Determining Irrigation Frequency and Water Amount for Irrigated Wheat Production in Amibara, Afar Region, Ethiopia

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This study was conducted at Werer Agricultural Research Center to determine the optimal irrigation frequency and amount that enhances water use efficiency (WUE) and wheat yield. The experiment used a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with five treatments: 35mm every 6 days, 45mm every 8 days, 60mm every 10 days, 70mm every 12 days, and irrigation based on an Allowable Soil Moisture Depletion Level (ASMDL) of 50%. Bread wheat (Ga'ambo 2 variety) was grown, and agronomic data were collected over two years. Results indicated that the treatment of 35mm every 6 days achieved the highest grain yield (4104.74 kg/ha) and WUE (0.90 kg/m³), closely followed by the 45mm every 8 days treatment (3743.35 kg/ha and 0.78 kg/m³). Both treatments were statistically similar in terms of yield and WUE. The ASMDL and treatments with longer irrigation intervals (60 mm/10 days and 70 mm/12 days) resulted in significantly lower yields and WUE, demonstrating the critical role of more frequent irrigation in maintaining optimal soil moisture and mitigating salinity effects. The findings suggest that applying 45mm every 8 days provides a balanced approach, maximizing yield while offering practical labor and time savings compared to the more frequent 35 mm/6-day schedule. These results are essential for improving irrigation strategies in Ethiopia’s lowland wheat production areas, contributing to the country’s goal of wheat self-sufficiency. Further research is recommended to validate these findings under farmer-managed conditions and explore their long-term impacts on soil health and water resources. wheat irrigation scheduling water use efficiency yield salinity Amibara Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 1. Introduction Food security and rural livelihoods greatly depend on irrigated agriculture, especially in arid and semi-arid areas like Ethiopia's Afar Region. Awash River Basin's Amibara region is distinguished by high rates of evapotranspiration, little yearly rainfall, and problems with soil salinity, all of which pose serious obstacles to crop development. Due to its economic significance and potential to improve Ethiopia's food security, wheat is an important staple crop being introduced in the area with irrigation (Effa et al., 2023 ; Gebreselassie et al., 2017 ; Wuletaw Tadesse, 2022). However, for sustained agricultural expansion in this water-scarce region, irrigation systems must be optimized to balance crop output and water use efficiency. Improved irrigation management can enhance wheat physiology, plant growth, and grain quality, while maintaining water productivity and addressing climate change adaptation challenges (Si et al., 2023 ). The need for optimizing water use in agriculture is vital, particularly in regions like Ethiopia where water resources are increasingly scarce and inefficient irrigation practices are prevalent (Eshete et al., 2020 ). In such regions, irrigation schemes are critical for ensuring food security, yet many of these schemes suffer from poor water management practices. Studies have shown that suboptimal water distribution, improper irrigation scheduling, and prolonged irrigation durations are common issues that lead to water wastage and reduced crop productivity performance (Derib et al., 2011 ; Eguavoen & Tesfai, 2012 ; Van Halsema et al., 2011 ). Irrigation management under water scarcity requires innovative research and technology transfer, with a focus on supply management, and demand management to reduce water demand and control environmental impacts (Pereira et al., 2002 ). Water is not only a limiting factor but also one of the most expensive inputs in agriculture, making it vital to improve water use efficiency (WUE) in crop production. Irrigated wheat, a crop of strategic importance for Ethiopia's food security, is a priority in government plans to boost productivity and reduce the country’s dependence on wheat imports (Effa et al., 2023 ). Ethiopia’s lowland areas, particularly the Amibara region, have been identified as key zones for expanding irrigated wheat production. However, these areas face unique environmental challenges, including high temperatures, salinity issues, and erratic rainfall patterns, making it critical to determine the optimal irrigation schedules that are both productive and resource efficient. Climate change in the region is further exacerbating these challenges by increasing variability in rainfall and temperature patterns, which threatens water security across various sectors and necessitates an enhanced water management strategy (Taye et al., 2018 ). As a result, traditional irrigation practices are no longer sufficient for ensuring consistent and high crop yields. The development of scientifically supported irrigation schedules can play a crucial role in mitigating these challenges by ensuring that crops receive the right amount of water at the right time, thereby enhancing both yield and water use efficiency (George et al., 2000 ). Irrigation water management with appropriate technologies can improve wheat yield, water productivity, and nutrient utilization (Tiruye et al., 2022 ). Given this context, the importance of determining irrigation frequencies and amounts specific to the local conditions in the Amibara region cannot be overstated. Soil characteristics such as texture, infiltration rate, and water retention capacity are critical factors that influence irrigation needs (Li et al., 2021 ; Scherer et al., 1996 ). Furthermore, the salinity issues in the region call for determining appropriate irrigation scheduling to prevent salt build-up in the root zone, which can otherwise impede crop growth. By establishing optimized irrigation schedules, this study aims to address these pressing challenges and provide valuable insights that can be applied not only in Amibara but also in other regions with similar agro-ecological conditions. The results will have important implications for improving the water productivity of wheat in Ethiopia and ensuring the sustainability of water resources. 2. Materials and Methods The study was conducted at Werer Agricultural Research Center in Ethiopia, located at 9°16'N latitude and 40°9'E longitude, with an average altitude of 740 m.a.s.l. (Fig. 1 ). The soil at the site is Vertisol, characterized by a bulk density of 1.17 g/cm³, a field capacity of 46%, and a permanent wilting point of 30.4%. The experiment followed a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with four replications, using the wheat variety Ga'ambo 2. A seed rate of 125 kg/ha was applied. For nutrient management, 150 kg/ha of Urea was split into two applications: half during early tillering and the remaining half at the booting stage. Additionally, 100 kg/ha of NPS fertilizer was applied at sowing. The experimental setup began with the preparation of the field, where plots were clearly delineated, and baseline data on soil chemical and physical properties were collected, as shown in Table 1 . A furrow irrigation system was installed to ensure uniform water distribution across the plots. The amount of water applied in each treatment was measured using a Parshall flume to ensure precision in water application. The plots were assigned five distinct irrigation treatments: 35 mm every 6 days, 45 mm every 8 days, 60 mm every 10 days, 70 mm every 12 days, and ASMDL (Allowable Soil Moisture Depletion Level), where irrigation was triggered when soil moisture dropped below a predefined threshold. Irrigation scheduling for each treatment was strictly followed, ensuring the correct water depth was applied according to the specific intervals. The water application was precisely measured using the Parshall flume. Throughout the growing season, soil moisture levels were monitored using gravimetric methods, especially in the ASMDL treatment, to track real-time moisture depletion. Regular data collection included monitoring soil moisture content, crop growth, and evapotranspiration rates. The number of irrigation events and the total seasonal water applied were recorded for each treatment, as shown in Table 2 . Agronomic measurements such as crop height, biomass, and final grain yield were taken to evaluate the crop's response to each irrigation treatment. Soil Chemical Characteristics Table 1 provides a detailed summary of the soil chemical characteristics, which include parameters such as pH, electrical conductivity (EC), organic matter content, and nutrient levels. These factors are essential in understanding the interactions between soil chemistry, water management practices, and crop response, forming the basis for optimizing irrigation strategies and addressing potential issues like salinity and nutrient availability. Table 1 Soil chemical characteristics Depth (cm) ECe (ds/m) pH Soluble cations Ca + Mg (meq/l) meq/l (Na) meq/l (k) SAR 0–30 0.44 7.70 1.5 12.1 1.01 13.8 30–60 0.61 7.50 1.2 15.6 1.03 21.5 60–90 0.79 7.50 1.5 13.7 1.1 17.4 Depth (cm) Exchangeable cations OC (%) TOC (%) OM (%) TN (%) P (ppm) (Ca + Mg) cmol+/kg K cmol+/kg Na cmol+/kg 0–30 46.3 5.8 18.5 0.77 0.95 1.64 0.08 14.73 30–60 44.7 4.3 16.2 0.61 0.8 1.38 0.07 16.63 60–90 43.3 2.6 14.3 0.52 0.69 1.19 0.06 17.06 The number of irrigation events for each treatment, along with the corresponding seasonal water application amounts, are detailed in Table 2 . Table 2 Number of irrigation and amount for each treatment Treatment Number of irrigations Total seasonal net irrigation amount (mm) 35mm/6day 13 455 45mm/8day 10 450 60mm/10day 8 480 70mm/12day 7 490 ASMDL* 9 452 * Allowable Soil Moisture Depletion Level (ASMDL) = 0.50 3. Results and discussion The results of the study, as presented in Table 3 , demonstrate the effects of different irrigation treatments on wheat grain yield and water use efficiency. The data provides insights into how varying irrigation frequencies and amounts influence crop productivity and water use efficiency under the given climatic conditions. Table 3 Effects of irrigation treatments on wheat grain yield and water use efficiency Treatments Grain yield (kg/ha) Water use efficiency (kg/m 3 ) 35mm/6days 4104.74 a 0.90 a 45mm/8days 3743.35 ab 0.78 ab ASMDL 3120.08 bc 0.67 b 70mm/12days 2889.47 bc 0.50 c 60mm/10days 2708.63 c 0.49 c LSD (0.05) 857.61 0.15 CV 25.38 22.56 3.1. Grain Yield The grain yield results underscore the importance of irrigation frequency and volume on crop productivity. The highest yield was observed in the 35mm/6days treatment, producing a yield of 4104.74 kg/ha, followed closely by the 45mm/8days treatment with 3743.35 kg/ha. These findings indicate that more frequent and moderate water applications significantly enhance wheat productivity in the study area. The relatively high yields in the 35mm/6days treatment can be attributed to its ability to maintain an optimal moisture level in the root zone, preventing water stress and promoting continuous plant growth (Fig. 2 ). This is especially crucial in regions like Amibara, where high temperatures and soil salinity can lead to rapid soil moisture depletion. By irrigating every six days, the soil moisture levels are kept near field capacity, allowing the wheat crop to maximize its water uptake and maintain healthy growth throughout the growing season. The 45mm/8days treatment, although requiring fewer irrigations, still performed well in terms of yield, suggesting that slightly longer intervals between irrigations may be sufficient for maintaining moisture levels in the root zone without significantly compromising yield. However, the difference in yield between the 35mm/6days and 45mm/8days treatments suggests that while less frequent irrigation may save labor and time, it may not fully optimize productivity. In contrast, treatments with larger irrigation amounts applied over longer intervals, such as the 70mm/12days and 60mm/10days treatments, resulted in significantly lower yields of 2889.47 kg/ha and 2708.63 kg/ha, respectively. These results highlight that applying larger amounts of water less frequently can lead to periods of waterlogging followed by periods of water stress, both of which negatively impact crop growth and yield. Waterlogging can reduce soil aeration and root health, while water stress during dry periods limits the plant’s ability to uptake water, further reducing yield potential. The ASMDL treatment, which aimed to irrigate based on soil moisture depletion levels, also produced lower yields compared to the more frequent irrigation schedules. This suggests that while soil moisture monitoring can be an effective irrigation strategy, it may not be sufficient to counteract the rapid moisture depletion caused by the region’s high evaporation rates and salinity conditions. 3.2. Water Use Efficiency (WUE): Water use efficiency (WUE) is a critical indicator of the effectiveness of irrigation practices. The highest WUE was observed in the 35mm/6days treatment, with a value of 0.90 kg/m³, followed closely by the 45mm/8days treatment at 0.78 kg/m³ (Fig. 3 ). These results indicate that frequent and moderate irrigation not only enhances grain yield but also improves the efficiency of water use, a key consideration in water-scarce environments like Amibara. The lower WUE values observed in the 70mm/12days and 60mm/10days treatments (0.50 kg/m³ and 0.49 kg/m³, respectively) further reinforce the finding that larger irrigation amounts applied less frequently result in suboptimal water use. These treatments likely resulted in excessive water loss through deep percolation and evaporation, reducing the amount of water available for crop uptake. This inefficiency is particularly problematic in regions like the Amibara, where water resources are limited, and maximizing the productivity of each unit of water is essential for sustainable agriculture. The ASMDL treatment, while aimed at maintaining soil moisture levels based on depletion, achieved a WUE of 0.67 kg/m³, which is lower than the more frequent irrigation treatments. This result suggests that while soil moisture monitoring can improve irrigation scheduling, it may not fully address the specific environmental challenges of the Amibara region, where frequent irrigation is needed to mitigate salinity and temperature stresses. The significant differences in yield and WUE across the different treatments highlight the complex relationship between irrigation frequency, water amount, and environmental factors such as soil characteristics and climate. In the Amibara region, where high temperatures and salinity can rapidly deplete soil moisture, more frequent irrigation ensures that plants have continuous access to water, preventing both water stress and salt accumulation in the root zone. The higher yields and WUE observed in the 35mm/6days and 45mm/8days treatments demonstrate that moderate but frequent irrigation schedules are well-suited to the specific conditions of the study area. These schedules maintain a balance between preventing water stress and avoiding water wastage, resulting in both higher crop productivity and more efficient water use. Conversely, the lower yields and WUE values observed in the treatments with less frequent irrigation highlight the risks of applying too much water at once, which can lead to waterlogging, inefficient water use, and ultimately lower crop yields. There are various research findings that support our studies. Frequent irrigation helps leach salts from the root zone by providing enough water to dissolve and move salts beyond the root depth and create conducive environment for crop growth. A study by Chachar et al. ( 2020) on effects of irrigation frequencies on soil salinity and crop water productivity highlighted the importance of frequent irrigation to maintain low salt concentrations in the root zone, reducing the potential for salinity stress on crops. Maintaining a consistently moist root zone through frequent irrigation helps plants avoid water stress, especially under saline conditions. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2018 ), ensuring that soil moisture levels are consistently high prevents osmotic stress, which occurs when plants need to expend more energy to extract water from saline soils. The results of this study provide strong evidence that optimizing irrigation frequency and water amount is critical for improving both wheat yield and water use efficiency in the Amibara irrigation scheme. The 35mm/6days and 45mm/8days treatments offer the best balance between productivity and resource efficiency, and these findings can be applied to other irrigated wheat systems in similar agro-ecological zones. Further research is needed to explore the long-term sustainability of these irrigation practices, particularly considering changing climate conditions and growing water scarcity challenges. 4. Conclusion The results of the study demonstrated that irrigation frequency and amount significantly affect wheat grain yield and water use efficiency in the Amibara region. The treatment of applying 35mm of irrigation every 6 days resulted in the highest grain yield and water use efficiency. However, it did not show a statistically significant difference when compared to the treatment of 45mm every 8 days. Given this similarity in yield performance, applying 45mm every 8 days is recommended due to its labor and time efficiency, making it more practical for large-scale farming operations. The results highlight the need for proper irrigation scheduling in the region, especially considering the salinity challenges that require frequent irrigation to maintain optimal soil moisture in the root zone. Future studies should focus on testing these irrigation schedules under farmer-managed conditions to validate the results at a larger scale. Additionally, further investigation is needed to understand the long-term effects of these irrigation practices on soil health and water use sustainability in the study area. These findings are crucial for guiding irrigation practices that will help improve wheat self-sufficiency in Ethiopia’s lowland regions while maximizing water use efficiency. Declarations Author Contribution Jemal Mohammed Hassen designed the experiment, implemented the activities, and wrote the main manuscript text, while Fikadu Robi Borena assisted in designed the experiment and implementing the activities. All authors reviewed the manuscript. Acknowledgement The authors are thankful to Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research/Werer Agricultural Research Center and ADAPT-Wheat project for the financial support and staff of irrigation and water harvesting research program for their technical assistance. References Chachar, A. N., Mirjat, M. U., Soothar, R. K., Shaikh, I. A., Mirjat, M. H., & Dahri, S. A. (2020). Effects of irrigation frequencies on soil salinity and crop water productivity of fodder maize. Acta Ecologica Sinica , 40 (4), 277–282. Derib, S. D., Descheemaeker, K., Haileslassie, A., & Amede, T. (2011). Irrigation water productivity as affected by water management in a small-scale irrigation scheme in the Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia. Experimental Agriculture , 47 (S1), 39–55. Effa, K., Fana, D. M., Nigussie, M., Geleti, D., Abebe, N., Dechassa, N., Anchala, C., Gemechu, G., Bogale, T., Girma, D., & Berisso, F. E. (2023). The irrigated wheat initiative of Ethiopia: a new paradigm emulating Asia’s green revolution in Africa. Environment, Development and Sustainability . https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-023-03961-z Eguavoen, I., & Tesfai, W. (2012). Social impact and impoverishment risks of the Koga irrigation scheme, Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia. Afrika Focus , 25 (1), 39–60. Eshete, D. G., Sinshaw, B. G., & Legese, K. G. (2020). Critical review on improving irrigation water use efficiency: Advances, challenges, and opportunities in the Ethiopia context. Water-Energy Nexus , 3 , 143–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wen.2020.09.001 FAO. (2018). Handbook for saline soil management. In Published by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and Lomonosov Moscow State University . http://www.fao.org/3/i7318en/I7318EN.pdf Gebreselassie, S., Haile, M., & Kalkuhl, M. (2017). The wheat sector in Ethiopia: Current status and key challenges for future value chain development . George, B. A., Shende, S. A., & Raghuwanshi, N. S. (2000). Development and testing of an irrigation scheduling model. Agricultural Water Management , 46 (2), 121–136. Li, X., Zhao, W., Li, J., & Li, Y. (2021). Effects of irrigation strategies and soil properties on the characteristics of deep percolation and crop water requirements for a variable rate irrigation system. Agricultural Water Management , 257 , 107143. Pereira, L. S., Oweis, T., & Zairi, A. (2002). Irrigation management under water scarcity. Agricultural Water Management , 57 (3), 175–206. Scherer, T. F., Seelig, B., & Franzen, D. (1996). Soil, water and plant characteristics important to irrigation . Si, Z., Qin, A., Liang, Y., Duan, A., & Gao, Y. (2023). A Review on Regulation of Irrigation Management on Wheat Physiology, Grain Yield, and Quality. In Plants (Vol. 12, Issue 4). MDPI. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12040692 Taye, M. T., Dyer, E., Hirpa, F. A., & Charles, K. (2018). Climate change impact on water resources in the Awash basin, Ethiopia. Water , 10 (11), 1560. Tiruye, A. E., Asres Belay, S., Schmitter, P., Tegegne, D., Zimale, F. A., & Tilahun, S. A. (2022). Yield, water productivity and nutrient balances under different water management technologies of irrigated wheat in Ethiopia. PLoS Water , 1 (12), e0000060. Van Halsema, G. E., Keddi Lencha, B., Assefa, M., Hengsdijk, H., & Wesseler, J. (2011). Performance assessment of smallholder irrigation in the Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia. Irrigation and Drainage , 60 (5), 622–634. Wuletaw Tadesse, H. Z. T. D. D. K. W. S. T. S. T. N. N. G. Z. B. S. A. (2022). Wheat Production and Breeding in Ethiopia: Retrospect and Prospects. Crop Breeding, Genetics and Genomics . https://doi.org/10.20900/cbgg20220003 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5297755","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":369371975,"identity":"e66273dd-84e4-413b-9318-bc22617088d4","order_by":0,"name":"Jemal Mohammed Hassen","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAz0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACxgYwdYCBH0QlFJCiRRLESDAg3rIDDAYHQDQxWpjbu5M/3ai4I298fnXihwcGDPL8YgcIOKzn7DbpnDPPDLfdeLtZAugww5mzEwhomZG7jTm37TDjthtnN4C0JBjcJqRl/tvNn4Fa7DfPOLv5B3FaZvBukAZqSdzA37uNSFt6ckF+OZw84wbvNosEAwnCfjFsP7v5c07FYdv+/rObb/6osJHnlyakpQHGkgCrlMCvHATk4Sz+A4RVj4JRMApGwcgEAOTbTImTPQalAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jemal","middleName":"Mohammed","lastName":"Hassen","suffix":""},{"id":369371976,"identity":"59dfd194-6e82-4821-b740-5f3c7248f126","order_by":1,"name":"Fikadu Robi Borana","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fikadu","middleName":"Robi","lastName":"Borana","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-10-20 09:53:12","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5297755/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5297755/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":68264226,"identity":"19e3055f-4369-4cb4-a9b5-1d44b9c4a160","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-05 12:28:06","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":384798,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003elocation of study area\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5297755/v1/950959beb3a94f34519b40d3.jpeg"},{"id":68264227,"identity":"f983eb4b-e022-4b28-b488-81e0f2fd28f4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-05 12:28:06","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":59802,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eIrrigation treatment effects on grain yield of wheat\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5297755/v1/128bc5c9736a25994abdaae0.png"},{"id":68264492,"identity":"c324e2ad-bdf1-47b5-9d19-a844bf5dd474","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-05 12:36:06","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":59829,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eIrrigation treatment effects on water use efficiency of wheat\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5297755/v1/53b72f13a8fb97600e4d049d.png"},{"id":70651264,"identity":"c6622810-3291-4a2e-991b-0c43c56d3f87","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-05 09:09:20","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":832104,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5297755/v1/98a46255-0a88-446d-95ac-e2b83b9d3bbc.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Determining Irrigation Frequency and Water Amount for Irrigated Wheat Production in Amibara, Afar Region, Ethiopia","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eFood security and rural livelihoods greatly depend on irrigated agriculture, especially in arid and semi-arid areas like Ethiopia's Afar Region. Awash River Basin's Amibara region is distinguished by high rates of evapotranspiration, little yearly rainfall, and problems with soil salinity, all of which pose serious obstacles to crop development. Due to its economic significance and potential to improve Ethiopia's food security, wheat is an important staple crop being introduced in the area with irrigation (Effa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Gebreselassie et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Wuletaw Tadesse, 2022). However, for sustained agricultural expansion in this water-scarce region, irrigation systems must be optimized to balance crop output and water use efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eImproved irrigation management can enhance wheat physiology, plant growth, and grain quality, while maintaining water productivity and addressing climate change adaptation challenges (Si et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The need for optimizing water use in agriculture is vital, particularly in regions like Ethiopia where water resources are increasingly scarce and inefficient irrigation practices are prevalent (Eshete et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In such regions, irrigation schemes are critical for ensuring food security, yet many of these schemes suffer from poor water management practices. Studies have shown that suboptimal water distribution, improper irrigation scheduling, and prolonged irrigation durations are common issues that lead to water wastage and reduced crop productivity performance (Derib et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Eguavoen \u0026amp; Tesfai, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Van Halsema et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Irrigation management under water scarcity requires innovative research and technology transfer, with a focus on supply management, and demand management to reduce water demand and control environmental impacts (Pereira et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater is not only a limiting factor but also one of the most expensive inputs in agriculture, making it vital to improve water use efficiency (WUE) in crop production. Irrigated wheat, a crop of strategic importance for Ethiopia's food security, is a priority in government plans to boost productivity and reduce the country\u0026rsquo;s dependence on wheat imports (Effa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Ethiopia\u0026rsquo;s lowland areas, particularly the Amibara region, have been identified as key zones for expanding irrigated wheat production. However, these areas face unique environmental challenges, including high temperatures, salinity issues, and erratic rainfall patterns, making it critical to determine the optimal irrigation schedules that are both productive and resource efficient.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate change in the region is further exacerbating these challenges by increasing variability in rainfall and temperature patterns, which threatens water security across various sectors and necessitates an enhanced water management strategy (Taye et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). As a result, traditional irrigation practices are no longer sufficient for ensuring consistent and high crop yields. The development of scientifically supported irrigation schedules can play a crucial role in mitigating these challenges by ensuring that crops receive the right amount of water at the right time, thereby enhancing both yield and water use efficiency (George et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Irrigation water management with appropriate technologies can improve wheat yield, water productivity, and nutrient utilization (Tiruye et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven this context, the importance of determining irrigation frequencies and amounts specific to the local conditions in the Amibara region cannot be overstated. Soil characteristics such as texture, infiltration rate, and water retention capacity are critical factors that influence irrigation needs (Li et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Scherer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, the salinity issues in the region call for determining appropriate irrigation scheduling to prevent salt build-up in the root zone, which can otherwise impede crop growth.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBy establishing optimized irrigation schedules, this study aims to address these pressing challenges and provide valuable insights that can be applied not only in Amibara but also in other regions with similar agro-ecological conditions. The results will have important implications for improving the water productivity of wheat in Ethiopia and ensuring the sustainability of water resources.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted at Werer Agricultural Research Center in Ethiopia, located at 9\u0026deg;16'N latitude and 40\u0026deg;9'E longitude, with an average altitude of 740 m.a.s.l. (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The soil at the site is Vertisol, characterized by a bulk density of 1.17 g/cm\u0026sup3;, a field capacity of 46%, and a permanent wilting point of 30.4%.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe experiment followed a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with four replications, using the wheat variety Ga'ambo 2. A seed rate of 125 kg/ha was applied. For nutrient management, 150 kg/ha of Urea was split into two applications: half during early tillering and the remaining half at the booting stage. Additionally, 100 kg/ha of NPS fertilizer was applied at sowing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe experimental setup began with the preparation of the field, where plots were clearly delineated, and baseline data on soil chemical and physical properties were collected, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. A furrow irrigation system was installed to ensure uniform water distribution across the plots. The amount of water applied in each treatment was measured using a Parshall flume to ensure precision in water application.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe plots were assigned five distinct irrigation treatments: 35 mm every 6 days, 45 mm every 8 days, 60 mm every 10 days, 70 mm every 12 days, and ASMDL (Allowable Soil Moisture Depletion Level), where irrigation was triggered when soil moisture dropped below a predefined threshold. Irrigation scheduling for each treatment was strictly followed, ensuring the correct water depth was applied according to the specific intervals. The water application was precisely measured using the Parshall flume.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThroughout the growing season, soil moisture levels were monitored using gravimetric methods, especially in the ASMDL treatment, to track real-time moisture depletion. Regular data collection included monitoring soil moisture content, crop growth, and evapotranspiration rates. The number of irrigation events and the total seasonal water applied were recorded for each treatment, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Agronomic measurements such as crop height, biomass, and final grain yield were taken to evaluate the crop's response to each irrigation treatment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eSoil Chemical Characteristics\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e provides a detailed summary of the soil chemical characteristics, which include parameters such as pH, electrical conductivity (EC), organic matter content, and nutrient levels. These factors are essential in understanding the interactions between soil chemistry, water management practices, and crop response, forming the basis for optimizing irrigation strategies and addressing potential issues like salinity and nutrient availability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil chemical characteristics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"15\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c15\" colnum=\"15\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" morerows=\"1\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDepth (cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" morerows=\"1\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eECe (ds/m)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoluble cations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCa\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Mg (meq/l)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emeq/l (Na)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emeq/l (k)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSAR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u0026ndash;90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDepth (cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExchangeable cations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" morerows=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" morerows=\"1\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTOC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOM\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" morerows=\"1\" nameend=\"c14\" namest=\"c13\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTN\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP (ppm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Ca\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Mg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ecmol+/kg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eK\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ecmol+/kg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNa\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ecmol+/kg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c14\" namest=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c14\" namest=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u0026ndash;90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c14\" namest=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe number of irrigation events for each treatment, along with the corresponding seasonal water application amounts, are detailed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of irrigation and amount for each treatment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of irrigations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal seasonal net irrigation amount (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35mm/6day\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e455\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45mm/8day\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e450\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60mm/10day\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e480\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70mm/12day\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e490\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eASMDL*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e452\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e* Allowable Soil Moisture Depletion Level (ASMDL)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.50\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe results of the study, as presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, demonstrate the effects of different irrigation treatments on wheat grain yield and water use efficiency. The data provides insights into how varying irrigation frequencies and amounts influence crop productivity and water use efficiency under the given climatic conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffects of irrigation treatments on wheat grain yield and water use efficiency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreatments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrain yield (kg/ha)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater use efficiency (kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35mm/6days\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4104.74\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.90 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45mm/8days\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3743.35\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.78 \u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eASMDL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3120.08\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70mm/12days\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2889.47\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.50 \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60mm/10days\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2708.63\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.49 \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLSD \u003csub\u003e(0.05)\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e857.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Grain Yield\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe grain yield results underscore the importance of irrigation frequency and volume on crop productivity. The highest yield was observed in the 35mm/6days treatment, producing a yield of 4104.74 kg/ha, followed closely by the 45mm/8days treatment with 3743.35 kg/ha. These findings indicate that more frequent and moderate water applications significantly enhance wheat productivity in the study area.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe relatively high yields in the 35mm/6days treatment can be attributed to its ability to maintain an optimal moisture level in the root zone, preventing water stress and promoting continuous plant growth (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). This is especially crucial in regions like Amibara, where high temperatures and soil salinity can lead to rapid soil moisture depletion. By irrigating every six days, the soil moisture levels are kept near field capacity, allowing the wheat crop to maximize its water uptake and maintain healthy growth throughout the growing season.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe 45mm/8days treatment, although requiring fewer irrigations, still performed well in terms of yield, suggesting that slightly longer intervals between irrigations may be sufficient for maintaining moisture levels in the root zone without significantly compromising yield. However, the difference in yield between the 35mm/6days and 45mm/8days treatments suggests that while less frequent irrigation may save labor and time, it may not fully optimize productivity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, treatments with larger irrigation amounts applied over longer intervals, such as the 70mm/12days and 60mm/10days treatments, resulted in significantly lower yields of 2889.47 kg/ha and 2708.63 kg/ha, respectively. These results highlight that applying larger amounts of water less frequently can lead to periods of waterlogging followed by periods of water stress, both of which negatively impact crop growth and yield. Waterlogging can reduce soil aeration and root health, while water stress during dry periods limits the plant\u0026rsquo;s ability to uptake water, further reducing yield potential.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ASMDL treatment, which aimed to irrigate based on soil moisture depletion levels, also produced lower yields compared to the more frequent irrigation schedules. This suggests that while soil moisture monitoring can be an effective irrigation strategy, it may not be sufficient to counteract the rapid moisture depletion caused by the region\u0026rsquo;s high evaporation rates and salinity conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Water Use Efficiency (WUE):\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater use efficiency (WUE) is a critical indicator of the effectiveness of irrigation practices. The highest WUE was observed in the 35mm/6days treatment, with a value of 0.90 kg/m\u0026sup3;, followed closely by the 45mm/8days treatment at 0.78 kg/m\u0026sup3; (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). These results indicate that frequent and moderate irrigation not only enhances grain yield but also improves the efficiency of water use, a key consideration in water-scarce environments like Amibara.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe lower WUE values observed in the 70mm/12days and 60mm/10days treatments (0.50 kg/m\u0026sup3; and 0.49 kg/m\u0026sup3;, respectively) further reinforce the finding that larger irrigation amounts applied less frequently result in suboptimal water use. These treatments likely resulted in excessive water loss through deep percolation and evaporation, reducing the amount of water available for crop uptake. This inefficiency is particularly problematic in regions like the Amibara, where water resources are limited, and maximizing the productivity of each unit of water is essential for sustainable agriculture.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ASMDL treatment, while aimed at maintaining soil moisture levels based on depletion, achieved a WUE of 0.67 kg/m\u0026sup3;, which is lower than the more frequent irrigation treatments. This result suggests that while soil moisture monitoring can improve irrigation scheduling, it may not fully address the specific environmental challenges of the Amibara region, where frequent irrigation is needed to mitigate salinity and temperature stresses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe significant differences in yield and WUE across the different treatments highlight the complex relationship between irrigation frequency, water amount, and environmental factors such as soil characteristics and climate. In the Amibara region, where high temperatures and salinity can rapidly deplete soil moisture, more frequent irrigation ensures that plants have continuous access to water, preventing both water stress and salt accumulation in the root zone.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe higher yields and WUE observed in the 35mm/6days and 45mm/8days treatments demonstrate that moderate but frequent irrigation schedules are well-suited to the specific conditions of the study area. These schedules maintain a balance between preventing water stress and avoiding water wastage, resulting in both higher crop productivity and more efficient water use. Conversely, the lower yields and WUE values observed in the treatments with less frequent irrigation highlight the risks of applying too much water at once, which can lead to waterlogging, inefficient water use, and ultimately lower crop yields.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere are various research findings that support our studies. Frequent irrigation helps leach salts from the root zone by providing enough water to dissolve and move salts beyond the root depth and create conducive environment for crop growth. A study by Chachar et al. ( 2020) on effects of irrigation frequencies on soil salinity and crop water productivity highlighted the importance of frequent irrigation to maintain low salt concentrations in the root zone, reducing the potential for salinity stress on crops. Maintaining a consistently moist root zone through frequent irrigation helps plants avoid water stress, especially under saline conditions. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), ensuring that soil moisture levels are consistently high prevents osmotic stress, which occurs when plants need to expend more energy to extract water from saline soils.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of this study provide strong evidence that optimizing irrigation frequency and water amount is critical for improving both wheat yield and water use efficiency in the Amibara irrigation scheme. The 35mm/6days and 45mm/8days treatments offer the best balance between productivity and resource efficiency, and these findings can be applied to other irrigated wheat systems in similar agro-ecological zones. Further research is needed to explore the long-term sustainability of these irrigation practices, particularly considering changing climate conditions and growing water scarcity challenges.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe results of the study demonstrated that irrigation frequency and amount significantly affect wheat grain yield and water use efficiency in the Amibara region. The treatment of applying 35mm of irrigation every 6 days resulted in the highest grain yield and water use efficiency. However, it did not show a statistically significant difference when compared to the treatment of 45mm every 8 days. Given this similarity in yield performance, applying 45mm every 8 days is recommended due to its labor and time efficiency, making it more practical for large-scale farming operations. The results highlight the need for proper irrigation scheduling in the region, especially considering the salinity challenges that require frequent irrigation to maintain optimal soil moisture in the root zone.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFuture studies should focus on testing these irrigation schedules under farmer-managed conditions to validate the results at a larger scale. Additionally, further investigation is needed to understand the long-term effects of these irrigation practices on soil health and water use sustainability in the study area. These findings are crucial for guiding irrigation practices that will help improve wheat self-sufficiency in Ethiopia\u0026rsquo;s lowland regions while maximizing water use efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eJemal Mohammed Hassen designed the experiment, implemented the activities, and wrote the main manuscript text, while Fikadu Robi Borena assisted in designed the experiment and implementing the activities. All authors reviewed the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors are thankful to Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research/Werer Agricultural Research Center and ADAPT-Wheat project for the financial support and staff of irrigation and water harvesting research program for their technical assistance.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eChachar, A. N., Mirjat, M. U., Soothar, R. K., Shaikh, I. A., Mirjat, M. H., \u0026amp; Dahri, S. A. (2020). Effects of irrigation frequencies on soil salinity and crop water productivity of fodder maize. \u003cem\u003eActa Ecologica Sinica\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e40\u003c/em\u003e(4), 277\u0026ndash;282.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDerib, S. D., Descheemaeker, K., Haileslassie, A., \u0026amp; Amede, T. (2011). 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G., \u0026amp; Legese, K. G. (2020). Critical review on improving irrigation water use efficiency: Advances, challenges, and opportunities in the Ethiopia context. \u003cem\u003eWater-Energy Nexus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e, 143\u0026ndash;154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wen.2020.09.001\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eFAO. (2018). Handbook for saline soil management. In \u003cem\u003ePublished by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and Lomonosov Moscow State University\u003c/em\u003e. http://www.fao.org/3/i7318en/I7318EN.pdf\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eGebreselassie, S., Haile, M., \u0026amp; Kalkuhl, M. (2017). \u003cem\u003eThe wheat sector in Ethiopia: Current status and key challenges for future value chain development\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eGeorge, B. A., Shende, S. A., \u0026amp; Raghuwanshi, N. S. (2000). Development and testing of an irrigation scheduling model. \u003cem\u003eAgricultural Water Management\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e46\u003c/em\u003e(2), 121\u0026ndash;136.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLi, X., Zhao, W., Li, J., \u0026amp; Li, Y. (2021). Effects of irrigation strategies and soil properties on the characteristics of deep percolation and crop water requirements for a variable rate irrigation system. \u003cem\u003eAgricultural Water Management\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e257\u003c/em\u003e, 107143.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePereira, L. S., Oweis, T., \u0026amp; Zairi, A. (2002). Irrigation management under water scarcity. \u003cem\u003eAgricultural Water Management\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e57\u003c/em\u003e(3), 175\u0026ndash;206.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eScherer, T. F., Seelig, B., \u0026amp; Franzen, D. (1996). \u003cem\u003eSoil, water and plant characteristics important to irrigation\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSi, Z., Qin, A., Liang, Y., Duan, A., \u0026amp; Gao, Y. (2023). A Review on Regulation of Irrigation Management on Wheat Physiology, Grain Yield, and Quality. In \u003cem\u003ePlants\u003c/em\u003e (Vol. 12, Issue 4). MDPI. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12040692\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTaye, M. T., Dyer, E., Hirpa, F. A., \u0026amp; Charles, K. (2018). Climate change impact on water resources in the Awash basin, Ethiopia. \u003cem\u003eWater\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e10\u003c/em\u003e(11), 1560.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTiruye, A. E., Asres Belay, S., Schmitter, P., Tegegne, D., Zimale, F. A., \u0026amp; Tilahun, S. A. (2022). Yield, water productivity and nutrient balances under different water management technologies of irrigated wheat in Ethiopia. \u003cem\u003ePLoS Water\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e1\u003c/em\u003e(12), e0000060.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eVan Halsema, G. E., Keddi Lencha, B., Assefa, M., Hengsdijk, H., \u0026amp; Wesseler, J. (2011). Performance assessment of smallholder irrigation in the Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia. \u003cem\u003eIrrigation and Drainage\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e60\u003c/em\u003e(5), 622\u0026ndash;634.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWuletaw Tadesse, H. Z. T. D. D. K. W. S. T. S. T. N. N. G. Z. B. S. A. (2022). Wheat Production and Breeding in Ethiopia: Retrospect and Prospects. \u003cem\u003eCrop Breeding, Genetics and Genomics\u003c/em\u003e. https://doi.org/10.20900/cbgg20220003\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"wheat, irrigation scheduling, water use efficiency, yield, salinity, Amibara","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5297755/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5297755/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIrrigation water management is crucial for enhancing wheat production in Ethiopia, especially in lowland regions like Amibara, where salinity and improper irrigation practices affect crop yields. This study was conducted at Werer Agricultural Research Center to determine the optimal irrigation frequency and amount that enhances water use efficiency (WUE) and wheat yield. The experiment used a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with five treatments: 35mm every 6 days, 45mm every 8 days, 60mm every 10 days, 70mm every 12 days, and irrigation based on an Allowable Soil Moisture Depletion Level (ASMDL) of 50%. Bread wheat (Ga'ambo 2 variety) was grown, and agronomic data were collected over two years. Results indicated that the treatment of 35mm every 6 days achieved the highest grain yield (4104.74 kg/ha) and WUE (0.90 kg/m\u0026sup3;), closely followed by the 45mm every 8 days treatment (3743.35 kg/ha and 0.78 kg/m\u0026sup3;). Both treatments were statistically similar in terms of yield and WUE. The ASMDL and treatments with longer irrigation intervals (60 mm/10 days and 70 mm/12 days) resulted in significantly lower yields and WUE, demonstrating the critical role of more frequent irrigation in maintaining optimal soil moisture and mitigating salinity effects. The findings suggest that applying 45mm every 8 days provides a balanced approach, maximizing yield while offering practical labor and time savings compared to the more frequent 35 mm/6-day schedule. These results are essential for improving irrigation strategies in Ethiopia\u0026rsquo;s lowland wheat production areas, contributing to the country\u0026rsquo;s goal of wheat self-sufficiency. Further research is recommended to validate these findings under farmer-managed conditions and explore their long-term impacts on soil health and water resources.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Determining Irrigation Frequency and Water Amount for Irrigated Wheat Production in Amibara, Afar Region, Ethiopia","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-11-05 12:28:01","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5297755/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"da08e576-2938-48e1-936b-5facf0a15517","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 5th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-12-05T09:09:07+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-11-05 12:28:01","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5297755","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5297755","identity":"rs-5297755","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}