Energy Partitioning in Global Marine Sedimentation: Tidal, Geothermal, and Solar Radiation Contributions

Energy Partitioning in Global Marine Sedimentation: Tidal, Geothermal, and Solar Radiation Contributions | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Energy Partitioning in Global Marine Sedimentation: Tidal, Geothermal, and Solar Radiation Contributions Shu Gao This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3872376/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 25 Apr, 2024 Read the published version in Geo-Marine Letters → Version 1 posted 7 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Earth surface sedimentary processes involve the conversion of energy from tidal friction, geothermal heat release, and solar radiation. However, the net power consumption by sediment dynamic processes has received little attention, despite its relevance to the scale and evolution of sedimentary systems. This study aims to integrate the production rates and net power information, associated with rock weathering, biogenic sedimentation (organic particle, biogenic reef, and carbonate detrital sedimentation), continental shelf and coastal sedimentation (estuary and delta, sandy and gravel beach, and tidal flat sedimentation), and deep-sea sedimentation (sediment gravity flow, contour current, and pelagic-hemipelagic sedimentation). The results indicate that, although the oceans currently contain more than half of the global sediment mass, the net power consumed by various sedimentation processes represents only a minute fraction of the total power from their respective energy sources. This can be explained by macroscopic patterns of energy balance, limitations imposed by rock weathering and ecosystem spatial constraints, and the time scales of sedimentary cycling. Moreover, the total volume and temporal evolution of Earth's sediment are controlled by sediment production and removal processes, with the sedimentary record likely reaching its maximum extent, and the majority of sedimentary records having disappeared from surface environments. These analyses highlight a series of scientific questions that require further investigation, such as the energy conversion processes of weathering and biogenic activities, variations and adjustability of sedimentation power budgets, and changes in the completeness of sedimentary records over time. Marine sedimentation energy dissipation celestial tidal forces geothermal heat flux solar radiation material balance sedimentary record completeness 1 Introduction The total quantity of sediment accounts for approximately 5% of the Earth's crustal material (Davis, 1983 ). Since the average thickness of the crust is 17 km, with a total area of 5.1×10 8 km 2 and an average density of around 3 t m − 3 , the total mass of sediment is estimated to be around 1.3×10 18 t. Another estimate is based on carbonate sedimentation: assuming that the total carbon mass, approximately 50×10 15 t (Libes, 2009 ), is primarily composed of calcium carbonate, the mass of carbonate sediment would be around 4.2×10 17 t, which accounts for 20% of the total sediment mass (Davis, 1983 ); hence, the total mass of sediment becomes around 2.1×10 18 t, slightly different from the previous estimation but within the same order of magnitude. This suggests the magnitude of sediment accumulation since the emergence of weathering and biogenic processes on Earth. Although some material has been subsequently removed from the sedimentary system through the processes such as carbonate dissolution and subduction activity in submarine trenches, the cumulative effect over the geological periods is such that a total sediment mass reaches the order of 10 18 t. The energy required for the formation and deposition of sediment comes from tidal friction (resulting from a combined effect of Earth’s rotation and the celestial tide generating force), geothermal heat release from the Earth's interior, and solar radiation received by the Earth. The majority of tidal generating force is provided by the gravitational pull of the Moon and, at the present stage, the tidal friction induced energy dissipation is estimated to be at a rate of about 3.5 TW (1 TW = 10 12 W) (Cartwright, 1999 ). The geothermal heat flux from the Earth's interior is approximately 0.8 W m − 2 . Therefore, the total power output from the entire Earth's surface is estimated to be around 410 TW (Tarbuck and Lutgens, 2006 ). The total power of solar radiation is about 3.8×10 14 TW, with only a small fraction of it being received by the Earth. The average power of solar radiation received at the Earth's surface is approximately 340 W m − 2 , resulting in a total output power of around 1.7×10 5 TW (Wells, 2012 ). The surface sedimentary processes inevitably consume the three types of energy mentioned above. The question is: what is the proportion of net power consumption attributed to the eventually accumulated sedimentary deposits? The generation of terrestrial sediments relies on the weathering of parent rocks, whilst the sediments entering the Earth surface system may undergo multiple cycles of transport and accumulation, which are closely related to hydrodynamic processes such as river discharges, tides, waves, and ocean currents. However, the energy consumed in each cycle will not accumulate in the final sedimentary product but dissipated over the course of the lengthy process. As a result, the net power represented by the final sedimentary deposits may be significantly smaller than the total energy consumption throughout the entire process. Nevertheless, analyzing the proportion of net power among the three major output powers is beneficial to the understanding of the "efficiency" of sediment production in Earth's environment and its controlling mechanisms. Furthermore, research indicates that the majority of sediment is distributed in present-day marine environments (Pickering and Hiscott, 2015 ). From the perspective of Earth's evolutionary history, modern marine sediments have formed within the last 0.2 ga (1 ga = 1×10 9 a), while the sediment on the present continental surface is a product of the preceding 4.4 ga. Thus, the total proportion between the two periods is highly imbalanced. Sedimentary strata provide a record of Earth's history, and their completeness is of great importance when the deposits are taken as sedimentary archives of the geological history. Therefore, the objective of this study is to estimate the net power consumption associated with the formation, transportation, and deposition of different types of sediment in present-day marine environments. Further, the study aims to investigate the proportion of these processes in the overall power output and their controlling mechanisms. The analysis will also examine the impact of sediment budget on the formation of sedimentary records. Finally, additional scientific questions will be identified that require further investigations in the future. 2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Data Sources of Marine Sedimentation The relevant data and information required for analysis were collected from literature. This includes information on rock weathering processes and their products, biogenic sedimentation of organic particle and biogenic reef generated carbonate detrital materials, continental shelf and coastal sedimentation (i.e., estuary and delta, sandy and gravel beach, and tidal flat sedimentation), and deep-sea sedimentation (i.e., sediment gravity flow, contour current, and pelagic-hemipelagic sedimentation) Rock weathering includes physical, chemical, and biological processes. Thermal expansion and contraction cause rocks to crack, while the introduction of air, water, and biological material triggers chemical reactions. Biological processes such as plant growth and animal burrowing can also contribute to the breakdown of rock structures (Tarbuck and Lutgens, 2006 ). Weathering products often contain newly formed components with lower density, such as clay minerals, resulting in loose sediment having a lower density than the original rock. The process of rock disintegration or decomposition into sediment primarily occurs in terrestrial environments, with relatively weaker rock weathering on the seafloor. The essence of weathering processes is energy conversion, particularly solar energy. Since organisms themselves are products of solar radiation, biological weathering is also an indirect result of solar energy conversion (Hall et al., 2012 ). The ultimate products of weathering are commonly gravel, sand and mud (a mixture of clay and silt). In the global inventory of sediments and the sedimentary rocks formed by their compaction, the ratio of sand / gravel to mud material is approximately 3:5 (Davis, 1983 ). Particles formed by biological growth also fall under the category of sediment. Organic particulate matter from plant sources, skeletal remains from animals, shell fragments, and carbonate deposits on biogenic reefs are all examples of sediment particles that contain carbon. Carbonate deposits formed by biogenic reefs in the ocean are the largest part (Fagerstrom, 1987 ; Woodroffe and Webster, 2014 ). Global carbonate sediments contain approximately 50×10 15 t of carbon, which is about five times the total amount of particulate organic carbon (Libes, 2009 ). Overall, sediment derived from rock weathering accounts for 80% of the total, while biogenic sources contribute to the remaining 20% (Davis, 1983 ). Undoubtedly, organic particulate matter primarily originates from photosynthesis, which relies on solar energy consumption. The formation of biogenic reefs involves the growth of benthic organisms and is also a result of solar energy transfer within the ecosystem. Shelf and coastal deposition is the result of fluvial, tidal, wave, and shelf circulation transport processes (Dyer, 1986 ; Kim, 1992). Glaciers and the atmosphere also contribute material inputs, but their fluxes are an order of magnitude smaller than fluvial inputs (Hay, 1998 ). Weathered materials from watershed basins are transported by rivers, with some being trapped in estuarine bays and deltas, and much of the material being transported to shelf environments, where the gravelly shores of the inner shelf are characterized by beaches accreted by wave action, as well as tidal flats and tidal ridge deposits produced by tidal action (Woodroffe, 2002 ). On short time scales, a greater proportion of the land-sourced material is derived from erosional, accretionary cyclic processes (Clift and Jonell, 2021 ), but on long time scales it is all weathering products. The kinetic energy of rivers, tidal currents, waves, and shelf circulation is derived from solar and tidal energy, respectively. Shelf and coastal sedimentation results from fluvial, tidal, wave, and shelf circulation transport processes (Dyer, 1986 ; Jin, 1992 ). Glaciers and the atmosphere also contribute to sediment input, but their fluxes are an order of magnitude smaller than those from rivers (Hay, 1998 ). Weathered sediments from the drainage basin are transported by rivers, with some being trapped in estuaries and deltas, while the majority is transported to the shelf environment. On the inner shelf, beach deposits are formed by wave action, and tidal flats and tidal ridge deposits are created by tidal processes (Woodroffe, 2002 ). On shorter time scales, a significant proportion of terrestrial sediments come from erosion and deposition cycles (Clift and Jonell, 2021 ). However, on longer time scales, they are primarily derived from weathering processes. The kinetic energy of rivers, tidal currents, waves, and shelf circulation is derived from solar energy and tidal energy. Deep-sea sediments primarily originate from land and can be classified into three main types: sediment gravity flow, contour current, and pelagic-hemipelagic sedimentation, with transitional states between them (Rebesco et al., 2014 ; Stow and Smillie, 2020 ). Sediment gravity flow sedimentation are commonly found at continental margins and can take various forms, including slumping, submarine landslides, turbidity currents, grain flows, liquefied flows, and debris flows (Middleton and Hampton, 1976 ; Anderson, 1986 ; Pickering et al., 1989 ; Pickering and Hiscott, 2015 ; Sun et al., 2022 ). The underlying principle is the work done by gravity, and the potential energy associated with sediment at continental margins is primarily a result of the dissipation of internal heat within the Earth's geological history. Contourites and associated sediments are controlled by deep-water circulation processes; some of the sediments is originally derived from gravity flow deposits and re-enters the transport system through erosion processes (Stow and Lovell, 1979 ; Rebesco et al., 2014 ). Pelagic-hemipelagic sedimentation represents the settling of fine-grained sediments, sourced from either land or deep-sea areas of the continental margin, and influenced by gravity and/or ocean currents before deposition (Stow, 1981 ; Pickering and Hiscott, 2015 ; Mosher and Yanez-Carrizo, 2021 ). Therefore, these deposits are associated with gravity processes (which can be indirectly related to Earth’s thermal heat energy that causes tectonic movements and the resultant topographic differences) and solar energy-driven deep-sea circulation. 2.2 Energy Estimation of Land Weathering Processes Land weathering processes transform rocks into sediments, but the energy consumption associated with these processes is rarely addressed in the literature and lacks quantitative descriptions. In terms of physical weathering, temperature variations, changes in overlying load, and biological growth are the main factors. Regarding chemical weathering, chemical reactions require the involvement of external substances, such as precipitation, and the reaction rate is temperature-dependent. The energy balance in chemical reactions is complex and specific to the reaction equation. In the case of biotic weathering, both physical and chemical processes may be involved. Although researchers have emphasized the consideration of energy conversion when rocks are transformed into sediments through weathering processes (Hall et al., 2012 ), previous studies have focused mainly on the products and indicators of weathering processes while overlooking energy conversion. Due to the complexity of physical, chemical, and biological processes, it is challenging to summarize them with simple calculation formulas. Therefore, for the time being, the following order-of-magnitude estimation method is adopted. Starting with the process of rock weathering, the quantity of external substances required for weathering processes is calculated. Taking granite as a representative rock, assuming its composition consists of 30% quartz, 60% potassium feldspar, and 10% mica, the fundamental chemical reaction is the hydration of potassium feldspar, transforming it into clay minerals (Tarbuck and Lutgens, 2006 ): 2 K Al Si 3 O 8 + H 2 O + other substances → Al 2 Si 2 O 5 (OH) 4 + dissolved substances (1) From Eq. (1), the required amount of water can be estimated. Then, based on the sediment yield of weathering processes, the total mass of water involved in the reaction can be estimated, leading to the estimation of the required power: $$P=g Mw H /T$$ 2 where P is the power of weathering processes, g is the acceleration due to gravity, Mw is the water requirement for the transformation reaction per unit time, H is the elevation difference for transporting the required water from the ocean to the weathering site. In general, the water involved in weathering processes is transported through the global hydrological cycle, and its energy is derived from solar radiation. For the estimation of Mw, it is assumed that the flux of weathering products and sediments entering the ocean is consistent, which is approximately 2.0×10 10 t/a. Then, based on the composition of granite and the chemical reaction Eq. (1), the proportion of clay minerals in the flux entering the ocean can be calculated to obtain the value of Mw . The assumption in Eq. ( 2 ) is that the energy consumption of physical, chemical, and biological weathering processes is of the same order of magnitude. 2.3 Energy Estimation of Sediment Transport and Accumulation For the products of gravitational processes, the power resulting from the elevation difference between the deposition site and the source area can be calculated (when there is a slope, accompanied by horizontal movement, the energy is from the same source and does not need to be calculated separately): $$P=g M H /T$$ 3 where P is the power consumed by sediment accumulation, g is the acceleration due to gravity, M is the total mass of sediment (kg), H is the average vertical elevation difference from the source area to the deposition area (m), and T is the duration of the deposition (s). When the potential energy of sediment increases, Eq. ( 3 ) does not represent the work done by gravity but rather reflects the effect of external forces. For example, when the increase in sediment potential energy is caused by tidal flow transport, the energy is derived from tidal energy dissipation. Similarly, when the potential energy of sediment increases due to ocean circulation, the energy is sourced from solar radiation. For the products of fluvial processes, it is necessary to consider the horizontal displacement caused by water transport: $$P=k M L /T$$ 4 where k is the acceleration due to the force acting on the water flow, primarily to overcome bed resistance, and L is the horizontal transport distance (m). Studies in sediment dynamics have shown that only a small portion of the kinetic energy of water flow is used for net sediment transport. Submarine gravity flows rely on sediment potential energy for transport, and the transport distance can reach magnitudes of up to 10 3 km for a vertical drop of 10 0 km. Comparing Eqs. ( 3 ) and ( 4 ), it can be inferred that k should be much smaller than the acceleration due to gravity, approximately on the order of 10 − 3 of the acceleration. Therefore, in the estimation of this study, it is assumed that the energy consumption defined by Eqs. ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) is of the same order of magnitude, representing the conversion of potential energy. When this potential energy is derived from the work done by gravity, it is attributed to the dissipation of geothermal energy within the Earth's interior. When water flow is caused by tidal action or solar energy conversion (in the form of river runoff, waves, ocean circulation, etc.), it is attributed to the energy dissipation effects of tides or solar radiation. 2.4 Estimation of Solar Radiation Energy Fixed by Coral Reef Sedimentation Plants convert solar energy into chemical energy through photosynthesis, but the specific energy consumption data for the chemical reactions involved in photosynthesis are generally not provided. If the biomass of plants contained in the sediment (expressed as organic matter mass) is known, the power of solar radiation conversion can be represented as: $$P=Co M Hp / T$$ 5 where Co is the organic matter content of the sediment (%), M is the mass of the sediment (kg), and Hp is the heating value of unit mass of organic matter (J kg − 1 ). Biological reefs, especially coral reefs, have a more complex relationship with primary production. For example, coral polyps and zooxanthellae have a symbiotic relationship, and the growth of coral polyps is linked to primary production, secondary production, and even higher trophic levels (Fagerstrom, 1987 ). In this study, an indirect approach is used to estimate biomass based on the carbon fixation capacity of zooxanthellae, and then calculate the solar radiation conversion energy or power using the heating value of plants: $$P=A Mc Hp /\left(R T\right)$$ 6 where A is the area of the coral reef (m 2 ), Mc is the carbon fixation capacity of zooxanthellae per unit area (kg C m − 2 ), R is the carbon content of organic matter (%). In an ecosystem, the energy conversion ratio from primary production to secondary production may be approximately 7:1. However, coral polyps do not strictly fall into the category of secondary production, and coral reefs may have up to six trophic levels with lower conversion efficiency (Fagerstrom, 1987 ). Therefore, the ratio for coral reefs should be smaller than this value, and here it is assumed to be 10:1. In coral reef sediments, the organic matter content is low, and the carbon is primarily contained in the coral skeleton rather than organic matter. It is assumed that the energy consumption of this production is equivalent to the conversion from primary production to coral polyp energy. Thus, the total sediment mass and corresponding power of coral reef sediments are given by: $$Ms= \int A Gs dt$$ 7 $$P=Ks A Mc Hp /\left(R T\right)$$ 8 In Eq. ( 7 ), Ms represents the total sediment mass of the coral reef, Gs is the average coral skeleton production rate, and the integration is performed over the growth period of the coral reef. In Eq. ( 8 ), Ks represents the energy conversion ratio from primary production to coral polyps. Globally, coral reefs are the main component of bioherms, so Eqs. ( 7 ) and ( 8 ) approximate the situation for the entire bioherm. 3 Results 3.1 Energy Consumption in Weathering Products Under the conditions described in Eqs. (1) and ( 2 ), every 2 molecules of potassium feldspar are transformed into 1 molecule of clay minerals, which means that 556 units of potassium feldspar form 298 units of clay minerals. Additionally, if the composition of the parent rock, granite, is 60% potassium feldspar, 30% quartz, and 10% mica, then for every 100 molecules of quartz (molecular weight 60) in the weathering products, 43 molecules of potassium feldspar (molecular weight 278) and 8 molecules of mica (molecular weight 254) are required. This means that the sediment formed by weathering processes contains 298 units of clay minerals (44%), 279 units of quartz (42%), and 93 units of mica (14%). Among these, the production of clay minerals consumes 18 units of water. Assuming that the total sediment yield is 2.0×10 10 t a − 1 , which is equivalent to the flux of riverine input to the ocean, the amount of water required would be 0.054×10 10 t a − 1 . This water is transported from the ocean, and the energy required comes from solar radiation. Weathering processes occur on land, with an average elevation of 840 m (Sverdrup et al., 2005 ). According to Eq. ( 2 ), the power consumed would be 1.4×10 − 4 TW, considering a duration of 1 year as 3.2×10 7 s. 3.2 Energy Consumption in Shelf and Coastal Sediment Transport and Deposition Terrestrial sediments are initially transported from inland to coastal and shelf regions (Petley, 2010 ). The flux of riverine sediment input to the ocean is on the order of 2.0×10 10 t a − 1 (Milliman and Farnsworth, 2011 ). It is assumed that 30% of this accumulates in deltas, while 70% is transported to the continental shelfs (some of which is further transported by waves and tidal currents to adjacent coastal areas and accumulates). Based on this assumption, considering that the initiation time of river deltas is mostly around 7000 a BP, approximately 4.2×10 13 t, or 2.6×10 4 km 3 (converted using a sediment bulk density of 1.6 t m − 3 ), of sediment has been intercepted by rivers in the total amount of sediment input to the ocean during the Holocene. This estimation can be corroborated by the actual scale of global river deltas. For the individual Holocene sedimentary systems formed in estuarine areas, the Ganges Delta is the largest, with a spatial scale on the order of 10 3 km 3 (Allison et al., 2003 ), while the Holocene sedimentation of the land portion of the Changjiang River Delta is approximately 400 km³ (Li et al., 2002 ). Globally, the combined drainage basin area of the largest 20-plus rivers that discharge into the ocean accounts for one-third of the Earth's land area, with sediment fluxes representing 40% of the global total (Corbett et al., 2006 ). These large-scale rivers have deltaic sediment retention indices (the ratio of retained sediment mass in deltas to river sediment flux) exceeding 30% (Li et al., 2021 ). Table 1 presents the top 10 rivers with higher sediment fluxes globally, illustrating this characteristic. It is important to note that the retention indices presented here represent average values during the Holocene. As the delta front advances seaward, the retention indices gradually decrease (Gao, 2007 ), which also explains why smaller rivers struggle to form deltas. Milliman and Farnsworth ( 2011 ) provided data on the drainage basin area, river length, and sediment flux into the ocean for 1,534 rivers worldwide, with the majority being smaller rivers. Therefore, the global average retention index should be lower than the values observed for larger rivers. According to Eq. ( 3 ), estimating M as 4.2×10 16 kg and taking T as 220×10 9 s, with an elevation difference of 840 m between sediment transport and deposition based on the average land elevation, the power expended in global river delta sediment transport and deposition is calculated to be 1.6×10 − 3 TW. Although the water in rivers is input into the land interior as part of the global hydrological cycle, the movement of river water itself is driven by gravity, and it is the elevation difference between the inland and sea level that causes rivers to flow into the ocean. Therefore, this portion of power is attributable to the work done by gravity, while the initial land elevation is determined by crustal movements driven by the Earth's internal heat, making it a component of geothermal power. When river sediment is transported to the continental shelf, the work done by gravity is higher than to the delta, as the elevation of the continental shelf further decreases, resulting in an average increase in elevation difference of approximately 70 m. Therefore, the value of H in Eq. ( 3 ) needs to be adjusted to 910 m. Consequently, during the Holocene, a total of 9.8×10 13 t of sediment entered the continental shelf area, consuming a net power of 4.0×10 − 3 TW. Table 1 Scale of major river deltas worldwide (estimated sediment thickness based on the following references: Coleman et al., 1998 ; Saito et al., 2001 ; Ta et al., 2002 ; Allison et al., 2003 ; Bui et al., 2011 ; Milliman and Farnsworth, 2011 ; Stanley and Clemente, 2014 ; Fricke et al., 2019 ; Liu et al., 2020 ; Clift et al., 2021). Depositional Location Land Area (×10⁴ km²) Sediment Thickness (m) Sediment Flux to the Ocean (Mt/yr) Holocene Retention Index (%) Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta 6.5 30 1060 42 Amazon River Delta 2.4 100 1200 46 Changjiang River Delta 2.5 25 470 30 Huanghe River Delta 1.8 10 1100 26 Mississippi River Delta 3.0 35 400 60 Irrawaddy River Delta 3.2 20 360 40 Mekong River Delta 4.4 5 ~ 15 150 67 Indus River Delta 4.1 15 250 60 Nile River Delta 2.4 5–15 120 46 Red River Delta 1.3 20 110 54 The transport and deposition of beach and coastal dune sediments are caused by the lateral transport of waves and the onshore wind action, with energy derived from solar radiation. Assuming that the volume of beach and coastal dunes is 25% of the delta deposition, the average vertical displacement from the source area to the accumulation area under wave action is set as 50% of the distance from the wave base to the top of the wave-deposited beach. The additional vertical displacement due to onshore wind transport is equivalent to 50% of the sediment thickness of the dunes. In general, the elevation of the top of coastal dunes is less than 60 m, with the highest being > 100m, but such cases are rare (Gao, 2009 ). Therefore, the total vertical displacement is taken as 40 m. According to Eq. ( 3 ), the power required to increase the potential energy is estimated to be 1.9×10 − 5 TW. Additionally, assuming a horizontal transport distance of 10 km for sediment transport, according to Eq. ( 4 ), this would require a power consumption of 0.47×10 − 5 TW. Tidal deposits mainly consist of tidal flats and tidal ridges, and the energy required for the deposition process is derived from tidal energy; horizontal transport is due to tidal currents, and fine-grained sediment can accumulation at the level of high water on spring, a process of kinetic energy being transformed into potential energy (Gao, 2022 ). According to remote sensing analysis, the global intertidal zone has an area of 127,921 km², with a majority being tidal flats (Murray et al., 2019 ). Additionally, some tidal flats have become land and are therefore not included in the remote sensing statistics. Taking all these factors into consideration, the area of tidal flat coastal plains is estimated to be 2×10 5 km². The average thickness of tidal flat deposits ranges from 10 0 ~10 2 m, but for the purpose of estimation, an average thickness of 40 m is assumed, along with an average vertical displacement elevation of 40 m. The deposition period covers the last 7,000 years since the high sea level during the last glacial period. Based on Eq. ( 3 ), the estimated power consumed for the increase in potential energy of global tidal flat sediment is 2.3×10 − 8 TW. The horizontal transport distance of fine-grained sediment by tidal currents from the source area to the deposition location is on the order of 10 1 ~10 2 km, and it is assumed to be 10 2 km. According to Eq. ( 4 ), the power consumed for this transport is estimated to be 5.7×10 − 8 TW. The energy for the transport and deposition of tidal flat sediment is derived from tidal kinetic energy. Tidal ridges are accumulations formed by the action of rectilinear tidal currents on sandy seabed or by modifying pre-existing deposits. They are distributed in various environments such as open continental shelves, bays-estuaries, and headlands (Pattiaratchi and Collins, 1987 ; Collins et al., 1995 ; Dyer and Huntley, 1999 ; Liu and Xia, 2004 ). The scale of the tidal ridge system on the inner shelf is on the order of 10 3 ~10 4 km 2 km² (Ren et al., 1986; Collins et al., 1995 ; Knaapen, 2009 ), while for bays-estuaries, it ranges from 10 2 ~10 3 km² (Pattiaratchi and Collins, 1987 ; Harris et al., 1992 ; Horrillo-Caraballo and Reeve, 2008 ), and for headlands (headland-associated sandbanks), it is on the order of 10 2 km² (Geyer, 1993 ; Bastos et al., 2004 ; McCarroll et al., 2020 ). The height difference between the trough and crest of the tidal ridges ranges from 15 ~ 40 m, and the ridge spacing is 1 ~ 5 km. Under the action of tidal currents, sediment is transported from the trough to the crest of the ridges, and the ridges can extend in both directions. The time scale for the formation of the entire system is on the order of 10 2 ~10 3 years. Considering a global total area on the order of 10 5 km², a height difference of 40 m for the troughs, a deposition period of 2000 a (63×10 9 s), and a horizontal transport distance of 10 2 km, the power consumed for sediment transport to the ridges and the extension of tidal ridges can be estimated using Eqs. ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) as 2.0×10 − 8 TW and 1.0×10 − 7 TW, respectively. 3.3 Energy Consumption in Deep-Sea Gravity Flow, Contour Current, and Pelagic-hemipelagic Sedimentation Gravity sediment flows at continental margins cause changes in the potential energy of shelf sediments, with a height difference on the order of magnitude of 4000 meters from the shelf to the deep sea. Gravity flow deposits accumulate in the form of submarine fans on the deep-sea floor adjacent to the continental shelf or fill trench forearcs and deep-water margin seas. The largest submarine fan in the world is located in the Bay of Bengal in the Indian Ocean, with a length of approximately 3000 km, width of about 1000 km, maximum thickness of 16.5 km, and a total volume of 10 6 ~10 7 km 3 . The total mass of sediment approaches 10 17 t, and its deposition began around 5×10 7 a ago (Curray et al., 2002 ). Other large-scale submarine fans have sediment masses of 10 15 t, such as those offshore the Amazon River Estuary and the Indus River Estuary (Wetzel, 1993 ; Figueiredo et al., 2009 ; Clift and Jonell, 2021 ). In areas with limited sediment supply, gravity flow deposits and submarine fans are smaller in scale, resulting in smaller sediment masses (Stow, 1981 ; Piper et al., 1984 ; Piper, 2005 ; Bentley et al., 2016 ; Maier et al., 2020 ). Table 2 presents representative examples of large, medium, and small-scale submarine fans, with formation timescales ranging from 10 ~ 60 Ma. In the estimation, the sediment mass is set at 2×10 17 t, and the duration is set at 30 Ma, resulting in a power consumption of 8.2×10 − 3 TW. Table 2 Scale and formation age of some representative submarine fans worldwide Submarine Fan Name Sediment Mass (10 15 t) Formation Age (Ma) References Bay of Bengal 10 ~ 100 59 Curray et al., 2002 Amazon River 2.6 12 Figueiredo et al., 2009 ; Ketzer et al., 2018 Indus River 1.4 45 Clift and Jonell, 2021 Mississippi Rive 0.12 10 Weimer, 1990 ; Bentley et al., 2016 St. Lawrence River 0.10 23 Piper et al., 1984 ; Piper, 2005 The gravity flow deposits in trench and deep-water margin seas may be on the same order of magnitude as submarine fans in terms of sediment mass. After sediment enters the trench, it may reside there for some time before eventually being completely subducted into the Earth's mantle. In some dying basins, such as the Mediterranean Sea, temporary accumulation of sediment also occurs. Marginal seas are a special phenomenon in the Western Pacific and surrounding regions during the Cenozoic, with their initiation dating back approximately 30 Ma BP. The rifting of the South China Sea began around 37 Ma BP and has since received 7.0×10 6 km 3 , or 1.4×10 16 t of terrigenous sediment (Wang and Li, 2009 ). The Holocene sediments in the northern part of the Andaman Sea Basin in Myanmar amount to 1075 km 3 , or 1.3×10 12 t, sourced from the Irrawaddy River (Liu et al., 2020 ); if the timescale is extended to 30 Ma BP, it can also reach the order of 10 15 t. Other marginal basins, such as the East China Sea and the Japan Sea, have sediment thickness ranges of 10 2 ~10 4 m (Jin et al., 1992; Qin et al., 1996 ; Yoon et al., 2014 ; Varkouhi et al., 2020 ). Assuming a sediment mass of 1×10 17 t and a duration of 30 Ma, the power consumption would be approximately 4.1×10 − 3 TW. Contourites are the product of the movement and accumulation of sediments under the influence of deep-water circulation processes. These deposits are sourced partly from the reworked pre-existing seafloor sediments and partly from the recently deposited gravity flow sediments. Rebesco et al. ( 2014 ) provided characteristics of 116 major contourites systems worldwide, with the majority distributed in the Atlantic Ocean. The dimensions of the deposits are as follows: length of 10 2 km, width of 10 1 km, thickness of 10 2 to 10 3 m, and deposition rate of 10 − 1 m ka − 1 (Stow and Lovell, 1979 ; Pickering et al., 1989 ; Pickering and Hiscott, 2015 ). Therefore, the mass of an individual deposit is on the order of 10 12 t, and the total mass of the 116 major contourites systems ranges from 10 14 t ~ 10 15 t. Assuming a total mass of 10 14 t ~ 10 15 t, an average transport distance of 10 3 km, and a sediment thickness of 500 m, according to Eqs. ( 3 ) and ( 4 ), the potential energy gain and power consumption due to horizontal transport of the deposits over a 10 Ma period are estimated to be 7.7×10 − 5 TW and 3.1×10 − 5 TW, respectively. The energy is derived solely from solar radiation. Pelagic-semipelagic sedimentation are the result of the settling of suspended particles and originate from various sources, including the diffusion of fluvial sediments, glacial and atmospheric transport, sediment gravity flow processes, and marine biological processes. If the area of the deep sea is approximately 2.8×10 8 km 2 and the average thickness of offshore sediments is 500 m (Pinet, 1992 ), then the total mass of these sediments is estimated to be 2.2×10 17 t, representing the accumulation over the past 100 Ma. Hay et al. ( 1988 ) suggested that the total mass of sediments accumulated on the seafloor over the past 34 Ma is approximately 2.6×10 17 t, which exceeds this value. However, it is important to note that this estimate applies to the entire ocean. Assuming an average depth of 4 km for the deep sea, the power expended by gravity through work is estimated to be 2.7×10 − 3 TW, and the power loss caused by ocean currents and atmospheric processes is assumed to be of the same order of magnitude. 3.4 Solar Radiation Fixation in Coral Reef Sediments Global coral reef area estimated at 25×10 4 km 2 (Woodroffe and Webster, 2014 ), and are predominantly distributed in tropical oceans. Primary production of coral reef Cordyceps sinensis was set to be 0.4 kg C m − 2 in 1a time, resulting in a total primary production of 1.0×10 11 kg a − 1 over an area of 25×10 4 km 2 ; the calorific value of the Cordyceps sinensis biomass was taken to be 15 MJ kg − 1 , and the trophic exchange rate from Cordyceps sinensis to coral was set to be 10%. According to Eqs. ( 6 ) and ( 8 ), the power consumed is 1.2×10 − 2 TW. Coral reef sediments are relatively low in organic matter, the carbon contained is mainly contained in coral skeletons rather than in organic matter, and the maximum coral skeleton yield is 60 kg m − 2 , with a minimum of less than 1 kg m − 2 (cf. Gao, 2023 ). Therefore, a value of 10 kg m − 2 is a reasonable estimate. Based on this value, Eq. ( 7 ) gives a global coral reef biogenic sedimentation output of 2.5×10 9 t a − 1 . 4 Discussion The combined results of the above sub-estimates (Table 3 ) show that the power consumed by the energy required for sedimentation from generation to accumulation is a very small percentage of the celestial tidal generating force (3.5 TW), the internal heat release of the Earth (410 TW), and the solar radiation (1.7×10 5 TW). Tidal deposition consumes 5.7 × 10 − 8 of the tidal force, deposition associated with the Earth's internal heat energy accounts for 5.0 × 10 − 5 of its total power, and deposition associated with solar radiant energy accounts for only 7.4 × 10 − 8 of its total power. Among the calculations in this study, the greatest source of uncertainty lies in the energy conversion required for sediment generation. The energy conversion relationship involved in the weathering process, which transforms rocks into sediment, lacks sufficient information, making accurate calculations challenging. While the impact of watershed weathering on sediment characteristics within the basin (Dellinger et al., 2015 ), the degree of chemical weathering (Wu et al., 2016 ), and environmental factors (Ke et al., 2023) are all important, it is more important to strengthen research on energy conversion in the future. This research should consider both internal energy conversion within the system (Luo, 1987 ) and the exchange of energy between the system and its external environment (Hall et al., 2012 ). Table 3 Net power and proportional contributions of energy sources to global marine sedimentation Depositional System Sediment Mass (10 15 t) Time Scale Net Power Consumption (TW) Energy Sources Proportional Power Contribution Rock Weathering 2.0×10 − 5 1 a 1.4×10 − 4 Solar radiation 8.2×10 − 10 Carbonate Deposition 2.5×10 − 6 1 a 1.2×10 − 2 Solar radiation 7.1×10 − 8 River Deltas 0.042 7 ka 1.6×10 − 3 Gravitational / thermal energy 3.6×10 − 6 Continental Shelf 0.098 7 ka 4.0×10 − 3 Gravitational / thermal energy 9.8×10 − 6 Beaches and Coastal Dunes 0.011 < 7 ka 2.4×10 − 5 Solar radiation 1.4×10 − 10 Tidal Flats 0.013 7 ka 8.0×10 − 8 Tidal generating force 2.3×10 − 8 Tidal Ridges 0.0064 2 ka 1.2×10 − 7 Tidal generating force 3.4×10 − 8 Submarine Gravity Flows (Submarine Fans) 200 10 ~ 60 Ma 8.2×10 − 3 Gravitational / thermal energy 2.0×10 − 5 Submarine Gravity Flows (Marginal Seas, Trench Fillings) 100 30 Ma 4.1×10 − 3 Gravitational / thermal energy 1.0×10 − 5 contour current Sedimentation 10 10 Ma 1.1×10 − 4 Solar radiation 6.4×10 − 10 Pelagic-hemipelagic Sedimentation I 220 100 Ma 2.7×10 − 3 Gravitational / thermal energy 6.6×10 − 6 Pelagic-hemipelagic Sedimentation II 220 100 Ma 2.7×10 − 3 Solar radiation 1.6×10 − 9 The energy expenditure and conversion associated with sediment formation through biologically mediated pathways, particularly in the context of carbonate deposition, remain poorly understood and underrepresented in the literature. This study aims to address the energy requirements and conversion rates involved in the processes spanning from primary production to secondary production, including the formation of animal skeletal remains. The limited research available primarily provides rough estimations of energy transfer among trophic levels, offering only indirect and approximate assessments. From an ecological perspective, this study emphasizes the importance of investigating energy transmission, conversion, and cycling within the framework of ecosystem dynamics. It highlights the need for enhanced research in this area to provide a more comprehensive understanding of carbonate sedimentation from an energy standpoint. A significant portion of the material in the terrestrial sediment flux to the ocean represents recycled components within the system rather than fresh weathering products. Furthermore, there are time scale considerations to be addressed. For instance, the time scale of coastal and continental shelf sedimentation in the Holocene is on the order of 7 ka. However, over longer time scales, the modification and reworking of these sediments occur due to sea-level fluctuations on the order of 10 2 meters. As a result, the cumulative effect of net power over time leads to a further reduction in net power. In the present marine environment, the time scale associated with plate tectonics determines the characteristics of marine sedimentation. If the calculation of net power is unified on a time scale of 0.2 ga, the data in Table 3 may be overestimated. If 0.2 ga of ocean deposition is considered, it leads to the question of the total amount of sediment on the Earth's surface and its evolution over time. Currently, marine sediments account for approximately 65% of the global sediment mass (Pickering and Hiscott, 2015 ). Therefore, sediments generated in the earlier 4.4 Ga only represent 35% of the total sediment mass, and they are predominantly concentrated on present land areas. Because a large fraction of the incoming sediment is of continental origin (Clift and Jonell, 2021 ) and transport fluxes are relatively stable over long time scales (Gilluly, 1964 ), deposition of the earlier 4.4 ga is still gradually decreasing. In addition to land sediment loss due to the flux into the ocean, processes such as weathering and dissolution of carbonate rocks exposed to the atmosphere, sediment transport associated with subduction zones, and magma melting further contribute to the global sediment loss. From a material balance perspective, the evolution of Earth's sediment mass may have reached a final steady state, indicating that the amount of newly generated sediment is equal to the various losses, resulting in a stable total sediment mass. In this scenario, considering a total sediment mass on the order of 10 18 t and an annual sediment flux into the ocean on the order of 10 10 t, the average residence time of sediment would be on the order of 10 8 a. This suggests that sediment has undergone numerous cycles over the past 4.6 ga. While a significant amount of sediment has been generated in the past, it has now disappeared. From a long-term perspective, the preservation potential and integrity of sedimentary sequences are very low, as highlighted by Charles Darwin in his book "On the Origin of Species" when discussing the fossil record. Sediments serve as both active participants and recorders of environmental change, making them a crucial source of information for studying Earth's evolutionary history. If the total sediment mass ceases to increase, the integrity of sedimentary records will gradually decline over time. The data presented in Table 3 indicate that the net power required for sediment generation is very low. In light of this, is it possible to slightly increase the contribution from the three major power sources to enhance sediment production? The answer to this question involves understanding the controlling mechanisms behind the characteristic values of net power. The small values of net power characteristics are related to the dynamics of sedimentary systems. The formation of sediment requires specific physical, chemical, and biological conditions. Firstly, the parent rock needs to be exposed to an environment conducive to weathering. Despite loose sediments representing a small proportion of Earth's surface, they cover over 75% of the total surface area. This means that a significant amount of parent rock is not exposed to the atmosphere. As a result, various weathering processes proceed at an extremely slow pace, imposing spatial limitations. In marine environments, the coverage of seawater has a similar effect. Secondly, in addition to physical and chemical factors, biological growth is constrained by various parameters such as light, temperature, salinity, and nutrient availability. While primary productivity on Earth's surface is already high, the efficiency of energy conversion limits the abundance of biological particles. Furthermore, similar to the constraints on parent rock weathering, there are spatial limitations on biological growth. In marine environments, only the upper water column supports photosynthesis by phytoplankton, and coral reefs contribute to carbonate sedimentation, but the growth space for corals is relatively small. Finally, regarding sediment transport and deposition, the power provided by the three major energy sources is predominantly consumed in energy cycling. The primary consumption of atmospheric radiant energy is through reflection back into space, with only a very small fraction utilized for the generation of ocean currents, waves, and water and atmosphere transport. The transport processes are repetitive, and transport in different directions tends to cancel each other out, resulting in a minimal net effect. The majority of the power is consumed through energy dissipation processes such as friction. To increase net power, macroscopic environmental conditions become crucial. In the early stages of Earth's history, more parent rock was exposed on the Earth's surface, making it more susceptible to weathering. During certain geological periods, the rate of carbonate sedimentation was higher than it is today. During periods of smaller land areas and weaker plate tectonic activity, the loss of sediment was also less pronounced. Therefore, in the future, there is the possibility of changing the net power associated with sedimentation in the Earth's environment, and it may even be achievable through human intervention. 5 Conclusions (1) Although the oceans currently contain more than half of the global sediment mass, the power consumed in the process from sediment generation to deposition is relatively low. Tidal sedimentation accounts for a power consumption of 5.7×10 − 8 of the tidal generating forces. Sedimentation associated with internal heat energy of the Earth accounts for 5.0×10 − 5 of the total power, while sedimentation related to solar radiation energy conversion only accounts for 7.4×10 − 8 of the total power. (2) The low values of net power characteristics are controlled by the dynamic mechanisms of sedimentary systems, which can be explained by factors such as the macroscopic energy balance, spatial limitations imposed by parent rock weathering and ecosystems, and the temporal scales of sediment cycling. (3) The energy conversions involved in the formation and evolution of sedimentary systems are worthy of exploration. Scientific questions include the energy conversion processes of weathering and biological activities, variations and adjustability of net power balance in sedimentation, and changes in the completeness of sedimentary records over time. Declarations Author Contribution SG completed the study and wrote the manuscript.Other statements: not applicable. Acknowledgements: This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (41530962). The author would like to express his gratitude to Prof. Xianglong Jin for his guidance and assistance in the study of sedimentation processes on the shelf and coast of the East China Sea, and the formation and evolution of the South China Sea (an important marginal sea). Author Declarations See the filled “Declarations” form; otherwise, it is 'Not applicable' for the following: o Funding (information that explains whether and by whom the research was supported) o Conflicts of interest/Competing interests (include appropriate disclosures) o Availability of data and material (data transparency) o Code availability (software application or custom code) o Authors' contributions o Ethics approval (include appropriate approvals or waivers) o Consent to participate (include appropriate statements) o Consent for publication (include appropriate statements) References Allison MA, Khan SR, Goodbred SL, Kuehl SA (2003) Stratigraphic evolution of the late Holocene Ganges-Brahmaputra lower delta plain. Sed Geol 155:317–342 Anderson RN (1986) Marine geology: a planet earth perspective. John Wiley, New York, p 328 Bastos AC, Paphitis D, Collins M (2004) Short-term dynamics and maintenance processes of headland-associated sandbanks: Shambles Bank - English Channel (UK). Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 59: 33–47 Bentley SJ, Blum MD, Maloney J, Pond L, Paulsell R (2016) The Mississippi River source-to-sink system: perspectives on tectonic, climatic, and anthropogenic influences, Miocene to Anthropocene. Earth Sci Rev 153:139–174 Bui DD, Kawamura A, Tong TN, Amaguchi H, Iseri NY (2011) Identification of aquifer system in the whole Red River Delta, Vietnam. Geosci J 15:323–338 Cartwright DE (1999) Tides: a scientific history. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p 292 Clift PD, Jonell TN (2021) Monsoon controls on sediment generation and transport: mass budget and provenance constraints from the Indus River catchment, delta and submarine fan over tectonic and multimillennial timescales. Earth Sci Rev 220:103682 Coleman JM, Roberts HH, Stone GW (1998) Mississippi River delta: an overview. J Coastal Res 14:699–716 Collins MB, Shimwell SJ, Gao S, Powell H, Hewitson C, Taylor JA (1995) Water and sediment movement in the vicinity of linear sandbanks: the Norfolk Banks, southern North Sea. Mar Geol 123:125–142 Corbett DR, McKee B, Allison M (2006) Nature of decadal-scale sediment accumulation on the western shelf of the Mississippi River delta. Cont Shelf Res 26:2125–2140 Curray JR, Emmel FJ, Moore DG (2002) The Bengal Fan: morphology, geometry, stratigraphy, history and processes. Mar Pet Geol 19:1191–1223 Davis RA, Jr (1983) Depositional systems: a genetic approach to sedimentary geology. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs (NJ), p 669 Dellinger M, Gaillardet J, Bouchez J, Calmels D, Louvat P, Dosseto A, Gorge C, Alanoca L, Maurice L (2015) Riverine Li isotope fractionation in the Amazon River basin controlled by the weathering regimes. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 164:71–93 Dyer KR, Huntley DA (1999) The origin, classification and modelling of sand banks and ridges. Cont Shelf Res 19:1285–1330 Dyer KR (1986) Coastal and estuarine sediment dynamics. John Wiley, Chichester, p 342 Fagerstrom JA (1987) The evolution of reef communities. John Wiley, New York, p 600 Figueiredo J, Hoorn C, van der Ven P, Soares E (2009) Late Miocene onset of the Amazon River and the Amazon deep-sea fan: evidence from the Foz do Amazonas Basin. Geology 37:619–622 Fricke AT, Nittrouer CA, Ogston AS, Nowacki DJ, Asp NE, Souza Filhoet PM (2019) Morphology and dynamics of the intertidal floodplain along the Amazon tidal river. Earth Surf Process Land 44:204–218 Gao S (2007) Modeling the growth limit of the Changjiang Delta. Geomorphology 85:225–236 Gao S (2009) Morphological and migration characteristics of large-scaled submarine, coastal and desert sand dunes. Earth Sci Front 16:13–22 (in Chinese with English abstract) Gao S (2022) Human utilization of mega-deltas: the importance of tidally modulated ground surface elevation. Anthropocene Coasts 5:2 Gao S (2023) Process-product relationships of atoll deposition systems: a preliminary testing of exploratory modeling. Oceanologia et Limnologia Sinica 54:1–15 (in Chinese with English abstract) Geyer RW (1993) Three-dimensional tidal flow around headlands. J Phys Res 98(C1):955–966 Gilluly J (1964) Atlantic sediments, erosion rates, and the evolution of the continental shelf: some speculations. Geol Soc Am Bull 75:483–492 Hall K, Thorn C, Sumner P (2012) On the persistence of weathering. Geomorphology 149–150:1–10 Harris PT, Pattiaratchi CB, Cole AR, Keene JB (1992) Evolution of subtidal sandbanks in Moreton Bay, eastern Australia. Mar Geol 103:225–247 Hay WW, Sloan JL, Wold CN (1988) Mass/age distribution and composition of sediments on the ocean floor and the global rate of sediment subduction. J Phys Res 93(B12):14933–14940 Hay WW (1998) Detrital sediment fluxes from continents to oceans. Chem Geol 145:287–323 Horrillo-Caraballo JM, Reeve DE (2008) Morphodynamic behaviour of a nearshore sandbank system: the Great Yarmouth Sandbanks, UK. Mar Geol 254:91–106 Jin X (ed) (1992) East China Sea Geology. Ocean, Beijing, p 524. (in Chinese) Kei F, Xu J, Zhang P, Bao Z, Ma L, Zong C (2023) A 200 ka record of continental weathering for northwestern Australian margin based on magnesium isotopes and its response to Australian paleo-monsoon. Acta Geol Sinica 97:565–582 (in Chinese with English abstract) Ketzer JM, Augustin A, Rodrigues LF, Oliveira R, Praeg D, Gomez Pivel MA, dos Reis AT, Silva C, Leonel B (2018) Gas seeps and gas hydrates in the Amazon deep-sea fan. Geo-Mar Lett 38:429–438 Knaapen M (2009) Sandbank occurrence on the Dutch continental shelf in the North Sea. Geo-Mar Lett 29:17–24 Li B, Li C, Sheng H (2002) A preliminary study of sedimentary fluxes in the Yangtze River Delta during the late ice age. Sci China (D) 32:776–782 (in Chinese) Li GC, Xia Q, Wang YP, Li ZQ, Gao S (2021) Geometric modeling of Holocene large-river delta growth patterns, as constrained by environmental settings. Sci China: Earth Sci 64:318–328 Libes SM (2009) An Introduction to Marine Biogeochemistry (2nd edition). Amsterdam: Academic Press, 909 Liu JP, Kuehl SA, Pierce AC, Williams J, Blair NE, Harris C, Aung DW, Aye YY (2020) Fate of Ayeyarwady and Thanlwin Rivers sediments in the Andaman Sea and Bay of Bengal. Mar Geol 423:106137 Liu Z, Xia D (2004) Tidal Sands in the China Seas. China Ocean Press, Beijing, 222 pp. (in Chinese) Luo J (1987) Two reaction equations of chemical weathering. Geol Rev 33:291–296 (in Chinese with English abstract) Maier KL, Paul CK, Caress DW, Anderson K, Fildani A (2020) Submarine-fan development revealed by integrated high-resolution datasets from La Jolla Fan, offshore California, U.S.A. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 90: 468–479 McCarroll RJ, Masselink G, Valiente NG, Wiggins M, Scott T, Conley DC, King EV (2020) Impact of a headland-associated sandbank on shoreline dynamics. Geomorphology 355:107065 Middleton GV, Hampton MA (1976) Subaqueous sediment transport and deposition by sediment gravity flows. In: Stanley DJ, Swift DJP (eds) Marine sediment transport and environmental management. John Wiley, New York, pp 197–218 Milliman JD, Farnsworth KL (2011) River discharge to the coastal ocean: a global synthesis.Cambridge. Cambridge University Press, p 384 Mosher DC, Yanez-Carrizo G (2021) The elusive continental rise: Insights from residual bathymetry analysis of the Northwest Atlantic margin. Earth Sci Rev 217:103608 Murray NJ, Phinn SR, DeWitt M, Ferrari R, Johnston R, Lyons MB, Clinton N, Thau D, Fuller A (2019) The global distribution and trajectory of tidal flats. Nature 565:222–225 Pattiaratchi C, Collins M (1987) Mechanisms for linear sandbank formation and maintenance in relation to dynamical oceanographic observations. Prog Oceanogr 19:117–176 Petley DN (2010) The continental shelf and continental slop. In: Burt T, Allison R (eds) Sediment cascades: an integrated approach. Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester, pp 433–448 Pickering KT, Hiscott RN (2015) Deep marine systems: processes, deposits, environments, tectonics and sedimentation. American Geophysical Union: Wiley, p 672 Pickering KT, Hiscott RN, Hein FJ (1989) Deep-marine environments: classic sedimentation and tectonics. Unwin Hyman, London, p 416 Pinet PR (1992) Oceanography: an introduction to the planet oceanus. West Publishing Company, St. Paul, p 571 Piper DJW (2005) Late Cenozoic evolution of the continental margin of eastern Canada. Nor Geol Tidsskr 85:305–318 Piper DJW, Stow DAV, Normark WR (1984) The Laurentian Fan: Sohm abyssal plain. Geo-Mar Lett 3:141–146 Qin YS, Zhao YY, Chen LR, Zhao SL (1996) Geology of the East China Sea. Science, Beijing, p 357 Rebesco M, Hernández-Molina FJ, Van Rooij D, Wahlin A (2014) Contourites and associated sediments controlled by deep-water circulation processes: state-of-the-art and future considerations. Mar Geol 352:111–154 Ren ME (ed) (1986) Comprehensive investigation of the coastal zone and tidal land resources of Jiangsu Province. Ocean, Beijing, p 517. (in Chinese) Saito Y, Yang Z, Hori K (2001) The Huanghe (Yellow River) and Changjiang (Yangtze River) deltas: a review on their characteristics, evolution and sediment discharge during the Holocene. Geomorphology 41:219–231 Stanley JD, Clemente PL (2014) Clay distributions, grain sizes, sediment thicknesses, and compaction rates to interpret subsidence in Egypt's northern Nile Delta. J Coastal Res 30:88–101 Stow DAV (1981) Laurentian Fan: morphology, sediments, processes, and growth pattern. Am Assoc Pet Geol Bull 65:375–393 Stow DAV, Lovell JPB (1979) Contourites: their recognition in modern and ancient sediments. Earth Sci Rev 14:251–291 Stow D, Smillie Z (2020) Distinguishing between deep-water sediment facies: turbidites, contourites and hemipelagites. Geosciences 10:68 Sun QL, Wang Q, Shi FY, Alves T, Gao S, Xie XN, Wu SG, Li GB (2022) Runup of landslide-generated tsunamis controlled by paleogeography and sea-level change. Commun Earth Environ 3:244 Sverdrup KA, Duxbury AC, Duxbury AB (2005) Introduction to the world’s oceans (8th edition). New York: McGraw-Hill, 514 Ta TKO, Nguyen VL, Tateishi M, Kobayashi I, Saito Y, Nakamura T (2002) Sediment facies and Late Holocene progradation of the Mekong River Delta in Bentre Province, southern Vietnam: an example of evolution from a tide-dominated to a tide- and wave-dominated delta. Sed Geol 152:313–325 Tarbuck EJ, Lutgens FK (2006) Earth science (11th edition). Upper Saddle River NJ: Pearson Education, 726 Varkouhi S, Cartwright JA, Tosca NJ (2020) Anomalous compaction due to silica diagenesis - Textural and mineralogical evidence from hemipelagic deep-sea sediments of the Japan Sea. Mar Geol 426:106204 Wang P, Li Q (eds) (2009) The South China Sea: paleoceanography and sedimentology. Springer, Berlin, p 506 Weimer P (1990) Sequence stratigraphy, facies geometries, and depositional history of the Mississippi Fan, Gulf of Mexico. Am Assoc Pet Geol Bull 74:425–453 Wells N (2012) The Atmosphere and ocean: A physical introduction (3rd edition). Chichester: John Wiley, 424 Wetzel A (1993) The transfer of river load to deep-sea fans: a quantitative approach. Am Assoc Pet Geol Bull 77:1679–1692 Woodroffe CD, Webster JM (2014) Coral reefs and sea-level change. Mar Geol 352:248–267 Woodroffe CD (2002) Coasts: form, process and evolution. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p 623 Wu B, Peng B, Zhang K, Kuang X, Tu X, Fang X, Zeng D (2016) A new chemical index of identifying the weathering degree of black shales. Acta Geol Sinica 90:818–832 (in Chinese with English abstract) Yoon SH, Sohn YK, Chough SK (2014) Tectonic, sedimentary, and volcanic evolution of a back-arc basin in the East Sea (Sea of Japan). Mar Geol 352:70–88 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 25 Apr, 2024 Read the published version in Geo-Marine Letters → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 24 Mar, 2024 Reviews received at journal 10 Mar, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 01 Mar, 2024 Reviewers invited by journal 23 Feb, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 23 Feb, 2024 Submission checks completed at journal 21 Feb, 2024 First submitted to journal 17 Jan, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-3872376","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":274228353,"identity":"86c6cee2-40da-4f36-a23f-a53088e5119b","order_by":0,"name":"Shu Gao","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAyklEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACCTBpw8DYAKR4SNCSRrqWwxAOUVrkZ/cYv/hRcT6PeUYC44O3bQzy5oS0GNw5Y2bZc+Z2MeOMBGbDuW0MhjsbCGmRyDEz4G27ndg4I4FNmreNIcHgACGHzcgxM/zbdg6khf03UVoYbuQYP+ZtOwC2hZkoLQY30sqYZc4kJzb2PGyWnHNOwnADYYclb/74psIucWN78sEPb8ps5Ak7jIGBDRw1hg3gyJQgrB4ImD+ArSNK7SgYBaNgFIxIAAAwIUEVDvnUqwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Nanjing University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shu","middleName":"","lastName":"Gao","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-01-17 08:59:43","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3872376/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3872376/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00367-024-00769-2","type":"published","date":"2024-04-25T22:03:52+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":55689493,"identity":"ff001b4e-689c-4570-81df-d3bc593d047a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-01 22:03:57","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":771036,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3872376/v1/2c90e374-19ed-4529-ae26-fb236887bcba.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Energy Partitioning in Global Marine Sedimentation: Tidal, Geothermal, and Solar Radiation Contributions","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe total quantity of sediment accounts for approximately 5% of the Earth's crustal material (Davis, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e). Since the average thickness of the crust is 17 km, with a total area of 5.1\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e8\u003c/sup\u003e km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e and an average density of around 3 t m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e, the total mass of sediment is estimated to be around 1.3\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e18\u003c/sup\u003e t. Another estimate is based on carbonate sedimentation: assuming that the total carbon mass, approximately 50\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003e t (Libes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), is primarily composed of calcium carbonate, the mass of carbonate sediment would be around 4.2\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e17\u003c/sup\u003e t, which accounts for 20% of the total sediment mass (Davis, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e); hence, the total mass of sediment becomes around 2.1\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e18\u003c/sup\u003e t, slightly different from the previous estimation but within the same order of magnitude. This suggests the magnitude of sediment accumulation since the emergence of weathering and biogenic processes on Earth. Although some material has been subsequently removed from the sedimentary system through the processes such as carbonate dissolution and subduction activity in submarine trenches, the cumulative effect over the geological periods is such that a total sediment mass reaches the order of 10\u003csup\u003e18\u003c/sup\u003e t.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe energy required for the formation and deposition of sediment comes from tidal friction (resulting from a combined effect of Earth\u0026rsquo;s rotation and the celestial tide generating force), geothermal heat release from the Earth's interior, and solar radiation received by the Earth. The majority of tidal generating force is provided by the gravitational pull of the Moon and, at the present stage, the tidal friction induced energy dissipation is estimated to be at a rate of about 3.5 TW (1 TW\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e W) (Cartwright, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). The geothermal heat flux from the Earth's interior is approximately 0.8 W m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e. Therefore, the total power output from the entire Earth's surface is estimated to be around 410 TW (Tarbuck and Lutgens, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). The total power of solar radiation is about 3.8\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e14\u003c/sup\u003e TW, with only a small fraction of it being received by the Earth. The average power of solar radiation received at the Earth's surface is approximately 340 W m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e, resulting in a total output power of around 1.7\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e TW (Wells, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe surface sedimentary processes inevitably consume the three types of energy mentioned above. The question is: what is the proportion of net power consumption attributed to the eventually accumulated sedimentary deposits? The generation of terrestrial sediments relies on the weathering of parent rocks, whilst the sediments entering the Earth surface system may undergo multiple cycles of transport and accumulation, which are closely related to hydrodynamic processes such as river discharges, tides, waves, and ocean currents. However, the energy consumed in each cycle will not accumulate in the final sedimentary product but dissipated over the course of the lengthy process. As a result, the net power represented by the final sedimentary deposits may be significantly smaller than the total energy consumption throughout the entire process. Nevertheless, analyzing the proportion of net power among the three major output powers is beneficial to the understanding of the \"efficiency\" of sediment production in Earth's environment and its controlling mechanisms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, research indicates that the majority of sediment is distributed in present-day marine environments (Pickering and Hiscott, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). From the perspective of Earth's evolutionary history, modern marine sediments have formed within the last 0.2 ga (1 ga\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e9\u003c/sup\u003e a), while the sediment on the present continental surface is a product of the preceding 4.4 ga. Thus, the total proportion between the two periods is highly imbalanced. Sedimentary strata provide a record of Earth's history, and their completeness is of great importance when the deposits are taken as sedimentary archives of the geological history.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTherefore, the objective of this study is to estimate the net power consumption associated with the formation, transportation, and deposition of different types of sediment in present-day marine environments. Further, the study aims to investigate the proportion of these processes in the overall power output and their controlling mechanisms. The analysis will also examine the impact of sediment budget on the formation of sedimentary records. Finally, additional scientific questions will be identified that require further investigations in the future.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Data Sources of Marine Sedimentation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe relevant data and information required for analysis were collected from literature. This includes information on rock weathering processes and their products, biogenic sedimentation of organic particle and biogenic reef generated carbonate detrital materials, continental shelf and coastal sedimentation (i.e., estuary and delta, sandy and gravel beach, and tidal flat sedimentation), and deep-sea sedimentation (i.e., sediment gravity flow, contour current, and pelagic-hemipelagic sedimentation)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRock weathering includes physical, chemical, and biological processes. Thermal expansion and contraction cause rocks to crack, while the introduction of air, water, and biological material triggers chemical reactions. Biological processes such as plant growth and animal burrowing can also contribute to the breakdown of rock structures (Tarbuck and Lutgens, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Weathering products often contain newly formed components with lower density, such as clay minerals, resulting in loose sediment having a lower density than the original rock. The process of rock disintegration or decomposition into sediment primarily occurs in terrestrial environments, with relatively weaker rock weathering on the seafloor. The essence of weathering processes is energy conversion, particularly solar energy. Since organisms themselves are products of solar radiation, biological weathering is also an indirect result of solar energy conversion (Hall et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). The ultimate products of weathering are commonly gravel, sand and mud (a mixture of clay and silt). In the global inventory of sediments and the sedimentary rocks formed by their compaction, the ratio of sand / gravel to mud material is approximately 3:5 (Davis, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticles formed by biological growth also fall under the category of sediment. Organic particulate matter from plant sources, skeletal remains from animals, shell fragments, and carbonate deposits on biogenic reefs are all examples of sediment particles that contain carbon. Carbonate deposits formed by biogenic reefs in the ocean are the largest part (Fagerstrom, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e; Woodroffe and Webster, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Global carbonate sediments contain approximately 50\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003e t of carbon, which is about five times the total amount of particulate organic carbon (Libes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Overall, sediment derived from rock weathering accounts for 80% of the total, while biogenic sources contribute to the remaining 20% (Davis, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e). Undoubtedly, organic particulate matter primarily originates from photosynthesis, which relies on solar energy consumption. The formation of biogenic reefs involves the growth of benthic organisms and is also a result of solar energy transfer within the ecosystem.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eShelf and coastal deposition is the result of fluvial, tidal, wave, and shelf circulation transport processes (Dyer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; Kim, 1992). Glaciers and the atmosphere also contribute material inputs, but their fluxes are an order of magnitude smaller than fluvial inputs (Hay, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). Weathered materials from watershed basins are transported by rivers, with some being trapped in estuarine bays and deltas, and much of the material being transported to shelf environments, where the gravelly shores of the inner shelf are characterized by beaches accreted by wave action, as well as tidal flats and tidal ridge deposits produced by tidal action (Woodroffe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). On short time scales, a greater proportion of the land-sourced material is derived from erosional, accretionary cyclic processes (Clift and Jonell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), but on long time scales it is all weathering products. The kinetic energy of rivers, tidal currents, waves, and shelf circulation is derived from solar and tidal energy, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eShelf and coastal sedimentation results from fluvial, tidal, wave, and shelf circulation transport processes (Dyer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; Jin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). Glaciers and the atmosphere also contribute to sediment input, but their fluxes are an order of magnitude smaller than those from rivers (Hay, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). Weathered sediments from the drainage basin are transported by rivers, with some being trapped in estuaries and deltas, while the majority is transported to the shelf environment. On the inner shelf, beach deposits are formed by wave action, and tidal flats and tidal ridge deposits are created by tidal processes (Woodroffe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). On shorter time scales, a significant proportion of terrestrial sediments come from erosion and deposition cycles (Clift and Jonell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). However, on longer time scales, they are primarily derived from weathering processes. The kinetic energy of rivers, tidal currents, waves, and shelf circulation is derived from solar energy and tidal energy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeep-sea sediments primarily originate from land and can be classified into three main types: sediment gravity flow, contour current, and pelagic-hemipelagic sedimentation, with transitional states between them (Rebesco et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Stow and Smillie, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Sediment gravity flow sedimentation are commonly found at continental margins and can take various forms, including slumping, submarine landslides, turbidity currents, grain flows, liquefied flows, and debris flows (Middleton and Hampton, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1976\u003c/span\u003e; Anderson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; Pickering et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e; Pickering and Hiscott, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Sun et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The underlying principle is the work done by gravity, and the potential energy associated with sediment at continental margins is primarily a result of the dissipation of internal heat within the Earth's geological history. Contourites and associated sediments are controlled by deep-water circulation processes; some of the sediments is originally derived from gravity flow deposits and re-enters the transport system through erosion processes (Stow and Lovell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1979\u003c/span\u003e; Rebesco et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Pelagic-hemipelagic sedimentation represents the settling of fine-grained sediments, sourced from either land or deep-sea areas of the continental margin, and influenced by gravity and/or ocean currents before deposition (Stow, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1981\u003c/span\u003e; Pickering and Hiscott, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Mosher and Yanez-Carrizo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, these deposits are associated with gravity processes (which can be indirectly related to Earth\u0026rsquo;s thermal heat energy that causes tectonic movements and the resultant topographic differences) and solar energy-driven deep-sea circulation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Energy Estimation of Land Weathering Processes\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLand weathering processes transform rocks into sediments, but the energy consumption associated with these processes is rarely addressed in the literature and lacks quantitative descriptions. In terms of physical weathering, temperature variations, changes in overlying load, and biological growth are the main factors. Regarding chemical weathering, chemical reactions require the involvement of external substances, such as precipitation, and the reaction rate is temperature-dependent. The energy balance in chemical reactions is complex and specific to the reaction equation. In the case of biotic weathering, both physical and chemical processes may be involved. Although researchers have emphasized the consideration of energy conversion when rocks are transformed into sediments through weathering processes (Hall et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), previous studies have focused mainly on the products and indicators of weathering processes while overlooking energy conversion.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDue to the complexity of physical, chemical, and biological processes, it is challenging to summarize them with simple calculation formulas. Therefore, for the time being, the following order-of-magnitude estimation method is adopted. Starting with the process of rock weathering, the quantity of external substances required for weathering processes is calculated. Taking granite as a representative rock, assuming its composition consists of 30% quartz, 60% potassium feldspar, and 10% mica, the fundamental chemical reaction is the hydration of potassium feldspar, transforming it into clay minerals (Tarbuck and Lutgens, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e):\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 K Al Si\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e O\u003csub\u003e8\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;other substances \u0026rarr; Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e Si\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e O\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e (OH)\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e + dissolved substances (1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom Eq.\u0026nbsp;(1), the required amount of water can be estimated. Then, based on the sediment yield of weathering processes, the total mass of water involved in the reaction can be estimated, leading to the estimation of the required power:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ1\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$P=g Mw H /T$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e2\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e is the power of weathering processes, g is the acceleration due to gravity, \u003cem\u003eMw\u003c/em\u003e is the water requirement for the transformation reaction per unit time, \u003cem\u003eH\u003c/em\u003e is the elevation difference for transporting the required water from the ocean to the weathering site.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn general, the water involved in weathering processes is transported through the global hydrological cycle, and its energy is derived from solar radiation. For the estimation of Mw, it is assumed that the flux of weathering products and sediments entering the ocean is consistent, which is approximately 2.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e10\u003c/sup\u003e t/a. Then, based on the composition of granite and the chemical reaction Eq.\u0026nbsp;(1), the proportion of clay minerals in the flux entering the ocean can be calculated to obtain the value of \u003cem\u003eMw\u003c/em\u003e. The assumption in Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) is that the energy consumption of physical, chemical, and biological weathering processes is of the same order of magnitude.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Energy Estimation of Sediment Transport and Accumulation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the products of gravitational processes, the power resulting from the elevation difference between the deposition site and the source area can be calculated (when there is a slope, accompanied by horizontal movement, the energy is from the same source and does not need to be calculated separately):\u003cdiv id=\"Equ2\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ2\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$P=g M H /T$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e3\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e is the power consumed by sediment accumulation, g is the acceleration due to gravity, \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e is the total mass of sediment (kg), \u003cem\u003eH\u003c/em\u003e is the average vertical elevation difference from the source area to the deposition area (m), and \u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e is the duration of the deposition (s).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen the potential energy of sediment increases, Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) does not represent the work done by gravity but rather reflects the effect of external forces. For example, when the increase in sediment potential energy is caused by tidal flow transport, the energy is derived from tidal energy dissipation. Similarly, when the potential energy of sediment increases due to ocean circulation, the energy is sourced from solar radiation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the products of fluvial processes, it is necessary to consider the horizontal displacement caused by water transport:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ3\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ3\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$P=k M L /T$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e4\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere \u003cem\u003ek\u003c/em\u003e is the acceleration due to the force acting on the water flow, primarily to overcome bed resistance, and \u003cem\u003eL\u003c/em\u003e is the horizontal transport distance (m).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies in sediment dynamics have shown that only a small portion of the kinetic energy of water flow is used for net sediment transport. Submarine gravity flows rely on sediment potential energy for transport, and the transport distance can reach magnitudes of up to 10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e km for a vertical drop of 10\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e km. Comparing Eqs.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) and (\u003cspan refid=\"Equ3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e), it can be inferred that \u003cem\u003ek\u003c/em\u003e should be much smaller than the acceleration due to gravity, approximately on the order of 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e of the acceleration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTherefore, in the estimation of this study, it is assumed that the energy consumption defined by Eqs.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) and (\u003cspan refid=\"Equ3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) is of the same order of magnitude, representing the conversion of potential energy. When this potential energy is derived from the work done by gravity, it is attributed to the dissipation of geothermal energy within the Earth's interior. When water flow is caused by tidal action or solar energy conversion (in the form of river runoff, waves, ocean circulation, etc.), it is attributed to the energy dissipation effects of tides or solar radiation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Estimation of Solar Radiation Energy Fixed by Coral Reef Sedimentation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlants convert solar energy into chemical energy through photosynthesis, but the specific energy consumption data for the chemical reactions involved in photosynthesis are generally not provided. If the biomass of plants contained in the sediment (expressed as organic matter mass) is known, the power of solar radiation conversion can be represented as:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ4\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ4\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$P=Co M Hp / T$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e5\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere \u003cem\u003eCo\u003c/em\u003e is the organic matter content of the sediment (%), \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e is the mass of the sediment (kg), and \u003cem\u003eHp\u003c/em\u003e is the heating value of unit mass of organic matter (J kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiological reefs, especially coral reefs, have a more complex relationship with primary production. For example, coral polyps and zooxanthellae have a symbiotic relationship, and the growth of coral polyps is linked to primary production, secondary production, and even higher trophic levels (Fagerstrom, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e). In this study, an indirect approach is used to estimate biomass based on the carbon fixation capacity of zooxanthellae, and then calculate the solar radiation conversion energy or power using the heating value of plants:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ5\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ5\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$P=A Mc Hp /\\left(R T\\right)$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e6\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere \u003cem\u003eA\u003c/em\u003e is the area of the coral reef (m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e), \u003cem\u003eMc\u003c/em\u003e is the carbon fixation capacity of zooxanthellae per unit area (kg C m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e), \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e is the carbon content of organic matter (%).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn an ecosystem, the energy conversion ratio from primary production to secondary production may be approximately 7:1. However, coral polyps do not strictly fall into the category of secondary production, and coral reefs may have up to six trophic levels with lower conversion efficiency (Fagerstrom, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, the ratio for coral reefs should be smaller than this value, and here it is assumed to be 10:1. In coral reef sediments, the organic matter content is low, and the carbon is primarily contained in the coral skeleton rather than organic matter. It is assumed that the energy consumption of this production is equivalent to the conversion from primary production to coral polyp energy. Thus, the total sediment mass and corresponding power of coral reef sediments are given by:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ6\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ6\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$Ms= \\int A Gs dt$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e7\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equ7\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ7\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$P=Ks A Mc Hp /\\left(R T\\right)$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e8\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e), \u003cem\u003eMs\u003c/em\u003e represents the total sediment mass of the coral reef, \u003cem\u003eGs\u003c/em\u003e is the average coral skeleton production rate, and the integration is performed over the growth period of the coral reef. In Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e), \u003cem\u003eKs\u003c/em\u003e represents the energy conversion ratio from primary production to coral polyps. Globally, coral reefs are the main component of bioherms, so Eqs.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e) and (\u003cspan refid=\"Equ7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e) approximate the situation for the entire bioherm.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Energy Consumption in Weathering Products\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnder the conditions described in Eqs.\u0026nbsp;(1) and (\u003cspan refid=\"Equ1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), every 2 molecules of potassium feldspar are transformed into 1 molecule of clay minerals, which means that 556 units of potassium feldspar form 298 units of clay minerals. Additionally, if the composition of the parent rock, granite, is 60% potassium feldspar, 30% quartz, and 10% mica, then for every 100 molecules of quartz (molecular weight 60) in the weathering products, 43 molecules of potassium feldspar (molecular weight 278) and 8 molecules of mica (molecular weight 254) are required. This means that the sediment formed by weathering processes contains 298 units of clay minerals (44%), 279 units of quartz (42%), and 93 units of mica (14%). Among these, the production of clay minerals consumes 18 units of water.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssuming that the total sediment yield is 2.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e10\u003c/sup\u003e t a\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, which is equivalent to the flux of riverine input to the ocean, the amount of water required would be 0.054\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e10\u003c/sup\u003e t a\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e. This water is transported from the ocean, and the energy required comes from solar radiation. Weathering processes occur on land, with an average elevation of 840 m (Sverdrup et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). According to Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), the power consumed would be 1.4\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/sup\u003e TW, considering a duration of 1 year as 3.2\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e7\u003c/sup\u003e s.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Energy Consumption in Shelf and Coastal Sediment Transport and Deposition\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTerrestrial sediments are initially transported from inland to coastal and shelf regions (Petley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). The flux of riverine sediment input to the ocean is on the order of 2.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e10\u003c/sup\u003e t a\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e (Milliman and Farnsworth, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). It is assumed that 30% of this accumulates in deltas, while 70% is transported to the continental shelfs (some of which is further transported by waves and tidal currents to adjacent coastal areas and accumulates). Based on this assumption, considering that the initiation time of river deltas is mostly around 7000 a BP, approximately 4.2\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003e t, or 2.6\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e km\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e (converted using a sediment bulk density of 1.6 t m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e), of sediment has been intercepted by rivers in the total amount of sediment input to the ocean during the Holocene. This estimation can be corroborated by the actual scale of global river deltas.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the individual Holocene sedimentary systems formed in estuarine areas, the Ganges Delta is the largest, with a spatial scale on the order of 10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e km\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e (Allison et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e), while the Holocene sedimentation of the land portion of the Changjiang River Delta is approximately 400 km\u0026sup3; (Li et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Globally, the combined drainage basin area of the largest 20-plus rivers that discharge into the ocean accounts for one-third of the Earth's land area, with sediment fluxes representing 40% of the global total (Corbett et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). These large-scale rivers have deltaic sediment retention indices (the ratio of retained sediment mass in deltas to river sediment flux) exceeding 30% (Li et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e presents the top 10 rivers with higher sediment fluxes globally, illustrating this characteristic. It is important to note that the retention indices presented here represent average values during the Holocene. As the delta front advances seaward, the retention indices gradually decrease (Gao, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), which also explains why smaller rivers struggle to form deltas. Milliman and Farnsworth (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) provided data on the drainage basin area, river length, and sediment flux into the ocean for 1,534 rivers worldwide, with the majority being smaller rivers. Therefore, the global average retention index should be lower than the values observed for larger rivers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), estimating \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e as 4.2\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e16\u003c/sup\u003e kg and taking \u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e as 220\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e9\u003c/sup\u003e s, with an elevation difference of 840 m between sediment transport and deposition based on the average land elevation, the power expended in global river delta sediment transport and deposition is calculated to be 1.6\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e TW. Although the water in rivers is input into the land interior as part of the global hydrological cycle, the movement of river water itself is driven by gravity, and it is the elevation difference between the inland and sea level that causes rivers to flow into the ocean. Therefore, this portion of power is attributable to the work done by gravity, while the initial land elevation is determined by crustal movements driven by the Earth's internal heat, making it a component of geothermal power.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen river sediment is transported to the continental shelf, the work done by gravity is higher than to the delta, as the elevation of the continental shelf further decreases, resulting in an average increase in elevation difference of approximately 70 m. Therefore, the value of \u003cem\u003eH\u003c/em\u003e in Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) needs to be adjusted to 910 m. Consequently, during the Holocene, a total of 9.8\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003e t of sediment entered the continental shelf area, consuming a net power of 4.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e TW.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScale of major river deltas worldwide (estimated sediment thickness based on the following references: Coleman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e; Saito et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Ta et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Allison et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Bui et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Milliman and Farnsworth, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Stanley and Clemente, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Fricke et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Clift et al., 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDepositional Location\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLand Area (\u0026times;10⁴ km\u0026sup2;)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSediment Thickness (m)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSediment Flux to the Ocean (Mt/yr)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHolocene Retention Index (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGanges-Brahmaputra Delta\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1060\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmazon River Delta\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChangjiang River Delta\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e470\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHuanghe River Delta\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMississippi River Delta\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIrrawaddy River Delta\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e360\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMekong River Delta\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndus River Delta\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNile River Delta\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u0026ndash;15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRed River Delta\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e110\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe transport and deposition of beach and coastal dune sediments are caused by the lateral transport of waves and the onshore wind action, with energy derived from solar radiation. Assuming that the volume of beach and coastal dunes is 25% of the delta deposition, the average vertical displacement from the source area to the accumulation area under wave action is set as 50% of the distance from the wave base to the top of the wave-deposited beach. The additional vertical displacement due to onshore wind transport is equivalent to 50% of the sediment thickness of the dunes. In general, the elevation of the top of coastal dunes is less than 60 m, with the highest being \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;100m, but such cases are rare (Gao, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, the total vertical displacement is taken as 40 m. According to Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), the power required to increase the potential energy is estimated to be 1.9\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5\u003c/sup\u003e TW. Additionally, assuming a horizontal transport distance of 10 km for sediment transport, according to Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e), this would require a power consumption of 0.47\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5\u003c/sup\u003e TW.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTidal deposits mainly consist of tidal flats and tidal ridges, and the energy required for the deposition process is derived from tidal energy; horizontal transport is due to tidal currents, and fine-grained sediment can accumulation at the level of high water on spring, a process of kinetic energy being transformed into potential energy (Gao, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). According to remote sensing analysis, the global intertidal zone has an area of 127,921 km\u0026sup2;, with a majority being tidal flats (Murray et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, some tidal flats have become land and are therefore not included in the remote sensing statistics. Taking all these factors into consideration, the area of tidal flat coastal plains is estimated to be 2\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e km\u0026sup2;. The average thickness of tidal flat deposits ranges from 10\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e~10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e m, but for the purpose of estimation, an average thickness of 40 m is assumed, along with an average vertical displacement elevation of 40 m. The deposition period covers the last 7,000 years since the high sea level during the last glacial period. Based on Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), the estimated power consumed for the increase in potential energy of global tidal flat sediment is 2.3\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;8\u003c/sup\u003e TW. The horizontal transport distance of fine-grained sediment by tidal currents from the source area to the deposition location is on the order of 10\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e~10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e km, and it is assumed to be 10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e km. According to Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e), the power consumed for this transport is estimated to be 5.7\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;8\u003c/sup\u003e TW. The energy for the transport and deposition of tidal flat sediment is derived from tidal kinetic energy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTidal ridges are accumulations formed by the action of rectilinear tidal currents on sandy seabed or by modifying pre-existing deposits. They are distributed in various environments such as open continental shelves, bays-estuaries, and headlands (Pattiaratchi and Collins, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e; Collins et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Dyer and Huntley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Liu and Xia, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). The scale of the tidal ridge system on the inner shelf is on the order of 10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e~10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e km\u0026sup2; (Ren et al., 1986; Collins et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Knaapen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), while for bays-estuaries, it ranges from 10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e~10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e km\u0026sup2; (Pattiaratchi and Collins, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e; Harris et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e; Horrillo-Caraballo and Reeve, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), and for headlands (headland-associated sandbanks), it is on the order of 10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e km\u0026sup2; (Geyer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Bastos et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; McCarroll et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The height difference between the trough and crest of the tidal ridges ranges from 15\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;40 m, and the ridge spacing is 1\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;5 km. Under the action of tidal currents, sediment is transported from the trough to the crest of the ridges, and the ridges can extend in both directions. The time scale for the formation of the entire system is on the order of 10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e~10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e years. Considering a global total area on the order of 10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e km\u0026sup2;, a height difference of 40 m for the troughs, a deposition period of 2000 a (63\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e9\u003c/sup\u003e s), and a horizontal transport distance of 10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e km, the power consumed for sediment transport to the ridges and the extension of tidal ridges can be estimated using Eqs.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) and (\u003cspan refid=\"Equ3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) as 2.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;8\u003c/sup\u003e TW and 1.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;7\u003c/sup\u003e TW, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Energy Consumption in Deep-Sea Gravity Flow, Contour Current, and Pelagic-hemipelagic Sedimentation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGravity sediment flows at continental margins cause changes in the potential energy of shelf sediments, with a height difference on the order of magnitude of 4000 meters from the shelf to the deep sea. Gravity flow deposits accumulate in the form of submarine fans on the deep-sea floor adjacent to the continental shelf or fill trench forearcs and deep-water margin seas.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe largest submarine fan in the world is located in the Bay of Bengal in the Indian Ocean, with a length of approximately 3000 km, width of about 1000 km, maximum thickness of 16.5 km, and a total volume of 10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e~10\u003csup\u003e7\u003c/sup\u003e km\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e. The total mass of sediment approaches 10\u003csup\u003e17\u003c/sup\u003e t, and its deposition began around 5\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e7\u003c/sup\u003e a ago (Curray et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Other large-scale submarine fans have sediment masses of 10\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003e t, such as those offshore the Amazon River Estuary and the Indus River Estuary (Wetzel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Figueiredo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Clift and Jonell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In areas with limited sediment supply, gravity flow deposits and submarine fans are smaller in scale, resulting in smaller sediment masses (Stow, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1981\u003c/span\u003e; Piper et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e; Piper, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Bentley et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Maier et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e presents representative examples of large, medium, and small-scale submarine fans, with formation timescales ranging from 10\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;60 Ma. In the estimation, the sediment mass is set at 2\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e17\u003c/sup\u003e t, and the duration is set at 30 Ma, resulting in a power consumption of 8.2\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e TW.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScale and formation age of some representative submarine fans worldwide\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubmarine Fan Name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSediment Mass (10\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003e t)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFormation Age (Ma)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBay of Bengal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCurray et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmazon River\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigueiredo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Ketzer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndus River\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClift and Jonell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMississippi Rive\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeimer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e; Bentley et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSt. Lawrence River\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePiper et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e; Piper, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe gravity flow deposits in trench and deep-water margin seas may be on the same order of magnitude as submarine fans in terms of sediment mass. After sediment enters the trench, it may reside there for some time before eventually being completely subducted into the Earth's mantle. In some dying basins, such as the Mediterranean Sea, temporary accumulation of sediment also occurs. Marginal seas are a special phenomenon in the Western Pacific and surrounding regions during the Cenozoic, with their initiation dating back approximately 30 Ma BP. The rifting of the South China Sea began around 37 Ma BP and has since received 7.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e km\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, or 1.4\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e16\u003c/sup\u003e t of terrigenous sediment (Wang and Li, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). The Holocene sediments in the northern part of the Andaman Sea Basin in Myanmar amount to 1075 km\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, or 1.3\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e t, sourced from the Irrawaddy River (Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e); if the timescale is extended to 30 Ma BP, it can also reach the order of 10\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003e t. Other marginal basins, such as the East China Sea and the Japan Sea, have sediment thickness ranges of 10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e~10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e m (Jin et al., 1992; Qin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Yoon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Varkouhi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Assuming a sediment mass of 1\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e17\u003c/sup\u003e t and a duration of 30 Ma, the power consumption would be approximately 4.1\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e TW.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eContourites are the product of the movement and accumulation of sediments under the influence of deep-water circulation processes. These deposits are sourced partly from the reworked pre-existing seafloor sediments and partly from the recently deposited gravity flow sediments. Rebesco et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) provided characteristics of 116 major contourites systems worldwide, with the majority distributed in the Atlantic Ocean. The dimensions of the deposits are as follows: length of 10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e km, width of 10\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e km, thickness of 10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e to 10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e m, and deposition rate of 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e m ka\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e (Stow and Lovell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1979\u003c/span\u003e; Pickering et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e; Pickering and Hiscott, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, the mass of an individual deposit is on the order of 10\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e t, and the total mass of the 116 major contourites systems ranges from 10\u003csup\u003e14\u003c/sup\u003e t\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;10\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003e t. Assuming a total mass of 10\u003csup\u003e14\u003c/sup\u003e t\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;10\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003e t, an average transport distance of 10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e km, and a sediment thickness of 500 m, according to Eqs.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) and (\u003cspan refid=\"Equ3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e), the potential energy gain and power consumption due to horizontal transport of the deposits over a 10 Ma period are estimated to be 7.7\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5\u003c/sup\u003e TW and 3.1\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5\u003c/sup\u003e TW, respectively. The energy is derived solely from solar radiation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePelagic-semipelagic sedimentation are the result of the settling of suspended particles and originate from various sources, including the diffusion of fluvial sediments, glacial and atmospheric transport, sediment gravity flow processes, and marine biological processes. If the area of the deep sea is approximately 2.8\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e8\u003c/sup\u003e km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e and the average thickness of offshore sediments is 500 m (Pinet, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e), then the total mass of these sediments is estimated to be 2.2\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e17\u003c/sup\u003e t, representing the accumulation over the past 100 Ma. Hay et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e) suggested that the total mass of sediments accumulated on the seafloor over the past 34 Ma is approximately 2.6\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e17\u003c/sup\u003e t, which exceeds this value. However, it is important to note that this estimate applies to the entire ocean. Assuming an average depth of 4 km for the deep sea, the power expended by gravity through work is estimated to be 2.7\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e TW, and the power loss caused by ocean currents and atmospheric processes is assumed to be of the same order of magnitude.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Solar Radiation Fixation in Coral Reef Sediments\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobal coral reef area estimated at 25\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e (Woodroffe and Webster, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), and are predominantly distributed in tropical oceans. Primary production of coral reef Cordyceps sinensis was set to be 0.4 kg C m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e in 1a time, resulting in a total primary production of 1.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e11\u003c/sup\u003e kg a\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e over an area of 25\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e; the calorific value of the Cordyceps sinensis biomass was taken to be 15 MJ kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, and the trophic exchange rate from Cordyceps sinensis to coral was set to be 10%. According to Eqs.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e) and (\u003cspan refid=\"Equ7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e), the power consumed is 1.2\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e TW. Coral reef sediments are relatively low in organic matter, the carbon contained is mainly contained in coral skeletons rather than in organic matter, and the maximum coral skeleton yield is 60 kg m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e, with a minimum of less than 1 kg m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e (cf. Gao, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, a value of 10 kg m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e is a reasonable estimate. Based on this value, Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e) gives a global coral reef biogenic sedimentation output of 2.5\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e9\u003c/sup\u003e t a\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4 Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe combined results of the above sub-estimates (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) show that the power consumed by the energy required for sedimentation from generation to accumulation is a very small percentage of the celestial tidal generating force (3.5 TW), the internal heat release of the Earth (410 TW), and the solar radiation (1.7\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e TW). Tidal deposition consumes 5.7 \u0026times; 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;8\u003c/sup\u003e of the tidal force, deposition associated with the Earth's internal heat energy accounts for 5.0 \u0026times; 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5\u003c/sup\u003e of its total power, and deposition associated with solar radiant energy accounts for only 7.4 \u0026times; 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;8\u003c/sup\u003e of its total power.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the calculations in this study, the greatest source of uncertainty lies in the energy conversion required for sediment generation. The energy conversion relationship involved in the weathering process, which transforms rocks into sediment, lacks sufficient information, making accurate calculations challenging. While the impact of watershed weathering on sediment characteristics within the basin (Dellinger et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), the degree of chemical weathering (Wu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), and environmental factors (Ke et al., 2023) are all important, it is more important to strengthen research on energy conversion in the future. This research should consider both internal energy conversion within the system (Luo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e) and the exchange of energy between the system and its external environment (Hall et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNet power and proportional contributions of energy sources to global marine sedimentation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDepositional System\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSediment Mass (10\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003e t)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTime Scale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNet Power Consumption (TW)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnergy Sources\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProportional Power Contribution\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRock Weathering\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolar radiation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.2\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;10\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarbonate Deposition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;6\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolar radiation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.1\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;8\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRiver Deltas\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.042\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7 ka\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.6\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGravitational / thermal energy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.6\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;6\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContinental Shelf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.098\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7 ka\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGravitational / thermal energy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.8\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;6\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeaches and Coastal Dunes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.011\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;7 ka\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolar radiation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;10\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTidal Flats\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7 ka\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;8\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTidal generating force\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;8\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTidal Ridges\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0064\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 ka\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;7\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTidal generating force\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;8\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubmarine Gravity Flows (Submarine Fans)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;60 Ma\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.2\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGravitational / thermal energy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubmarine Gravity Flows (Marginal Seas, Trench Fillings)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 Ma\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.1\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGravitational / thermal energy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003econtour current Sedimentation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 Ma\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolar radiation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.4\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;10\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePelagic-hemipelagic Sedimentation I\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e220\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100 Ma\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGravitational / thermal energy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.6\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;6\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePelagic-hemipelagic Sedimentation II\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e220\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100 Ma\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolar radiation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.6\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;9\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe energy expenditure and conversion associated with sediment formation through biologically mediated pathways, particularly in the context of carbonate deposition, remain poorly understood and underrepresented in the literature. This study aims to address the energy requirements and conversion rates involved in the processes spanning from primary production to secondary production, including the formation of animal skeletal remains. The limited research available primarily provides rough estimations of energy transfer among trophic levels, offering only indirect and approximate assessments. From an ecological perspective, this study emphasizes the importance of investigating energy transmission, conversion, and cycling within the framework of ecosystem dynamics. It highlights the need for enhanced research in this area to provide a more comprehensive understanding of carbonate sedimentation from an energy standpoint.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA significant portion of the material in the terrestrial sediment flux to the ocean represents recycled components within the system rather than fresh weathering products. Furthermore, there are time scale considerations to be addressed. For instance, the time scale of coastal and continental shelf sedimentation in the Holocene is on the order of 7 ka. However, over longer time scales, the modification and reworking of these sediments occur due to sea-level fluctuations on the order of 10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e meters. As a result, the cumulative effect of net power over time leads to a further reduction in net power. In the present marine environment, the time scale associated with plate tectonics determines the characteristics of marine sedimentation. If the calculation of net power is unified on a time scale of 0.2 ga, the data in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e may be overestimated.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIf 0.2 ga of ocean deposition is considered, it leads to the question of the total amount of sediment on the Earth's surface and its evolution over time. Currently, marine sediments account for approximately 65% of the global sediment mass (Pickering and Hiscott, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, sediments generated in the earlier 4.4 Ga only represent 35% of the total sediment mass, and they are predominantly concentrated on present land areas. Because a large fraction of the incoming sediment is of continental origin (Clift and Jonell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and transport fluxes are relatively stable over long time scales (Gilluly, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1964\u003c/span\u003e), deposition of the earlier 4.4 ga is still gradually decreasing. In addition to land sediment loss due to the flux into the ocean, processes such as weathering and dissolution of carbonate rocks exposed to the atmosphere, sediment transport associated with subduction zones, and magma melting further contribute to the global sediment loss.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom a material balance perspective, the evolution of Earth's sediment mass may have reached a final steady state, indicating that the amount of newly generated sediment is equal to the various losses, resulting in a stable total sediment mass. In this scenario, considering a total sediment mass on the order of 10\u003csup\u003e18\u003c/sup\u003e t and an annual sediment flux into the ocean on the order of 10\u003csup\u003e10\u003c/sup\u003e t, the average residence time of sediment would be on the order of 10\u003csup\u003e8\u003c/sup\u003e a. This suggests that sediment has undergone numerous cycles over the past 4.6 ga. While a significant amount of sediment has been generated in the past, it has now disappeared. From a long-term perspective, the preservation potential and integrity of sedimentary sequences are very low, as highlighted by Charles Darwin in his book \"On the Origin of Species\" when discussing the fossil record.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSediments serve as both active participants and recorders of environmental change, making them a crucial source of information for studying Earth's evolutionary history. If the total sediment mass ceases to increase, the integrity of sedimentary records will gradually decline over time. The data presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e indicate that the net power required for sediment generation is very low. In light of this, is it possible to slightly increase the contribution from the three major power sources to enhance sediment production? The answer to this question involves understanding the controlling mechanisms behind the characteristic values of net power.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe small values of net power characteristics are related to the dynamics of sedimentary systems. The formation of sediment requires specific physical, chemical, and biological conditions. Firstly, the parent rock needs to be exposed to an environment conducive to weathering. Despite loose sediments representing a small proportion of Earth's surface, they cover over 75% of the total surface area. This means that a significant amount of parent rock is not exposed to the atmosphere. As a result, various weathering processes proceed at an extremely slow pace, imposing spatial limitations. In marine environments, the coverage of seawater has a similar effect.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondly, in addition to physical and chemical factors, biological growth is constrained by various parameters such as light, temperature, salinity, and nutrient availability. While primary productivity on Earth's surface is already high, the efficiency of energy conversion limits the abundance of biological particles. Furthermore, similar to the constraints on parent rock weathering, there are spatial limitations on biological growth. In marine environments, only the upper water column supports photosynthesis by phytoplankton, and coral reefs contribute to carbonate sedimentation, but the growth space for corals is relatively small.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, regarding sediment transport and deposition, the power provided by the three major energy sources is predominantly consumed in energy cycling. The primary consumption of atmospheric radiant energy is through reflection back into space, with only a very small fraction utilized for the generation of ocean currents, waves, and water and atmosphere transport. The transport processes are repetitive, and transport in different directions tends to cancel each other out, resulting in a minimal net effect. The majority of the power is consumed through energy dissipation processes such as friction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo increase net power, macroscopic environmental conditions become crucial. In the early stages of Earth's history, more parent rock was exposed on the Earth's surface, making it more susceptible to weathering. During certain geological periods, the rate of carbonate sedimentation was higher than it is today. During periods of smaller land areas and weaker plate tectonic activity, the loss of sediment was also less pronounced. Therefore, in the future, there is the possibility of changing the net power associated with sedimentation in the Earth's environment, and it may even be achievable through human intervention.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5 Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003e(1) Although the oceans currently contain more than half of the global sediment mass, the power consumed in the process from sediment generation to deposition is relatively low. Tidal sedimentation accounts for a power consumption of 5.7\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;8\u003c/sup\u003e of the tidal generating forces. Sedimentation associated with internal heat energy of the Earth accounts for 5.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5\u003c/sup\u003e of the total power, while sedimentation related to solar radiation energy conversion only accounts for 7.4\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;8\u003c/sup\u003e of the total power.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(2) The low values of net power characteristics are controlled by the dynamic mechanisms of sedimentary systems, which can be explained by factors such as the macroscopic energy balance, spatial limitations imposed by parent rock weathering and ecosystems, and the temporal scales of sediment cycling.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(3) The energy conversions involved in the formation and evolution of sedimentary systems are worthy of exploration. Scientific questions include the energy conversion processes of weathering and biological activities, variations and adjustability of net power balance in sedimentation, and changes in the completeness of sedimentary records over time.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSG completed the study and wrote the manuscript.Other statements: not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgements:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (41530962). The author would like to express his gratitude to Prof. Xianglong Jin for his guidance and assistance in the study of sedimentation processes on the shelf and coast of the East China Sea, and the formation and evolution of the South China Sea (an important marginal sea).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAuthor Declarations\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSee the filled \u0026ldquo;Declarations\u0026rdquo; form; otherwise, it is \u0026apos;Not applicable\u0026apos; for the following:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eo Funding (information that explains whether and by whom the research was supported)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eo Conflicts of interest/Competing interests (include appropriate disclosures)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eo Availability of data and material (data transparency)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eo Code availability (software application or custom code)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eo Authors\u0026apos; contributions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eo Ethics approval (include appropriate approvals or waivers)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eo Consent to participate (include appropriate statements)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eo Consent for publication (include appropriate statements)\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAllison MA, Khan SR, Goodbred SL, Kuehl SA (2003) Stratigraphic evolution of the late Holocene Ganges-Brahmaputra lower delta plain. Sed Geol 155:317\u0026ndash;342\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAnderson RN (1986) Marine geology: a planet earth perspective. John Wiley, New York, p 328\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBastos AC, Paphitis D, Collins M (2004) Short-term dynamics and maintenance processes of headland-associated sandbanks: Shambles Bank - English Channel (UK). Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 59: 33\u0026ndash;47\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBentley SJ, Blum MD, Maloney J, Pond L, Paulsell R (2016) The Mississippi River source-to-sink system: perspectives on tectonic, climatic, and anthropogenic influences, Miocene to Anthropocene. Earth Sci Rev 153:139\u0026ndash;174\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBui DD, Kawamura A, Tong TN, Amaguchi H, Iseri NY (2011) Identification of aquifer system in the whole Red River Delta, Vietnam. Geosci J 15:323\u0026ndash;338\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCartwright DE (1999) Tides: a scientific history. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p 292\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eClift PD, Jonell TN (2021) Monsoon controls on sediment generation and transport: mass budget and provenance constraints from the Indus River catchment, delta and submarine fan over tectonic and multimillennial timescales. Earth Sci Rev 220:103682\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eColeman JM, Roberts HH, Stone GW (1998) Mississippi River delta: an overview. J Coastal Res 14:699\u0026ndash;716\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCollins MB, Shimwell SJ, Gao S, Powell H, Hewitson C, Taylor JA (1995) Water and sediment movement in the vicinity of linear sandbanks: the Norfolk Banks, southern North Sea. Mar Geol 123:125\u0026ndash;142\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCorbett DR, McKee B, Allison M (2006) Nature of decadal-scale sediment accumulation on the western shelf of the Mississippi River delta. Cont Shelf Res 26:2125\u0026ndash;2140\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCurray JR, Emmel FJ, Moore DG (2002) The Bengal Fan: morphology, geometry, stratigraphy, history and processes. Mar Pet Geol 19:1191\u0026ndash;1223\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDavis RA, Jr (1983) Depositional systems: a genetic approach to sedimentary geology. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs (NJ), p 669\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDellinger M, Gaillardet J, Bouchez J, Calmels D, Louvat P, Dosseto A, Gorge C, Alanoca L, Maurice L (2015) Riverine Li isotope fractionation in the Amazon River basin controlled by the weathering regimes. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 164:71\u0026ndash;93\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDyer KR, Huntley DA (1999) The origin, classification and modelling of sand banks and ridges. Cont Shelf Res 19:1285\u0026ndash;1330\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDyer KR (1986) Coastal and estuarine sediment dynamics. John Wiley, Chichester, p 342\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFagerstrom JA (1987) The evolution of reef communities. John Wiley, New York, p 600\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFigueiredo J, Hoorn C, van der Ven P, Soares E (2009) Late Miocene onset of the Amazon River and the Amazon deep-sea fan: evidence from the Foz do Amazonas Basin. Geology 37:619\u0026ndash;622\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFricke AT, Nittrouer CA, Ogston AS, Nowacki DJ, Asp NE, Souza Filhoet PM (2019) Morphology and dynamics of the intertidal floodplain along the Amazon tidal river. Earth Surf Process Land 44:204\u0026ndash;218\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGao S (2007) Modeling the growth limit of the Changjiang Delta. Geomorphology 85:225\u0026ndash;236\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGao S (2009) Morphological and migration characteristics of large-scaled submarine, coastal and desert sand dunes. Earth Sci Front 16:13\u0026ndash;22 (in Chinese with English abstract)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGao S (2022) Human utilization of mega-deltas: the importance of tidally modulated ground surface elevation. Anthropocene Coasts 5:2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGao S (2023) Process-product relationships of atoll deposition systems: a preliminary testing of exploratory modeling. Oceanologia et Limnologia Sinica 54:1\u0026ndash;15 (in Chinese with English abstract)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGeyer RW (1993) Three-dimensional tidal flow around headlands. J Phys Res 98(C1):955\u0026ndash;966\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGilluly J (1964) Atlantic sediments, erosion rates, and the evolution of the continental shelf: some speculations. Geol Soc Am Bull 75:483\u0026ndash;492\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHall K, Thorn C, Sumner P (2012) On the persistence of weathering. Geomorphology 149\u0026ndash;150:1\u0026ndash;10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHarris PT, Pattiaratchi CB, Cole AR, Keene JB (1992) Evolution of subtidal sandbanks in Moreton Bay, eastern Australia. Mar Geol 103:225\u0026ndash;247\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHay WW, Sloan JL, Wold CN (1988) Mass/age distribution and composition of sediments on the ocean floor and the global rate of sediment subduction. J Phys Res 93(B12):14933\u0026ndash;14940\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHay WW (1998) Detrital sediment fluxes from continents to oceans. Chem Geol 145:287\u0026ndash;323\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHorrillo-Caraballo JM, Reeve DE (2008) Morphodynamic behaviour of a nearshore sandbank system: the Great Yarmouth Sandbanks, UK. Mar Geol 254:91\u0026ndash;106\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJin X (ed) (1992) East China Sea Geology. Ocean, Beijing, p 524. (in Chinese)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKei F, Xu J, Zhang P, Bao Z, Ma L, Zong C (2023) A 200 ka record of continental weathering for northwestern Australian margin based on magnesium isotopes and its response to Australian paleo-monsoon. Acta Geol Sinica 97:565\u0026ndash;582 (in Chinese with English abstract)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKetzer JM, Augustin A, Rodrigues LF, Oliveira R, Praeg D, Gomez Pivel MA, dos Reis AT, Silva C, Leonel B (2018) Gas seeps and gas hydrates in the Amazon deep-sea fan. Geo-Mar Lett 38:429\u0026ndash;438\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKnaapen M (2009) Sandbank occurrence on the Dutch continental shelf in the North Sea. Geo-Mar Lett 29:17\u0026ndash;24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLi B, Li C, Sheng H (2002) A preliminary study of sedimentary fluxes in the Yangtze River Delta during the late ice age. Sci China (D) 32:776\u0026ndash;782 (in Chinese)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLi GC, Xia Q, Wang YP, Li ZQ, Gao S (2021) Geometric modeling of Holocene large-river delta growth patterns, as constrained by environmental settings. Sci China: Earth Sci 64:318\u0026ndash;328\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLibes SM (2009) An Introduction to Marine Biogeochemistry (2nd edition). Amsterdam: Academic Press, 909\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLiu JP, Kuehl SA, Pierce AC, Williams J, Blair NE, Harris C, Aung DW, Aye YY (2020) Fate of Ayeyarwady and Thanlwin Rivers sediments in the Andaman Sea and Bay of Bengal. Mar Geol 423:106137\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLiu Z, Xia D (2004) Tidal Sands in the China Seas. China Ocean Press, Beijing, 222 pp. (in Chinese)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLuo J (1987) Two reaction equations of chemical weathering. Geol Rev 33:291\u0026ndash;296 (in Chinese with English abstract)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMaier KL, Paul CK, Caress DW, Anderson K, Fildani A (2020) Submarine-fan development revealed by integrated high-resolution datasets from La Jolla Fan, offshore California, U.S.A. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 90: 468\u0026ndash;479\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMcCarroll RJ, Masselink G, Valiente NG, Wiggins M, Scott T, Conley DC, King EV (2020) Impact of a headland-associated sandbank on shoreline dynamics. Geomorphology 355:107065\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMiddleton GV, Hampton MA (1976) Subaqueous sediment transport and deposition by sediment gravity flows. In: Stanley DJ, Swift DJP (eds) Marine sediment transport and environmental management. John Wiley, New York, pp 197\u0026ndash;218\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMilliman JD, Farnsworth KL (2011) River discharge to the coastal ocean: a global synthesis.Cambridge. Cambridge University Press, p 384\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMosher DC, Yanez-Carrizo G (2021) The elusive continental rise: Insights from residual bathymetry analysis of the Northwest Atlantic margin. Earth Sci Rev 217:103608\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMurray NJ, Phinn SR, DeWitt M, Ferrari R, Johnston R, Lyons MB, Clinton N, Thau D, Fuller A (2019) The global distribution and trajectory of tidal flats. Nature 565:222\u0026ndash;225\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePattiaratchi C, Collins M (1987) Mechanisms for linear sandbank formation and maintenance in relation to dynamical oceanographic observations. Prog Oceanogr 19:117\u0026ndash;176\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePetley DN (2010) The continental shelf and continental slop. In: Burt T, Allison R (eds) Sediment cascades: an integrated approach. Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester, pp 433\u0026ndash;448\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePickering KT, Hiscott RN (2015) Deep marine systems: processes, deposits, environments, tectonics and sedimentation. American Geophysical Union: Wiley, p 672\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePickering KT, Hiscott RN, Hein FJ (1989) Deep-marine environments: classic sedimentation and tectonics. Unwin Hyman, London, p 416\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePinet PR (1992) Oceanography: an introduction to the planet oceanus. West Publishing Company, St. Paul, p 571\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePiper DJW (2005) Late Cenozoic evolution of the continental margin of eastern Canada. Nor Geol Tidsskr 85:305\u0026ndash;318\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePiper DJW, Stow DAV, Normark WR (1984) The Laurentian Fan: Sohm abyssal plain. Geo-Mar Lett 3:141\u0026ndash;146\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eQin YS, Zhao YY, Chen LR, Zhao SL (1996) Geology of the East China Sea. Science, Beijing, p 357\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRebesco M, Hern\u0026aacute;ndez-Molina FJ, Van Rooij D, Wahlin A (2014) Contourites and associated sediments controlled by deep-water circulation processes: state-of-the-art and future considerations. Mar Geol 352:111\u0026ndash;154\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRen ME (ed) (1986) Comprehensive investigation of the coastal zone and tidal land resources of Jiangsu Province. Ocean, Beijing, p 517. (in Chinese)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSaito Y, Yang Z, Hori K (2001) The Huanghe (Yellow River) and Changjiang (Yangtze River) deltas: a review on their characteristics, evolution and sediment discharge during the Holocene. Geomorphology 41:219\u0026ndash;231\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eStanley JD, Clemente PL (2014) Clay distributions, grain sizes, sediment thicknesses, and compaction rates to interpret subsidence in Egypt's northern Nile Delta. J Coastal Res 30:88\u0026ndash;101\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eStow DAV (1981) Laurentian Fan: morphology, sediments, processes, and growth pattern. Am Assoc Pet Geol Bull 65:375\u0026ndash;393\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eStow DAV, Lovell JPB (1979) Contourites: their recognition in modern and ancient sediments. Earth Sci Rev 14:251\u0026ndash;291\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eStow D, Smillie Z (2020) Distinguishing between deep-water sediment facies: turbidites, contourites and hemipelagites. Geosciences 10:68\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSun QL, Wang Q, Shi FY, Alves T, Gao S, Xie XN, Wu SG, Li GB (2022) Runup of landslide-generated tsunamis controlled by paleogeography and sea-level change. Commun Earth Environ 3:244\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSverdrup KA, Duxbury AC, Duxbury AB (2005) Introduction to the world\u0026rsquo;s oceans (8th edition). New York: McGraw-Hill, 514\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTa TKO, Nguyen VL, Tateishi M, Kobayashi I, Saito Y, Nakamura T (2002) Sediment facies and Late Holocene progradation of the Mekong River Delta in Bentre Province, southern Vietnam: an example of evolution from a tide-dominated to a tide- and wave-dominated delta. Sed Geol 152:313\u0026ndash;325\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTarbuck EJ, Lutgens FK (2006) Earth science (11th edition). Upper Saddle River NJ: Pearson Education, 726\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVarkouhi S, Cartwright JA, Tosca NJ (2020) Anomalous compaction due to silica diagenesis - Textural and mineralogical evidence from hemipelagic deep-sea sediments of the Japan Sea. Mar Geol 426:106204\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang P, Li Q (eds) (2009) The South China Sea: paleoceanography and sedimentology. Springer, Berlin, p 506\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWeimer P (1990) Sequence stratigraphy, facies geometries, and depositional history of the Mississippi Fan, Gulf of Mexico. Am Assoc Pet Geol Bull 74:425\u0026ndash;453\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWells N (2012) The Atmosphere and ocean: A physical introduction (3rd edition). Chichester: John Wiley, 424\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWetzel A (1993) The transfer of river load to deep-sea fans: a quantitative approach. Am Assoc Pet Geol Bull 77:1679\u0026ndash;1692\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWoodroffe CD, Webster JM (2014) Coral reefs and sea-level change. Mar Geol 352:248\u0026ndash;267\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWoodroffe CD (2002) Coasts: form, process and evolution. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p 623\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWu B, Peng B, Zhang K, Kuang X, Tu X, Fang X, Zeng D (2016) A new chemical index of identifying the weathering degree of black shales. Acta Geol Sinica 90:818\u0026ndash;832 (in Chinese with English abstract)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYoon SH, Sohn YK, Chough SK (2014) Tectonic, sedimentary, and volcanic evolution of a back-arc basin in the East Sea (Sea of Japan). Mar Geol 352:70\u0026ndash;88\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"geo-marine-letters","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"gmle","sideBox":"Learn more about [Geo-Marine Letters](http://link.springer.com/journal/367)","snPcode":"367","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/367/3","title":"Geo-Marine Letters","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Marine sedimentation, energy dissipation, celestial tidal forces, geothermal heat flux, solar radiation, material balance, sedimentary record completeness","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3872376/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3872376/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eEarth surface sedimentary processes involve the conversion of energy from tidal friction, geothermal heat release, and solar radiation. However, the net power consumption by sediment dynamic processes has received little attention, despite its relevance to the scale and evolution of sedimentary systems. This study aims to integrate the production rates and net power information, associated with rock weathering, biogenic sedimentation (organic particle, biogenic reef, and carbonate detrital sedimentation), continental shelf and coastal sedimentation (estuary and delta, sandy and gravel beach, and tidal flat sedimentation), and deep-sea sedimentation (sediment gravity flow, contour current, and pelagic-hemipelagic sedimentation). The results indicate that, although the oceans currently contain more than half of the global sediment mass, the net power consumed by various sedimentation processes represents only a minute fraction of the total power from their respective energy sources. This can be explained by macroscopic patterns of energy balance, limitations imposed by rock weathering and ecosystem spatial constraints, and the time scales of sedimentary cycling. Moreover, the total volume and temporal evolution of Earth's sediment are controlled by sediment production and removal processes, with the sedimentary record likely reaching its maximum extent, and the majority of sedimentary records having disappeared from surface environments. These analyses highlight a series of scientific questions that require further investigation, such as the energy conversion processes of weathering and biogenic activities, variations and adjustability of sedimentation power budgets, and changes in the completeness of sedimentary records over time.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Energy Partitioning in Global Marine Sedimentation: Tidal, Geothermal, and Solar Radiation Contributions","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-02-23 20:09:31","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3872376/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2024-03-25T02:27:22+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-03-10T09:53:23+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"cae58bf2-ee7a-46dd-8222-520238afa9cb","date":"2024-03-02T04:44:30+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-02-23T10:19:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-02-23T08:35:53+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-02-22T04:42:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Geo-Marine Letters","date":"2024-01-17T08:49:50+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"geo-marine-letters","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"gmle","sideBox":"Learn more about [Geo-Marine Letters](http://link.springer.com/journal/367)","snPcode":"367","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/367/3","title":"Geo-Marine Letters","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"f858c7c9-db67-41df-8fcb-2ca6d9f2c2de","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 23rd, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-05-01T22:03:52+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-3872376","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00367-024-00769-2","journal":{"identity":"geo-marine-letters","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Geo-Marine Letters"},"publishedOn":"2024-04-25 22:03:52","publishedOnDateReadable":"April 25th, 2024"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-02-23 20:09:31","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s00367-024-00769-2","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00367-024-00769-2","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-3872376","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-3872376","identity":"rs-3872376","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}