eout = Ein + ρVgh or ΔU = Q + ρVgh; this reveals the incremental condition. The actual total energy output is: Eout = Ein + ρVgh + mgh', where h' is the relative height of the liquid level in the liquid power tube. This experiment simulates the process of water vapor evaporation, rising, and releasing latent heat through condensation and rainfall, to estimate Earth's annual precipitation volume, water vapor volume, and rise height. It derives that the buoyancy and gravity work produced by the rising and falling of vapor and rain far exceed the solar radiation heat input, offering a perspective on the energy gain path. Looking beyond the Earth, the vast gaseous atmospheres of numerous planets may also undergo similar work increments, possibly leading to new discoveries in astrophysics. Power Multiplication Phenomenon The system was filled with 1.1 kg of refrigerant, and the liquid height was measured at 2.1 m, with the gas chamber volume of 690 mL. With an input heat power of 60 J/s, the bubble generation rate was 14.9 mL/s (at 15°C). After approximately 45 seconds, the total volume of rising bubbles reached 27 times the input rate (video recording), highlighting the buoyancy power amplification and energy efficiency effect. At the end of the experiment, the liquid level height was re-measured and showed no change, indicating no material consumption. Environmental Heat Exchange With the system in a static state and cold water at 10°C being input (flow rate of 23 L/h), the ambient temperature rose to 31°C, with the output water temperature at 10.1°C, absorbing 9.6 W of environmental heat. When cold water at 14°C was input in a 20°C environment, the absorbed environmental heat was less than 3W. Compared with the 145W output, the system is thermodynamically in a nearly isolated state. Conclusion Under conditions of near-total isolation from environmental heat exchange, the buoyancy-driven phase-change system was experimentally observed to produce repeatable energy gain, with the output thermal power being 2.42 times the input. Buoyancy work is proposed as an independent energy gain path, separate from latent heat absorption. The traditional thermodynamic energy conservation expression Eout = Ein is modified to Eout = Ein + ρVgh or ΔU = Q + ρVgh. The total system energy output is: Eout = Ein + ρVgh + mgh', where h' is the relative height of the liquid level in the liquid power tube. This challenges the boundary conditions of classical thermodynamics. The experimental simulation of Earth's atmosphere indicates that the rainwater cycle system may have significant buoyancy and gravity work gain, which could help explain the high-temperature causes in the Earth's thermosphere and the heat source of distant gaseous planets. This study provides a theoretical foundation for the development of low-energy consumption circulation energy systems and opens new directions for research in thermodynamics, atmospheric science, and celestial energy mechanisms. Declarations Important Note The content of the paper and supplementary files ensure the successful replication of the experiment showing that the output energy is greater than the input. Data availability statement — All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files. Author: Feng Zhengyi Corresponding Author: Feng Zhengyi Address: Room 5-9, Building 1, Asia Fashion Apartment, Minzhu Road, Heping District, Shenyang, 110001, China Phone: +86-18624099095 Email: [email protected] or [email protected] Authorship Contribution Statement Feng Zhengyi solely conceived the study, designed the experiments, and prepared the manuscript. Funding Statement This research received no external funding. It was solely supported by the author, Feng Zhengyi. Competing Interests The author declares no competing financial or non-financial interests. Data and Ethics Declaration The manuscript has not been submitted to any other journal. The study reported in this manuscript does not involve any human or animal subjects, and thus raises no ethical concerns. Acknowledgments 1.This paper benefited from the intelligent support of OpenAI GPT-5 in academic expression, graphical presentation, and the preparation of supplementary materials. Its involvement significantly enhanced the clarity of this research and its value for international dissemination. 2. Professor Li Deying, Secretary-General of the China Construction Energy Efficiency Association, visited Shenyang in 2019 and proposed the suggestion to move the experimental system indoors, which improved the analysis of the experimental mechanisms. 3. Director Cao Yang of the Testing and Inspection Center at the China Academy of Building Research visited Shenyang in 2023 and provided guidance, suggesting the replacement of ice blocks with low-temperature water as the experimental working fluid, thereby improving measurement accuracy and operational continuity. 4. Zheng Wenguang, Director of Shenyang Daimeng Machinery Factory, visited the experimental site multiple times between 2022 and 2023 with engineers, participating in on-site inspections, data validation, and providing technical support. 5. Teng Jinsong, Manager of Shenyang Ouzhu Company, offered assistance during the initial phase of the experiment in 2019. 6. Liu Xiaofeng of Ge Fu (Shenyang) Energy-saving Equipment Technology Co., Ltd. provided valuable support. 7. Professor Li Gang of Shenyang University of Architecture assisted with initial testing. References Carnot, S. (1824). Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire. Joule, J. P. (1847). On the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. Clausius, R. (1865). The Mechanical Theory of Heat. Bejan, A. (2013). Convection Heat Transfer. Wiley. Lorenzini, G., & Biserni, C. (2017). Buoyancy-driven heat transfer in vertical pipes. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. Stephenson, D. B. et al. (2008). The Physics of Climate. Nature Geoscience. Pierrehumbert, R. T. (2010). Principles of Planetary Climate. Cambridge University Press. Zeng, Y. & Feng, Z. (2024). Bubble-induced energy amplification in isolated systems. Preprint on ORCID：0009-0008-9504-217X. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files SupplementaryInformation2025.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 15 May, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 15 May, 2026 Reviews received at journal 03 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 26 Oct, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 13 Oct, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 13 Oct, 2025 Editor invited by journal 13 Oct, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 08 Oct, 2025 First submitted to journal 08 Oct, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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After the boiling bubbles lift the liquid surface, more buoyant energy is produced.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7740156/v1/bc56dcac248c4fc97646b9f3.jpeg"},{"id":94582697,"identity":"1cbcc34f-d9f3-4925-b942-51cf870c9510","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-28 18:13:23","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":259845,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWater absorbs heat and converts it into bubbles, completing Eout = Ein, then rises to generate proliferated energy ρVhg.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7740156/v1/7ca23d91a4a60480ef98ebcb.jpeg"},{"id":94582632,"identity":"788537e5-f79b-4e57-b8cf-f6f91e74b7c9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-28 18:13:20","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":86424,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStructural component diagram of the experimental setup\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7740156/v1/51c6b2c6c1bcaba2e9656740.jpeg"},{"id":94583323,"identity":"bc079e80-fba4-4e34-ac2b-837c1ae20f48","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-28 18:13:58","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":99282,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eComparison of inlet/outlet water temperatures (constant input 60W).\u003cbr\u003e\nBlue = Inlet water temperature 14°C; Yellow dashed line = Reference thermodynamic outlet temperature around 16°C, corresponding to 60W electric heating + 2.24°C temperature rise.\u003cbr\u003e\nRed = Experimental outlet water temperature around 19.4°C; Average outlet temperature rise is 5.4°C, indicating additional energy.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7740156/v1/bfe120de23b673dbc1fda830.png"},{"id":94582665,"identity":"464659ce-4b0b-4aca-b232-17ef513d3945","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-28 18:13:21","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":102617,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInput electric power: 60W, thermodynamic output warm water at 60W.\u003cbr\u003e\nOutput thermal power of the system: 145W (calculated based on flow rate of 23.1 kg/h and ΔT). Under the same input power conditions, the experimental device's output heat is 2.42 times the input energy.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7740156/v1/ff4780be831ae27bd9c105a1.png"},{"id":94581265,"identity":"f05f61a9-c291-442c-9232-ef4783baba70","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-28 18:12:25","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":145617,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTemperature variation at different parts of the experiment over time.\u003cbr\u003e\nRed = Upper part of the heating tank; Blue = Lower part of the heating tank; Green = Upper part of the power tube; Purple = Lower part of the power tube.\u003cbr\u003e\nThe stable temperature gradient indicates the presence of a buoyancy-driven cycle.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7740156/v1/6655a36a5ba22120e6c4e7f4.png"},{"id":94583160,"identity":"9d7dd709-ca96-4f16-9178-0d6da78f4566","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-28 18:13:47","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":138088,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCumulative energy balance over time.\u003cbr\u003e\nComparison of input energy (216 kJ in 1 hour, blue) and output energy (521 kJ, orange). The output is significantly higher than the input, confirming the system's energy proliferation effect.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7740156/v1/86bcce137d197a01e1ab4db5.png"},{"id":94595118,"identity":"7cdd5876-b026-4b28-9512-45dd084208a9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-28 18:32:08","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2368651,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7740156/v1/4891cf06-a36c-442d-864d-265ff1bc7345.pdf"},{"id":94582451,"identity":"5ee4c967-2223-40ad-a90d-b402b2359c49","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-28 18:13:09","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":1431244,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryInformation2025.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7740156/v1/2f7280cac1b3cb1ea21dbc29.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Buoyancy-Latent Heat Reconstructed Energy Gain-Challenging the Thermodynamic Conservation Boundary","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAs one of the fundamental laws of physics, the first law of thermodynamics has long been regarded as the cornerstone of energy conservation. Its classical statement is: in an isolated system, energy can only be transformed, not created or destroyed. The total energy of an isolated system remains constant at any moment. The mathematical expression is: Eout = Ein or \u0026Delta;U = Q - W, where:\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Eout: Output energy of the system.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Ein: Input energy of the system.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026Delta;U: Change in the system\u0026apos;s internal energy.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Q: Heat absorbed by the system.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;W: Work done by the system on its surroundings.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, with a deeper understanding of complex systems, especially natural energy cycles, the authors found that under certain conditions, the above thermodynamic theory has boundary explanations.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;In particular, in the Earth\u0026apos;s atmospheric system, water vapor evaporates under solar radiation and rises to high altitudes. It then condenses, releasing latent heat, and falls as rain. This cycle involves multiple steps of energy absorption, transformation, and transfer. However, the buoyant work carried by the rising gas has not been fully quantified and theoretically integrated.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;This study mimics the natural atmospheric cycle, focusing on the synergistic mechanism of bubble buoyancy and condensation gravity. A 4.5-meter-high isolated ring experimental system was designed and constructed, where the refrigerant R134a undergoes a cycle of vaporization, buoyancy, heat release, condensation, descent, and heat absorption. This system explores the energy gain path that was not accounted for in the closed system.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis experiment not only verifies that the output energy of the system is significantly greater than the input energy but also traces back through the energy path to the major confusion in traditional thermodynamics between buoyancy and latent heat. The boundaries of both were reconstructed, providing experimental evidence and theoretical support for understanding natural energy flow mechanisms.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cu\u003e\u0026ldquo;Buoyancy\u0026ndash;latent heat synergy: Vapor bubbles rising from heated liquid reconstruct energy beyond classical conservation, demonstrating Eout = Ein + \u0026rho;Vgh.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Experimental Method","content":"\u003cp\u003eTo verify the energy gain potentially caused by buoyant forces in an isolated system, this study constructed a closed-loop refrigerant circulation system with a vertical height of 4.5 meters and a closed structure. A detection and recording system was set up:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026bull; Multiple temperature sensors + electronic recording device\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026bull; Precision water meter and kilogram scale for rechecking water volume\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026bull; Constant heat input from an electric heating system\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026bull; Generation of experimental input-output energy curve data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBuoyancy Power Tube\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026bull; Inner diameter: 10 mm, wall thickness: 2 mm, height: 4 m\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026bull; Transparent vertical tube used to observe the rise of refrigerant bubbles.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026bull; Corresponding to the rising section after refrigerant evaporation, associated with the heat source.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHeating Module (mounted on the ground support)\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026bull; 60W constant electric heater, located inside the evaporator water tank.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026bull; Responsible for providing heat to the refrigerant evaporator, generating bubbles to drive the cycle.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026bull; The input power in the experimental data (60W) comes from this source.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eCooling Module (mounted on the ceiling)\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026bull; Shell-and-tube heat exchanger, with copper pipes circulating refrigerant inside and an external shell connecting to the water output metering system.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026bull; Corresponds to the \u0026quot;inlet water temperature\u0026quot; and \u0026quot;outlet water temperature\u0026quot; in the curve graphs.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLiquid Power Tube\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026bull; Inner diameter: 4 mm, height: 4.5 m, transparent vertical tube with an inner diameter of 4 mm.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026bull; The cooled liquid refrigerant is re-pressurized via gravity through this segment before being sent back to the throttling component.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThrottling Component\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026bull; Controls the throttling of the liquid refrigerant to maintain the dynamic balance of the gas-liquid cycle.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026bull; The above five main components are connected in series to form the refrigerant circulation loop.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThermal Insulation System\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026bull; All pipes are first covered with 30 mm thick EPE insulation material (thermal conductivity \u0026lt;0.025 W/m\u0026middot;K).\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026bull; Then, a secondary insulation layer of 30 mm thick XPE foam board is applied to the condenser and heating module, with a total thickness of 60 cm.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe experimental working fluid is R134a, with a vaporization latent heat of 182 kJ/kg at 20\u0026deg;C, much lower than that of water, making it easier to generate more bubbles and observe the buoyancy effect. By adjusting the heating power and throttling, the system continuously cycles and performs work.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Experimental Results and Analysis","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe laboratory temperature was maintained within 21\u0026plusmn;0.3\u0026deg;C, with hourly input heat of 216 kJ (60W). The measured inlet-outlet water temperature difference was 5.4\u0026deg;C, with a flow rate of 23.1 L/h. The corresponding output heat was 521 kJ (145W). The 60 cm thick foam insulation kept the total environmental heat exchange below 2% (2.6W).\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;The recorded data show that, under the assumption that external heat exchange is negligible, the output thermal power significantly exceeds the input power, exceeding the expected results based on the classical first law of thermodynamics.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;The buoyant work is expressed by \u0026rho;Vgh, where V is the bubble volume, \u0026rho; is the liquid density, and h is the rise height. The input heat equals the latent heat of the bubble (energy conservation completed), and the condensation heat release energy is: Eout = Ein + \u0026rho;Vgh or \u0026Delta;U = Q + \u0026rho;Vgh; this reveals the incremental condition.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;The actual total energy output is: Eout = Ein + \u0026rho;Vgh + mgh\u0026apos;, where h\u0026apos; is the relative height of the liquid level in the liquid power tube.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis experiment simulates the process of water vapor evaporation, rising, and releasing latent heat through condensation and rainfall, to estimate Earth\u0026apos;s annual precipitation volume, water vapor volume, and rise height. It derives that the buoyancy and gravity work produced by the rising and falling of vapor and rain far exceed the solar radiation heat input, offering a perspective on the energy gain path. Looking beyond the Earth, the vast gaseous atmospheres of numerous planets may also undergo similar work increments, possibly leading to new discoveries in astrophysics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePower Multiplication Phenomenon\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;The system was filled with 1.1 kg of refrigerant, and the liquid height was measured at 2.1 m, with the gas chamber volume of 690 mL. With an input heat power of 60 J/s, the bubble generation rate was 14.9 mL/s (at 15\u0026deg;C). After approximately 45 seconds, the total volume of rising bubbles reached 27 times the input rate (video recording), highlighting the buoyancy power amplification and energy efficiency effect. At the end of the experiment, the liquid level height was re-measured and showed no change, indicating no material consumption.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEnvironmental Heat Exchange\u003cbr\u003eWith the system in a static state and cold water at 10\u0026deg;C being input (flow rate of 23 L/h), the ambient temperature rose to 31\u0026deg;C, with the output water temperature at 10.1\u0026deg;C, absorbing 9.6 W of environmental heat. When cold water at 14\u0026deg;C was input in a 20\u0026deg;C environment, the absorbed environmental heat was less than 3W. Compared with the 145W output, the system is thermodynamically in a nearly isolated state.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eUnder conditions of near-total isolation from environmental heat exchange, the buoyancy-driven phase-change system was experimentally observed to produce repeatable energy gain, with the output thermal power being 2.42 times the input.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBuoyancy work is proposed as an independent energy gain path, separate from latent heat absorption. The traditional thermodynamic energy conservation expression Eout\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Ein is modified to Eout\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Ein\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;ρVgh or ΔU\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Q\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;ρVgh.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe total system energy output is: Eout\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Ein\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;ρVgh\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;mgh', where h' is the relative height of the liquid level in the liquid power tube. This challenges the boundary conditions of classical thermodynamics.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe experimental simulation of Earth's atmosphere indicates that the rainwater cycle system may have significant buoyancy and gravity work gain, which could help explain the high-temperature causes in the Earth's thermosphere and the heat source of distant gaseous planets.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThis study provides a theoretical foundation for the development of low-energy consumption circulation energy systems and opens new directions for research in thermodynamics, atmospheric science, and celestial energy mechanisms.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eImportant Note\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;The content of the paper and supplementary files ensure the successful replication of the experiment showing that the output energy is greater than the input.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability statement\u003c/strong\u003e \u0026mdash; All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthor: Feng Zhengyi\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Corresponding Author: Feng Zhengyi\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Address: Room 5-9, Building 1, Asia Fashion Apartment, Minzhu Road, Heping District, Shenyang, 110001, China\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Phone: +86-18624099095\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Email:\u0026nbsp;[email protected]\u0026nbsp;or\u0026nbsp;[email protected]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthorship Contribution Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Feng Zhengyi solely conceived the study, designed the experiments, and prepared the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;This research received no external funding. It was solely supported by the author, Feng Zhengyi.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;The author declares no competing financial or non-financial interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData and Ethics Declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;The manuscript has not been submitted to any other journal. The study reported in this manuscript does not involve any human or animal subjects, and thus raises no ethical concerns.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;1.This paper benefited from the intelligent support of OpenAI GPT-5 in academic expression, graphical presentation, and the preparation of supplementary materials. Its involvement significantly enhanced the clarity of this research and its value for international dissemination.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;2. Professor Li Deying, Secretary-General of the China Construction Energy Efficiency Association, visited Shenyang in 2019 and proposed the suggestion to move the experimental system indoors, which improved the analysis of the experimental mechanisms.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;3. Director Cao Yang of the Testing and Inspection Center at the China Academy of Building Research visited Shenyang in 2023 and provided guidance, suggesting the replacement of ice blocks with low-temperature water as the experimental working fluid, thereby improving measurement accuracy and operational continuity.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;4. Zheng Wenguang, Director of Shenyang Daimeng Machinery Factory, visited the experimental site multiple times between 2022 and 2023 with engineers, participating in on-site inspections, data validation, and providing technical support.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;5. Teng Jinsong, Manager of Shenyang Ouzhu Company, offered assistance during the initial phase of the experiment in 2019.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;6. Liu Xiaofeng of Ge Fu (Shenyang) Energy-saving Equipment Technology Co., Ltd. provided valuable support.\u003cbr\u003e 7. Professor Li Gang of Shenyang University of Architecture assisted with initial testing.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eCarnot, S. (1824). Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eJoule, J. P. (1847). On the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eClausius, R. (1865). The Mechanical Theory of Heat.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBejan, A. (2013). Convection Heat Transfer. Wiley.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLorenzini, G., \u0026amp; Biserni, C. (2017). Buoyancy-driven heat transfer in vertical pipes. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eStephenson, D. B. et al. (2008). The Physics of Climate. Nature Geoscience.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePierrehumbert, R. T. (2010). Principles of Planetary Climate. Cambridge University Press.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eZeng, Y. \u0026amp; Feng, Z. (2024). Bubble-induced energy amplification in isolated systems. Preprint on ORCID：0009-0008-9504-217X.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Buoyancy work, Energy gain, Isolated system, Phase-change refrigerant, Thermodynamic boundary, Atmospheric circulation, Non-conservative energy","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7740156/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7740156/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eClassical thermodynamics posits that in an isolated system, energy cannot be created or destroyed. However, in this study, an experimental setup based on a buoyancy-gravity-driven cycle using phase-change refrigerant (R134a) was constructed in an insulated isolated system. The phenomenon where the system's input heat is less than the output heat was observed for the first time. The input heat power was 60W, and the output heat power was 145W, resulting in an energy gain ratio of 2.42 times, with the total environmental heat exchange amount being less than 2%. The authors propose that this phenomenon arises from the traditional conservation laws confusing phase-change latent heat and buoyant force. The actual energy expression should be Eout = Ein + ρVgh. The experiment simulates the atmospheric circulation process and derives the total energy generated by the rising water vapor and the rainfall process, which far exceeds solar radiation heat. This further suggests that there exists an energy proliferation mechanism in the Earth's and planetary energy systems that is not covered by traditional theories. The results of this study prompt a reconsideration of the boundary conditions of the first law of thermodynamics and provide a new theoretical framework for energy technology, atmospheric science, and astrophysics.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Buoyancy-Latent Heat Reconstructed Energy Gain-Challenging the Thermodynamic Conservation Boundary","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-28 16:24:14","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7740156/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"64637115834930870875158165354459371530","date":"2026-05-15T18:35:25+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"247810174984608874512724292562480744092","date":"2026-05-15T05:48:28+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-03T19:20:19+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"26999052770614951922254002506737756582","date":"2025-10-26T06:54:38+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-14T03:59:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-10-14T03:57:50+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-13T18:56:53+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-10-08T08:21:10+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2025-10-08T08:18:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"acada95a-c3bb-41d2-9c67-9666f93bcf20","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 28th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"64637115834930870875158165354459371530","date":"2026-05-15T18:35:25+00:00","index":75,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"247810174984608874512724292562480744092","date":"2026-05-15T05:48:28+00:00","index":74,"fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[{"id":56883032,"name":"Physical sciences/Energy science and technology"},{"id":56883033,"name":"Physical sciences/Engineering"},{"id":56883034,"name":"Physical sciences/Physics"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-28T16:24:16+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-28 16:24:14","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7740156","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7740156","identity":"rs-7740156","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}