Intergenerational Differences in Perceptions of Family Functioning, Parenting, and Cyberbullying Victimization in Arab Families

Intergenerational Differences in Perceptions of Family Functioning, Parenting, and Cyberbullying Victimization in Arab Families | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Intergenerational Differences in Perceptions of Family Functioning, Parenting, and Cyberbullying Victimization in Arab Families Salem Bafjaish, Raian Ali, Diana Alsayed Hassan, Aiman Erbad, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8402209/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Cyberbullying is a growing concern among adolescents in Gulf societies, where family relationships strongly shape whether young people disclose such experiences to their parents. This study examined differences between parents’ and adolescents’ perceptions of family functioning and positive parenting, and how these perceptions relate to cyberbullying victimization, willingness to report incidents, and barriers to disclosure. This study included 351 adolescents aged 13–16 years from public schools in Qatar and 400 parents residing across the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. Parents underestimated adolescents’ experiences of cyberbullying and overestimated their willingness to report cyberbullying incidents to their parents. Adolescents aged 13–14 years were more likely to report cyberbullying incidents than those aged 15–16 years, and boys reported higher victimization and lower willingness to disclose than girls. Family functioning and positive parenting were both significant predictors of adolescents’ likelihood of reporting cyberbullying incidents to their parents. At the same time, higher family functioning was also linked to lower levels of victimization. In both samples, family functioning showed a stronger and consistent association with fewer reasons for not reporting cyberbullying incidents to parents. In contrast, positive parenting demonstrated a smaller and less consistent effect. These findings highlight the central role of supportive and communicative family dynamics in addressing cyberbullying. In Gulf societies, fostering empathy, trust, and open dialogue between parents and adolescents may help bridge communication gaps, encourage disclosure, and promote safer digital experiences. Cyberbullying family functioning positive parenting disclosure adolescents Arab families Gulf Cooperation Council Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 1 Introduction Digital technologies have reshaped the social world of adolescents, offering new possibilities for connection while simultaneously creating avenues for harm. One of the most concerning consequences of this transformation is cyberbullying, a pattern of deliberate and repeated aggression carried out through digital means such as social media, messaging platforms, and online forums. It is commonly defined as “wilful and repeated harm inflicted through the use of computers, cell phones, and other electronic devices” (Hinduja & Patchin, 2013 ). Unlike traditional bullying, which is confined to specific settings, cyberbullying extends beyond school hours and physical boundaries, allowing harassment to intrude into private spaces. The anonymity and permanence of online interactions amplify the psychological impact of cyberbullying, making it a particularly harmful form of peer aggression (Kowalski & Limber, 2013 ; Peter & Petermann, 2018 ). Prevalence estimates indicate that between 14% and 57% of adolescents experience cyberbullying victimization (C. Zhu et al., 2021 ). Cyberbullying victimization has been associated with anxiety, depression, psychosomatic complaints, and suicidal ideation (Alrajeh et al., 2021 ; Fahy et al., 2016 ; Lee et al., 2025 ). Effective responses depend on adolescents informing a trusted adult, typically a parent or a teacher, so that support or intervention can be provided. However, many adolescents choose not to disclose their experiences. In one study, 11.7% of adolescents indicated that they would not report incidents of cybervictimization (Betts et al., 2022 ). Another study found that 27% of adolescents did not disclose their cyberbullying experiences to anyone, despite most participants reporting them (Daneback et al., 2018 ). Adolescents often refrain from disclosure due to fear of punishment, embarrassment, concerns about losing internet access, or the belief that adults may not be able to help (Cross et al., 2015 ). These factors reflect both individual concerns and broader family communication patterns that influence how young people decide whether to seek assistance. This study compares parents’ and adolescents’ perceptions of family functioning and positive parenting, examines discrepancies between their reports of cyberbullying victimization and adolescents’ likelihood of reporting such incidents to parents, and investigates how family functioning, positive parenting, age, and gender relate to victimization and reporting behaviour. It also explores the adolescent- and parent-reported reasons that may inhibit adolescents from reporting cyberbullying incidents to parents in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. The region combines rapid technological growth with strong, family-centred social norms, creating a unique context for examining these variables in the region. 1.1 Theoretical foundations Recent research has moved from describing cyberbullying to examining it through theoretical models that integrate psychological and social processes (Ansary, 2020 ). Three frameworks informed the current study. Developmental psychopathology emphasizes that behavior results from the interaction of individual vulnerabilities and environmental influences across development (Hinshaw, 2017 ). During adolescence, increasing autonomy and sensitivity to peer evaluation coincide with an ongoing need for parental support (Steinberg & Morris, 2001 ). Whether adolescents reveal distressing experiences such as cyberbullying, therefore, depends on how secure and respected they feel within the parent-child relationship. Warm, communicative families promote openness; punitive or distant environments foster secrecy. The social-ecological diathesis-stress model extends this perspective by situating bullying within interconnected systems of family, peers, school, and community (Swearer & Hymel, 2015 ). Within the family domain, supportive communication and monitoring protect against cyber-victimization and increase the likelihood of disclosure (Elsaesser et al., 2017 ). Conversely, conflict and poor communication increase risk and reduce help-seeking. The model thus predicts that family functioning and parenting quality will be central to adolescents’ responses to online aggression. The Disclosure Decision-Making Model (DD-MM) introduces a cognitive dimension, proposing that disclosure results from individuals’ evaluations of anticipated costs and benefits (Greene et al., 2012 ). Adolescents weigh the relief of parental support against anticipated negative reactions such as anger, restrictions, or loss of privacy. When the perceived risks exceed the benefits, nondisclosure becomes a mechanism of self-protection. Integrating this model with developmental and ecological views underscores that decisions to report cyberbullying incidents to parents emerge from both internal appraisals and external relational climates. Together, these frameworks suggest that systematic gaps between parents’ and adolescents’ perceptions of their relationships, particularly in family functioning and positive parenting, should be reflected in differences in awareness of cyberbullying and willingness to report it. Testing these links within the sociocultural context of the Arabian Peninsula extends the current theory beyond Western settings. 1.2 Gender and Age Differences in Reporting Empirical evidence consistently shows that gender and age shape adolescents’ disclosure patterns. Boys are generally less likely than girls to confide in parents about victimization, a tendency linked to gender norms that discourage emotional vulnerability (Kowalski et al., 2019 ; Xiong et al., 2018 ). Girls, although typically more communicative, may also withhold information to avoid worrying or disappointing their parents. Developmentally, early adolescents often struggle with competing needs for independence and parental approval, making disclosure more challenging (Janssen et al., 2021 ). Older adolescents, who possess greater self-regulation and perspective-taking skills, may choose to disclose selectively or seek support from peers, siblings, or other trusted adults rather than their parents (Livingstone, 2014 ). These gender- and age-related differences highlight the importance of considering demographic factors when examining adolescents’ cyberbullying experiences and reporting behaviour. 1.3 Cultural Considerations Existing research on intergenerational differences in how parents and adolescents perceive family functioning, parenting practices, and cyberbullying-related experiences has been conducted predominantly in Western contexts (De Los Reyes & Ohannessian, 2016 ; Ohannessian et al., 2000 ). Because the family environment is also shaped by cultural norms (Dwairy et al., 2006 ; Nassar-Mcmillan et al., 2014 ), findings from these settings may not fully reflect the dynamics of Gulf Arab families. This study aims to fill this gap by providing insight into these dynamics within the GCC context, thereby clarifying how parents and adolescents perceive their family relationships, cyberbullying-related risks, and the barriers that may prevent adolescents from reporting such incidents to their parents. Research indicates that patterns of family communication, emotional expression, and adolescent disclosure differ across cultures (Arató et al., 2022 ; Zhang et al., 2024 ). For example, studies in Arab and Middle Eastern contexts show that adolescents may avoid discussing sensitive or distressing experiences due to concerns about shame, stigma, or burdening the family (Dwairy & Menshar, 2006 ; Mohammadzadeh et al., 2020 ). In contrast, research from Europe and North America generally reports greater acceptance of open parent-adolescent communication about emotional difficulties (De Los Reyes & Ohannessian, 2016 ; Kapetanovic et al., 2020 ). Moreover, although many parents in the region actively use digital technologies, adolescents often interact in private or less visible online spaces, limiting parental awareness of cyberbullying victimization or distress (Alfakeh et al., 2021; Smahel et al., 2020 ). This mismatch in visibility and openness may help explain why parents and adolescents often diverge in their reports of victimization, willingness to report, and perceived barriers to disclosure. Recognising that cultural expectations influence how parents and adolescents perceive communication, emotional climate, problem-solving, positive parenting behaviours, cyberbullying victimization, reporting intentions, and reasons for nondisclosure, the present study examines these intergenerational differences within Gulf Arab families. By situating these constructs within their cultural context, the study provides a more accurate understanding of how family functioning, parenting practices, and the barriers that may prevent adolescents from reporting cyberbullying incidents to their parents relate to disclosure in the region. 1.4 Family functioning, parenting, and reporting Family relationships are pivotal in determining how adolescents respond to cyberbullying. Supportive families characterized by warmth, empathy, and constructive communication create a sense of security that encourages openness (Cañas et al., 2020 ; Cross et al., 2015 ; Grunin et al., 2021 ). Positive parenting, expressed through praise, guidance, and consistent involvement, has been linked to lower cyber-victimization and greater readiness to seek help (Elsaesser et al., 2017 ; Zych et al., 2021 ). Conversely, poor family functioning, inconsistency, or harsh discipline fosters mistrust and avoidance. Perceptions of these relationships are equally important. Parents often view their families as cohesive and communicative, whereas adolescents may perceive criticism or excessive control (De Los Reyes & Ohannessian, 2016 ; Lozano-Blasco et al., 2024 ). When such perceptions diverge, adolescents may anticipate misunderstanding or punishment, reducing their likelihood of disclosure. In GCC families, where obedience and respect are moral imperatives (Dwairy et al., 2006 ), these perception gaps can strengthen, reinforcing barriers such as fear, shame, or feelings of helplessness. Building on this reasoning, this study examined parent-adolescent perception gaps in family functioning and positive parenting and investigated whether parents underestimate adolescents’ experiences of cyberbullying victimization and overestimate their willingness to report such incidents. It also examined the relationship between family functioning and positive parenting, and their impact on adolescents’ likelihood of disclosure and reasons for nondisclosure within Gulf Arab families. 1.5 Research gaps and the present study Despite increasing concern about cyberbullying in the Gulf, research examining its relational and familial dimensions remains scarce. Most regional studies focus on prevalence or attitudes rather than on how family dynamics shape communication about online victimization. Few include both parents and adolescents, leaving intergenerational perception gaps unexplored. The present cross-sectional study addresses these gaps by investigating parent–adolescent discrepancies in perceptions of family functioning, positive parenting, cyberbullying victimization, and willingness to report such incidents within Gulf Arab families. It further examines how family functioning, positive parenting, gender, and age relate to adolescents’ experiences of cyberbullying, their likelihood of reporting these incidents, and their reasons for nondisclosure. This comparative approach provides a comprehensive understanding of how family and demographic factors jointly influence communication about cyberbullying in the Gulf context. The study, therefore, addresses four research questions: RQ1. Do parents and adolescents differ in their perceptions of a) family functioning and b) positive parenting practices? RQ2. Is there a significant discrepancy between parents’ perceptions of their children’s experiences of cyberbullying victimization and willingness to report such incidents, and adolescents’ self-reports of these experiences and willingness to report them to their parents? And does this discrepancy vary by age and gender? RQ3 To what extent do a) family functioning, b) positive parenting, and c) demographic factors (age and gender) predict adolescents’ a) cyberbullying victimization and b) likelihood of reporting cyberbullying incidents to their parents? RQ4. To what extent do a) family functioning and b) positive parenting predict adolescents’ and parents’ reasons for not reporting cyberbullying incidents to parents? 2 Methods 2.1 Participants Participants included adolescents and parents from Arab Gulf countries. The adolescent sample consisted of school students in Qatar, recruited through school administrators who served as gatekeepers and facilitated the distribution of the online questionnaire using a secure survey platform (SurveyMonkey Inc.). The link to the questionnaire was shared with students attending five public schools across the country. Public schools in Qatar are government funded and managed by the state and primarily enroll Qatari citizens and some expatriate students, as they provide free education with Arabic as the language of instruction. These schools are also gender segregated, meaning that male and female students attend separate institutions. In contrast, private schools are funded by tuition fees, managed by private organizations, and predominantly enroll expatriate students. They follow diverse international curricula and are typically not gender segregated. For the adolescent sample, surveys were administered during designated activity classes (e.g., in school computer laboratories) to avoid disruption to regular academic instruction. In compliance with national guidelines, no surveys were conducted during examination periods, which influenced the level of responsiveness across schools. A total of 650 survey responses were initially collected. After excluding incomplete responses and those not meeting the study’s inclusion criteria, 351 students were retained in the final analytical sample. The final sample consisted of 176 male students (50.14%) and 175 female students (49.86%), with a mean age of 14.75 years (SD = 1.09; range = 13–16 years). The relatively modest sample size reflected the voluntary nature of participation, the length of the questionnaire, and restrictions on survey administration within schools. The parent sample was recruited online through the CINT research platform ( www.cint.com ), a reputable international online research panel. Eligible participants were Arab parents residing in Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. The final parent sample comprised 400 participants, including 224 males (56.0%) and 176 females (44.0%). The mean age of parent participants was 40.59 years (SD = 6.74; range = 30–62 years). Age distribution was as follows, 19.0% were aged 30–34 years, 56.5% were aged 35–44 years, and 24.5% were aged 45 years or older. In terms of education, 0.25% reported no formal education, 0.75% had completed primary education, 4.25% had completed secondary education, 5.75% had pursued or completed vocational or technical education, 66.0% had obtained a bachelor’s degree, and 23.0% had completed postgraduate education (e.g., master’s or doctoral degrees). This demographically diverse and well-educated sample provides valuable insights into parental attitudes and experiences across the GCC region. At the time of data collection (February to June 2025), all participants were informed about the purpose of the study, that their participation was voluntary, and that they could skip any question or withdraw from the survey at any time. The adolescent survey was available in Arabic, and an English version was also developed for research and ethical review purposes. Semantic equivalence between versions was ensured through a rigorous back-translation process (Brislin, 1970 ). Informed consent was obtained from parents or legal guardians through coordination with school administrative offices, and assent was secured from all participating students. Ethical approval for both the adolescent and parent components of the study was obtained from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at [details blinded for peer review]. Permissions were also secured from the participating schools prior to data collection. All participation was voluntary and anonymous, and all participating schools were public and operated on a gender-segregated basis. 2.2 Measures Cyberbullying victimization. Both adolescents and parents were first introduced to the definition of cyberbullying before responding to the relevant items. Adolescents were asked to indicate the frequency with which they had personally experienced cyberbullying victimization on social media platforms. Responses were recorded using a six-point Likert-type scale (1 = Very Infrequently, 2 = Infrequently, 3 = Somewhat Infrequently, 4 = Somewhat Frequently, 5 = Frequently, 6 = Very Frequently), with higher scores reflecting greater exposure to cyberbullying victimization. Parents were asked to indicate how often they believed their adolescent had experienced cyberbullying victimization using a five-point Likert-type scale (1 = Never, 2 = Rarely, 3 = Sometimes, 4 = Often, 5 = Very Often). Reporting behavior to parents. Adolescents rated their likelihood of reporting incidents of cyberbullying victimization to a parent using a six-point Likert-type scale (1 = Very Unlikely, 2 = Unlikely, 3 = Somewhat Unlikely, 4 = Somewhat Likely, 5 = Likely, 6 = Very Likely). Parents completed an equivalent item assessing how likely they believed their adolescent would report such an incident to them, using the same six-point scale. Higher scores represented greater perceived willingness to disclose. McMaster Family Assessment Device (FAD). The McMaster Family Assessment Device (Epstein et al., 1983 ) was used to assess perceptions of general family functioning among adolescents and parents. For the present study, only the General Functioning subscale was used, comprising 12 items (e.g., “In times of crisis we can turn to each other for support”) rated on a four-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly Disagree to 4 = Strongly Agree). Negatively worded items were reverse-coded, and higher scores indicated poorer family functioning. Adolescents and parents rated how well each statement described their family, with higher scores reflecting better family functioning. Numerous studies have demonstrated the strong internal consistency of the FAD across different cultural and family contexts (Cong et al., 2022; Panourgia et al., 2025 ; Staccini et al., 2015 ). In the present study, Cronbach’s alpha for the General Functioning subscale was .88, indicating excellent internal reliability. Alabama Parenting Questionnaire (APQ). Positive parenting practices were measured using selected items from the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire (Frick, 1991 ). The APQ is designed to evaluate specific parenting behaviors linked to positive reinforcement and consistent discipline practices (Shelton et al., 1996 ). For the current study, items from the Positive Parenting subscale were used to capture the extent to which parents engage in supportive and affirming interactions with their adolescents. Each item was rated on a five-point Likert scale (1 = Never to 5 = Always), with higher scores indicating more frequent positive parenting behaviors. The APQ has been validated across multiple cultural contexts and demonstrates stable psychometric properties for both adolescent and parent respondents (Elgar et al., 2007 ). In the present study, Cronbach’s alpha for the Positive Parenting subscale was .88, indicating excellent internal reliability. Barriers to reporting cyberbullying to parents. Parents completed ten items examining reasons why adolescents might not report cyberbullying incidents to their parents. Responses were recorded using a six-point Likert-type scale (1 = Strongly Disagree to 6 = Strongly Agree), with higher scores indicating stronger barriers to reporting. The items were adapted from (Stives et al., 2021 ) and reflect common parental beliefs about why adolescents might choose not to disclose bullying or cyberbullying experiences (see Table 1 ). Table 1 Items measuring barriers to reporting cyberbullying to parents among parents (Stives et al., 2021 ) Item No. Item code Item Description 1 Ashamed or embarrassed Ashamed or embarrassed to tell Me 2 Handles it themselves My child handles it themselves 3 Afraid of punishment Afraid of being punished by bully if they tell 4 Doesn’t bother enough Sometimes it Doesn’t bother them enough to tell 5 Tells when severe They only told Me about it when bullying became severe 6 Doesn’t think I can help My child Doesn’t think I can understand or help 7 Quits telling me It happens so much my child quit telling Me about it 8 Kids can adjust Bullying is common/Kids adjust to it 9 Not sure why I’m not sure why they Don’t tell Me 10 Doesn’t recognize it They Don’t always recognize They’ve been cyberbullied Adolescents, on the other hand, completed nine items assessing reasons why they might not report cyberbullying incidents to their parents. Responses were recorded using a six-point Likert-type scale (1 = Strongly Disagree to 6 = Strongly Agree), with higher scores indicating stronger barriers to reporting. The items were adapted from Li ( 2010 ) to capture common concerns related to fear of disbelief, embarrassment, retaliation, or minimization of the problem (see Table 2 ). Table 2 Items measuring barriers to reporting cyberbullying to parents among adolescents (Li, 2010 ) Item No. Item code Item Description 1 Parents would not believe I don’t think my parent/guardian would understand or believe me 2 Parents Don’t know to help I don’t think my parent/guardian would know how to stop it 3 Could be my fault I could get myself into trouble because I could also be at fault 4 Might get into trouble I could get myself into trouble, even if I had done nothing wrong 5 Cyberbully might retaliate The cyberbully could get back at me and make things even worse 6 Students would make fun Other students could make fun of me 7 Parents restrict access My parents could find out and might restrict my access to the Internet or other technologies 8 Deal with it alone I need to learn to deal with cyberbullying by myself 9 No big deal / ignore it Cyberbullying is no big deal. People should just ignore it 2.2.1 Demographic Information Both the adolescent and parent questionnaires collected demographic information, including age, gender, and education level. Parents reported their highest level of education. Adolescents indicated their current school grade (7th − 11th). 2.2.2 Data Analysis Descriptive statistics were computed to summarize the demographic characteristics of parents and adolescents, including gender, age, education level, and the main study variables; family functioning, positive parenting, cyberbullying victimization, reporting behaviors, and barriers to reporting. All analyses were conducted separately for parents and adolescents to account for potential differences in their perceptions and experiences. To address RQ1 and RQ2, two binary logistic regression analyses were conducted separately. The first model examined whether family functioning and positive parenting predicted group membership (parent vs. adolescent). The second model tested discrepancies between parents’ and adolescents’ reports of cyberbullying victimization and willingness to report such incidents to parents, while also exploring the moderating effects of adolescent gender and age. Interaction effects were further probed using simple-effects analyses. Model performance was evaluated using Wald z statistics, odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs), model fit indices (Nagelkerke R²), and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves. For RQ3, multivariate multiple regression (MMR) analyses were performed to examine whether family functioning, positive parenting, age, and gender predicted cyberbullying victimization frequency and the likelihood of reporting incidents to parents. Pearson’s correlation coefficients were calculated to examine associations among the continuous study variables prior to running the MMR. Regression coefficients (β), t values, p values, 95% CIs, and adjusted R² values were reported. To address RQ4, two separate linear mixed models (LMMs) were conducted to examine how family functioning and positive parenting were related to the reasons for not reporting cyberbullying incidents to parents, based on the parent and adolescent samples. In both models, subjects were treated as random effects to account for within-subject variation, while family functioning and positive parenting were entered as fixed effects. Each model included main effects and interactions between predictors and the reasons for not reporting. Because the interaction terms between the reasons and the family functioning and positive parenting variables were of primary interest, follow-up simple-effect analyses were performed. Simple-effect analyses, therefore, clarified which reasons contributed most to the overall interaction by estimating the effect of each predictor separately for each reason. This approach is appropriate when the reasons variable is a within-subject factor with multiple categories and when significant (or near-significant) predictor and reasons interactions are detected, as was the case in both the parent and adolescent models. Model fit was assessed using conditional and marginal R² values, and the significance of effects was evaluated using F statistics and corresponding p values. Prior to regression and LMM models, we performed a number of assumptions checks. For the regression analyses (logistic and multivariate multiple), assumption checks indicated no multicollinearity among predictors (all VIF 0.47). Residual diagnostics confirmed normality and homoscedasticity based on histograms and Q–Q plots, and Durbin–Watson values ranged from 1.55 to 1.84, confirming independence of residuals. Standardized residuals were within ± 3, indicating no outliers. For the LMM analyses, assumption checks included inspection of Q–Q plots, histograms, and residuals-versus-predicted plots, which showed that residuals were approximately normally distributed and homoscedastic. Random effects appeared normally distributed, and no influential clusters were detected. Detailed assumption-check results for the regression analyses are provided in Tables S1 and S2 in the Supplementary Materials. All statistical analyses (correlations, logistic regressions, and linear mixed models [LMMs]) were conducted using Jamovi version 2.6.44.0, whereas the multivariate multiple regression (MMR) analyses were performed in R version 4.3.0 (R Core Team, 2025). 3 Results 3.1 Participants Demographics Table 3 summarizes the demographic characteristics of the 751 participants, including gender, age, education level, and cyberbullying experiences and reporting behaviors. Table 3 Participant Demographics, Cyberbullying Experiences, and Reporting Behaviors Parents (N = 400) Adolescents (N = 351) Gender (%) Male 224 (56.00) 176 (50.14) Female 176 (44.00) 175 (49.86) Age M (SD) 40.59 (6.74) 14.75 (1.09) Range 30–62 13–16 Education (%) No formal education 0.25 - Primary education (elementary) 0.75 - Secondary education (high school) 4.25 - Pursuing or completed vocational or technical education 5.75 - Pursuing or completed undergraduate degree (bachelor’s) 66.00 - Pursuing or completed postgraduate degree (master’s, Ph.D) 23.00 - 7th Grade - 5.98 8th Grade - 19.66 9th Grade - 28.21 10th Grade - 19.66 11th Grade - 26.50 Cyberbullying victimization and reporting M (SD) Cyberbullying victimization 1.76 (0.93) 2.55 (1.72) Report to parent 4.90 (1.44) 4.10 (1.78) 3.2 Parent-adolescent differences in perceptions of family functioning and positive parenting (RQ1) A binary logistic regression was conducted to examine whether perceptions of family functioning and positive parenting predicted group membership (Parent vs. Adolescent). The overall model, which included the two predictors, significantly improved model performance compared to the baseline model, Δχ²(2, N = 751) = 158.15, p < .001. The model explained approximately 25% of the variance in group classification (Nagelkerke R² = .25) and correctly classified 73% of cases overall, with 76% accuracy for parents and 69% for adolescents. The area under the ROC curve (AUC) was .76, indicating acceptable model discrimination. The results showed clear group differences, adolescents reported lower levels of positive parenting and family functioning compared to parents, whereas parents reported higher levels of both positive parenting practices and family functioning. Both predictors were statistically significant, with odds ratios greater than 1, indicating that higher scores on these measures increased the odds of being in the parent group. For each one-unit increase in perceived family functioning, the odds of being a parent rather than an adolescent increased by approximately 14%, and by 7% for positive parenting (see Table 4 ). Table 4 Binary logistic regression group differences (Parents vs. Adolescents) in family functioning and positive parenting practices 95% Confidence Interval Variable Estimate SE Wald z p Odds Ratio Lower Upper Intercept 0.153 0.081 1.88 0.060 1.17 0.99 1.37 General functioning 0.129 0.013 9.70 < .001 1.14 1.11 1.17 Positive Parenting 0.071 0.034 2.09 0.036 1.07 1.01 1.15 Note. Groups coded as 1 = Parent, 2 = Adolescent. In the logistic regression, parents (1) were treated as the event. Odds ratios > 1 therefore indicate a higher likelihood of being a parent (i.e., lower odds of being an adolescent). 3.3 Parent-adolescent discrepancies in reports of cyberbullying victimization and willingness to report (RQ2) A binary logistic regression analysis was conducted to examine discrepancies between parents’ reports of their adolescents’ experiences of cyberbullying victimization and their perceptions of adolescents’ willingness to report such incidents to them, and adolescents’ self-reported experiences and willingness to report these incidents to their parents. The analysis also tested whether these discrepancies varied according to the adolescent’s gender and age. The dependent variable represented group membership (1 = parent report, 0 = adolescent self-report), while the predictors included cyberbullying victimization, willingness to report to parents, adolescent gender, and adolescent age, along with their two-way interaction terms. The overall model was significant, χ²(14, N = 751) = 262.00, p < .001, indicating that the predictors reliably differentiated between the parent and adolescent groups. The model explained 25.2% of the variance in group classification (Nagelkerke R² = .252). In regard to cyberbullying victimization, parents tended to underestimate how frequently their adolescents experienced cyberbullying compared with adolescents’ self-reports. For each one-unit increase in perceived cyberbullying victimization, the odds of belonging to the parent group decreased by approximately 55% (B = − 0.80, SE = 0.31, p = .009, OR = 0.45, 95% CI [0.24, 0.82]), indicating that adolescents reported experiencing cyberbullying more frequently than parents reported for their adolescents (see Table 5 ). A significant interaction was observed between cyberbullying victimization and adolescent gender (B = − 2.22, SE = 0.69, p = .001, OR = 0.11), revealing a gender-based difference in the degree of discrepancy (see Table 5 ). To further explore this interaction, simple-effects analyses were conducted separately for males and females. For females, the effect of victimization was nonsignificant, χ²(1) = 0.45, p = .502; whereas for males, the effect was significant, χ²(1) = 16.48, p < .001 (B = − 1.91, SE = 0.47, OR = 0.15, 95% CI [0.06, 0.37]). For males, the odds of being a parent rather than an adolescent decreased by approximately 85%, whereas for females, the difference was negligible (see Table 6 ). Parents thus underestimated cyberbullying experiences for their sons but not for their daughters. As shown in Fig. 1 (A), the probability of being classified within the parent group decreased sharply for boys as victimization increased, whereas it remained relatively stable for girls. Although the overall interaction between cyberbullying victimization and adolescent age was not statistically significant, χ²(3) = 4.69, p = .196, simple-effects analyses indicated age-specific differences. Victimization discrepancies were strongest at ages 13 (B = − 1.74, p = .003) and 14 (B = − 1.15, p = .034), but nonsignificant by ages 15 and 16. The odds of being a parent rather than an adolescent decreased by approximately 82% at age 13 and by 68% at age 14, while differences were nonsignificant at ages 15 and 16 (see Table 6 ). As illustrated in Fig. 1 (B), parents of early adolescents were less likely to recognize cyberbullying victimization, whereas the discrepancy narrowed slightly among older adolescents. These findings confirm that parents tend to underestimate boys’ and early adolescents’ cyberbullying experiences, highlighting gender and developmental differences in parental awareness. For willingness to report cyberbullying incidents, parents consistently overestimated their adolescents’ willingness to disclose such incidents. For each one-unit increase in perceived willingness to report, the odds of belonging to the parent group increased by approximately 40% (B = 0.34, SE = 0.06, p < .001, OR = 1.40, 95% CI [1.24, 1.59]), indicating that parents perceived their adolescents as more willing to report than adolescents reported themselves (see Table 5 ). A significant interaction was observed between willingness to report cyberbullying incidents to parents and adolescent gender (B = 0.73, SE = 0.13, p < .001, OR = 2.08), suggesting that parents’ overestimation of willingness to report was more pronounced for boys than for girls (see Table 5 ). To further explore this interaction, simple-effects analyses were performed for males and females. For females, the effect of willingness to report was nonsignificant, χ²(1) = 0.11, p = .739; for males, the effect was significant, χ²(1) = 52.26, p < .001. For males, the odds of being a parent rather than an adolescent increased by approximately 102%, whereas for females, the difference was minimal (see Table 6 ). Parents’ perceptions of their sons’ openness to communication were thus substantially more optimistic than adolescents’ self-reports, whereas perceptions of daughters’ willingness were relatively accurate, as shown in Fig. 1 (C). Although the interaction between willingness to report and adolescent age was not statistically significant, examination of the simple effects clarified the age-related pattern. Parents’ overestimation of adolescents’ willingness to disclose was negligible at age 13 but became more evident from ages 14 to 16. The discrepancy was nonsignificant at age 13 (p = .191) but became significant at ages 14 (p = .004), 15 (p = .011), and 16 (p < .001). The odds of being a parent rather than an adolescent increased by approximately 34% at age 14, 32% at age 15, and 86% at age 16, whereas the effect was nonsignificant at age 13 (see Table 6 ). As shown in Fig. 1 (D), parents of older adolescents perceived greater willingness to report than was reflected in adolescents’ self-reports. Table 5 Binary logistic regression group differences (parents vs. adolescents) in cyberbullying victimization frequency and likelihood to report to parents. 95% CI Variable Effect B SE Wald z p OR L U CB Victimization * -0.80 0.31 -2.6 0.009 0.45 0.24 0.82 Report to parent 0.34 0.06 5.35 < .001 1.4 1.24 1.59 Gender Male vs Female -0.52 0.21 -2.53 0.011 0.59 0.39 0.89 Age 14 vs 13 -0.86 0.24 -3.64 < .001 0.42 0.27 0.67 15 vs 13 -1.44 0.26 -5.55 < .001 0.24 0.14 0.39 16 vs 13 -3.26 0.32 -10.22 < .001 0.04 0.02 0.07 Interaction of CB Victimization and gender Male vs Female -2.22 0.69 -3.2 0.001 0.11 0.03 0.42 Interaction of CB Victimization and age 14 vs 13 0.59 0.76 0.78 0.435 1.81 0.41 7.98 15 vs 13 0.91 0.86 1.06 0.288 2.49 0.46 13.34 16 vs 13 2.25 1.02 2.2 0.028 9.47 1.28 70.24 Interaction of Report and gender Male vs Female 0.73 0.13 5.62 < .001 2.08 1.61 2.68 Interaction of Report and age 14 vs 13 0.13 0.16 0.84 0.402 1.14 0.84 1.54 15 vs 13 0.12 0.17 0.72 0.47 1.13 0.81 1.57 16 vs 13 0.46 0.22 2.13 0.033 1.59 1.04 2.43 Note. Groups coded as 1 = Parent, 2 = Adolescent. In the logistic regression, parents (1) were treated as the event. Odds ratios > 1 therefore indicate a higher likelihood of being a parent (i.e., lower odds of being an adolescent).*Variable normalized within each group (adolescents, parents) to align 6- and 5-point response scales; higher scores indicate greater victimization. Table 6 Simple effects of cyberbullying victimization and willingness to report by gender and age. 95% CI Variable B SE Wald z p OR L U Cyberbullying victimization Gender Female 0.31 0.46 0.67 0.502 1.36 0.55 3.33 Male -1.91 0.47 -4.06 < .001 0.15 0.06 0.37 Age 13 -1.74 0.59 -2.94 0.003 0.18 0.05 0.56 14 -1.15 0.54 -2.12 0.034 0.32 0.11 0.92 15 -0.83 0.60 -1.40 0.163 0.44 0.14 1.40 16 0.51 0.78 0.65 0.516 1.66 0.36 7.67 Willingness to Report Gender Female -0.03 0.08 -0.33 0.739 0.97 0.83 1.15 Male 0.70 0.10 7.23 < .001 2.02 1.67 2.45 Age 13 0.16 0.12 1.31 0.191 1.17 0.92 1.49 14 0.29 0.10 2.87 0.004 1.34 1.10 1.63 15 0.28 0.11 2.53 0.011 1.32 1.07 1.65 16 0.62 0.17 3.62 < .001 1.86 1.33 2.61 3.4 Predictors of cyberbullying victimization and likelihood of reporting incidents to parents (RQ3) Multivariate multiple regression (MMR) was conducted to examine whether family functioning, positive parenting, and demographic variables (age and gender) predicted adolescents’ cyberbullying victimization frequency and likelihood of reporting cyberbullying incidents to parents, separately for the parent and adolescent samples. Pearson’s correlation was first conducted to analyze the associations between the MMR variables (see Table 7). Table 8 presents the results of the MMR analyses that examine predictors of cyberbullying victimization and the likelihood of reporting cyberbullying incidents to parents in both samples. The models assessed the relationships between family functioning, positive parenting, age, and gender and the two dependent variables. For the parent sample, results of the multivariate multiple regression indicated that family functioning was negatively associated with cyberbullying victimization, suggesting that families with stronger functioning reported fewer incidents of victimization. Positive parenting, age, and gender did not significantly predict victimization. In contrast, both family functioning and positive parenting were positively related to adolescents’ willingness to report to parents about cyberbullying incidents. Gender and age effects indicated that early and female adolescents were more likely to report to parents than older and male adolescents (see Table 8 for full model statistics). For the adolescent sample, family functioning again emerged as a significant negative predictor of cyberbullying victimization and a positive predictor of willingness to report to parents. Positive parenting predicted greater willingness to report to parents but was unrelated to victimization. Gender and age differences mirrored those observed in the parent data, with male adolescents experiencing more frequent victimization and being less likely to disclose incidents to parents, whereas early adolescents showed greater openness in reporting to parents (see Table 8 for detailed results). Table 7. Pearson’s correlation between the multivariate multiple regression variables Variable 1 2 3 4 1. Cyberbullying Frequency -0.044 -0.279*** -0.007 2. Report to Parent 0.086 0.238*** 0.280*** 3. Family Functioning -0.168*** 0.362*** 0.368*** 4. Positive Parenting -0.040 0.255*** 0.393*** Note. * p < .05, * p < .01, ** p < .001. Parent dataset is presented below the diagonal, and adolescent dataset is presented above the diagonal. Table 8. Multivariate multiple regression for predicting cyberbullying victimization frequency and reporting to parents Cyberbullying Frequency Report to Parent Parents Model R 2 AdjR 2 F (df) R 2 AdjR 2 F (df) 0.037 0.027 3.76 (4, 395) 0.185 0.177 22.41 (4, 395) Predictors β SE t p β SE t p Family Functioning -0.02 0.01 -3.19 0.002 0.06 0.01 5.83 < .001 Positive Parenting 0.01 0.03 0.54 0.589 0.10 0.04 2.68 .008 Age -0.08 0.05 -1.48 0.139 -0.13 0.07 -1.85 .065 Gender -0.10 0.09 -1.03 0.302 0.51 0.13 3.85 < .001 Adolescent Model R 2 AdjR 2 F (df) R 2 AdjR 2 F (df) 0.185 0.175 19.61 (4, 346) 0.142 0.132 14.28 (4, 346) Predictors β SE t p β SE t p Family Functioning -0.06 0.01 -4.08 < .001 0.03 0.01 2.02 .044 Positive Parenting 0.02 0.03 0.81 0.418 0.12 0.03 4.16 < .001 Age -0.04 0.11 -0.33 0.740 -0.36 0.12 -3.06 .002 Gender 1.05 0.24 4.33 < .001 -1.06 0.26 -4.11 < .001 3.5 Associations between family functioning, positive parenting, and reasons for not reporting cyberbullying victimization (RQ4) Two separate linear mixed models (LMMs) were performed to examine the effects of family functioning and positive parenting on participants’ ratings of the reasons for not reporting cyberbullying incidents to parents in the adolescent and parent samples. In both models, subjects were included as a random effect to account for individual variability. In the parent sample, the LMM analysis revealed a conditional R² of .457, indicating that 45.7% of the variance in the dependent variable was explained by both the fixed and random effects, and a marginal R² of .159, showing that 15.9% of the variance was accounted for by the fixed effects alone. The model’s fit was significant, χ²(30) = 1697.597, p < .001 for the conditional model, and χ²(29) = 770.397, p < .001 for the marginal model. The analysis showed a significant main effect of family functioning, F(1, 397) = 36.80, p < .001, indicating that parents from better-functioning families rated fewer reasons for non-reporting. The main effect of positive parenting was also significant, F(1, 397) = 4.12, p = .043, suggesting that higher positive parenting predicted fewer perceived reasons for withholding cyberbullying incidents. Furthermore, there was a significant association between reason and family functioning, F(9, 3573) = 3.00, p = .001, and a marginally significant association between reason and positive parenting, F(9, 3573) = 1.81, p = .061. These findings suggest that the influence of family functioning and positive parenting on parents’ ratings of non-reporting reasons varied depending on the specific reason considered. To further explore these associations, simple-effect analyses were conducted (Table 9 ). Overall, the association patterns across reasons for non-reporting are presented in Fig. 2 , where (A) shows family functioning and cyberbullying non-reporting, and (B) shows positive parenting and cyberbullying non-reporting in the parent sample. Table 9 Simple effects of family functioning and positive parenting across reasons for not reporting cyberbullying incidents to parents Reasons of not reporting Predictor 95% CI β SE t p L U R1 - Ashamed or embarrassed Family Functioning -0.063 0.013 -4.97 < .001 -0.088 -0.038 Positive Parenting -0.122 0.044 -2.81 0.005 -0.208 -0.037 R2 - Handles it themselves Family Functioning -0.057 0.013 -4.45 < .001 -0.082 -0.032 Positive Parenting -0.041 0.044 -0.94 0.349 -0.126 0.045 R3 - Afraid of punishment Family Functioning -0.054 0.013 -4.27 < .001 -0.079 -0.029 Positive Parenting -0.055 0.044 -1.26 0.209 -0.14 0.031 R4 - Doesn’t bother enough Family Functioning -0.026 0.013 -2.04 .042 -0.051 -0.001 Positive Parenting -0.046 0.044 -1.05 0.294 -0.131 0.040 R5 - Tells when severe Family Functioning -0.054 0.013 -4.22 < .001 -0.079 -0.029 Positive Parenting -0.105 0.044 -2.42 0.015 -0.191 -0.023 R6 - Doesn’t think I can help Family Functioning -0.070 0.013 -5.54 < .001 -0.095 -0.045 Positive Parenting 0.025 0.044 0.58 0.564 -0.06 0.110 R7 - Quits telling me Family Functioning -0.050 0.013 -3.95 < .001 -0.075 -0.025 Positive Parenting -0.003 0.044 -0.07 0.944 -0.088 0.082 R8 - Kids can adjust Family Functioning -0.018 0.013 -1.4 0.161 -0.043 0.007 Positive Parenting -0.046 0.044 -1.06 0.291 -0.131 0.039 R9 - Not sure why Family Functioning -0.069 0.013 -5.46 < .001 -0.094 -0.044 Positive Parenting -0.067 0.044 -1.53 0.126 -0.152 0.019 R10 - Doesn’t recognize it Family Functioning -0.037 0.013 -2.93 0.003 -0.062 -0.012 Positive Parenting -0.112 0.044 -2.58 0.010 -0.198 -0.027 In the adolescent sample, the LMM analysis revealed a conditional R² of .488, indicating that 48.8% of the variance in the dependent variable was explained by both the fixed and random effects, and a marginal R² of .105, showing that 10.5% of the variance was accounted for by the fixed effects alone. The model’s fit was significant, χ²(27) = 1400.440, p < .001 for the conditional model, and χ²(26) = 308.297, p < .001 for the marginal model. The analysis showed a significant main effect of family functioning, F(1, 348) = 46.89, p < .001, indicating that adolescents from better-functioning families reported fewer reasons for not disclosing cyberbullying incidents. The main effect of positive parenting was not significant, F(1, 348) = 1.68, p = .195. Furthermore, a significant association was found between reason and family functioning, F(8, 2784) = 6.14, p < .001, whereas the association between reason and positive parenting was not significant, F(8, 2784) = 1.09, p = .364. These findings suggest that the influence of family functioning on adolescents’ reasons for non-reporting varied depending on the specific reason considered, while positive parenting showed no differential effects. To further explore this association, simple-effect analyses were conducted (Table 10 ). Family functioning was negatively associated with most reasons for not reporting cyberbullying, indicating that adolescents from well-functioning families were less likely to report these barriers, particularly those related to disbelief or lack of parental support. Positive parenting showed no significant effects across the reasons for non-reporting (see Fig. 3 A for family functioning and Fig. 3 B for positive parenting associations in the adolescent sample) Table 10 Simple effects of family functioning and positive parenting across reasons for not reporting cyberbullying incidents to parents Reasons of not reporting Predictor 95% CI β SE t p L U R1 - Parents would not believe Family Functioning -0.101 0.016 -6.43 < .001 -0.132 -0.070 Positive Parenting -0.023 0.032 -0.70 0.486 -0.086 0.041 R2 - Parents Don’t know to help Family Functioning -0.119 0.016 -7.56 < .001 -0.150 -0.088 Positive Parenting 0.054 0.032 1.69 0.092 -0.009 0.118 R3 - Could be my fault Family Functioning -0.072 0.016 -4.58 < .001 -0.103 -0.041 Positive Parenting 0.059 0.032 1.82 .069 -0.005 0.122 R4 - Might get into trouble Family Functioning -0.077 0.016 -4.89 < .001 -0.108 -0.046 Positive Parenting 0.023 0.032 0.72 0.473 -0.040 0.086 R5 - Cyberbully might retaliate Family Functioning -0.07 0.016 -4.43 < .001 -0.100 -0.039 Positive Parenting 0.054 0.032 1.67 0.095 -0.009 0.117 R6 - Students would make fun Family Functioning -0.093 0.016 -5.92 < .001 -0.124 -0.062 Positive Parenting 0.032 0.032 0.99 0.323 -0.031 0.095 R7 - Parents restrict access Family Functioning -0.086 0.016 -5.45 < .001 -0.117 -0.055 Positive Parenting 0.033 0.032 1.02 0.307 -0.030 0.096 R8 - Deal with it alone Family Functioning -0.03 0.016 -1.90 0.058 -0.061 0.001 Positive Parenting 0.014 0.032 0.43 0.665 -0.049 0.077 R9 - No big deal / ignore it Family Functioning -0.032 0.016 -2.05 0.041 -0.063 -0.001 Positive Parenting 0.018 0.032 0.55 0.583 -0.046 0.081 4 Discussion This study investigated parent–adolescent differences in perceptions of family functioning and positive parenting, together with discrepancies between their reports of adolescents’ cyberbullying victimization and reporting to parents. It also examined how family functioning and positive parenting predicted adolescents’ experiences of cyberbullying, their willingness to report such incidents to parents, and the reasons for not disclosing to parents from the perspectives of both parents and adolescents within Arab families. The findings revealed several consistent patterns. Parents rated both family functioning and positive parenting more positively than adolescents, indicating clear perception gaps between the two groups. Parents also reported lower levels of adolescents’ cyberbullying victimization and higher likelihoods of reporting compared to adolescents’ self-reports, showing that parents underestimated their children’s exposure to cyberbullying and overestimated their willingness to disclose. Analyses examining predictive relationships showed that both family functioning and positive parenting were significantly related to adolescents’ experiences and reporting behavior. Higher levels of family functioning were associated with fewer cyberbullying incidents and a greater likelihood of reporting to parents, while positive parenting was also positively linked to reporting behavior. Finally, separate analyses were conducted for the parent and adolescent samples to assess reasons for non-disclosure. In both groups, higher levels of family functioning and positive parenting were associated with fewer reported barriers to telling parents about cyberbullying. Parents and adolescents from better-functioning and more supportive families reported lower endorsement of reasons such as fear of punishment, embarrassment, or disbelief. 4.1 Parent-adolescent differences in perceptions of family functioning and positive parenting (RQ1) The analysis demonstrated intergenerational differences in perceptions of family functioning and positive parenting. Parents consistently rated both constructs more positively, reflecting a divergence in how family life is interpreted across generational roles. While both groups viewed their families favourably, they applied different evaluative frameworks to the same environment. Parents’ higher ratings reflect their focus on clear communication, supportive interactions, and cooperative problem-solving, whereas adolescents’ lower ratings highlight the importance they place on emotional responsiveness, openness, and direct praise. These findings align with meta-analytic evidence indicating systematic discrepancies between parents and adolescents in reported family functioning and parenting (Kouros & Garber, 2014 ; Nichols & Tanner-Smith, 2022 ). Such discrepancies appear to arise not from relational discord but from contrasting perspectives on what constitutes support within everyday interactions. Parents perceived their families as more communicative, emotionally supportive, and effective at resolving problems than adolescents did, highlighting how each generation defines family functioning differently. Parents who coordinate routines and manage responsibilities interpret healthy functioning through cooperative communication and consistent problem-solving. Adolescents, by contrast, assess it through emotional engagement, how often they feel heard, involved, and supported. This contrast suggests that parents associate clarity and cooperation with harmony, while adolescents emphasize empathy and inclusion when evaluating communication. International evidence supports this divergence; parents frequently overrate family communication and harmony, while adolescents are more attuned to relational tension or inconsistency (Hou et al., 2018 ; Mansfield et al., 2015 ; Tian et al., 2024). Research on collectivist families likewise identifies communication and emotional support as core indicators of healthy functioning (Shek et al., 2025 ). Within Gulf-Arab families, these perception differences are intensified by cultural norms that link parental authority with care (Dwairy et al., 2006 ; Dwairy & Menshar, 2006 ). Parents’ optimism about family functioning reflects enduring ideals of harmony and duty, whereas adolescents exposed to global ideals of communication and negotiation expect greater reciprocity and shared dialogue (Al-Hendawi, 2022 ; Almahmoud et al., 2025). Parents often regard guidance and discipline as protective responsibilities, while adolescents shaped by global norms of negotiation and voice perceive such authority as limited openness. Thus, both generations evaluate their families positively but define effective communication differently, parents through clarity and cooperation, adolescents through dialogue and emotional reciprocity. This intergenerational contrast echoes evidence that parent-adolescent perception gaps often stem from the distinct viewpoints each generation brings to daily interaction (De Los Reyes & Ohannessian, 2016 ; Hou et al., 2018 ; Nichols & Tanner-Smith, 2022 ). A similar intergenerational divergence in perceptions appeared for positive parenting. Parents reported engaging in praise, encouragement, and recognition of effort more often than adolescents perceived receiving them, revealing differences in how support is expressed and understood. Parents may regard supervision, advice, or reminders as reinforcement, whereas adolescents expect explicit verbal acknowledgment. These findings indicate that such discrepancies stem from communication style rather than lack of affection. The distinction is subtle but meaningful; parents emphasize behavioural consistency and guidance, while adolescents tend to pay more attention to the emotional tone and immediacy of feedback. Recent studies have shown that adolescents value the explicitness of recognition more than its frequency, linking praise and warmth to self-regulation and overall well-being (Cui & Li, 2023 ; Henderlong & Lepper, 2002 ). This sensitivity to affirmation helps explain why adolescents often perceive indirect support as insufficient even when relationships remain caring. In Gulf societies, supportive communication is typically a substitute for overt verbal praise, providing indirect protection, guidance, and provision (Dwairy & Menshar, 2006 ). Parents interpret such acts as genuine care, yet adolescents accustomed to more expressive environments in school and media may not perceive them as encouragement. This cultural pattern represents distinct intergenerational languages of care, rather than emotional distance, and aligns with regional findings that highlight the balance of warmth and control in Arab parenting (Lari, 2023 ). The perception difference, therefore, reflects variation in communication expression within a shared framework of affection. Across these findings, intergenerational differences in perceptions unfold within Gulf families that are simultaneously maintaining traditional authority and embracing modern expectations for openness. Parents’ optimism about family functioning reflects enduring ideals of duty and collective harmony, whereas adolescents exposed to digital and global influences prioritise reciprocity and mutual recognition. Evidence from Qatar supports this trend; adolescents increasingly seek negotiation and shared decision-making within parent-child relationships (Al-Hendawi, 2022 ). This evolving communication dynamic suggests that these perception gaps are not symptoms of conflict but rather expressions of shifting norms surrounding dialogue and relational closeness. Comparable research across collectivist contexts likewise shows that modernization encourages more reciprocal communication between parents and adolescents (Tian et al., 2024). Both generations maintain largely positive views of their families; they diverge chiefly in emphasis parents prioritise responsibility and cooperative communication, adolescents’ empathy and responsiveness. Such intergenerational asymmetries illustrate how modernization reshapes relational expectations while preserving mutual understanding and connection within families. Taken together, the findings highlight two complementary dimensions of family life that account for these intergenerational perception gaps. Family functioning encompasses the systemic processes of communication, emotional support, and collaborative problem-solving that sustain connections, whereas positive parenting represents behavioural reinforcement, praising, recognizing, and encouraging desirable behaviour that affirms adolescents’ sense of value. Parents interpret consistency and guidance as care, while adolescents focus on the frequency and explicitness of recognition. These patterns mirror classic conceptualisations of family functioning and positive parenting and are reinforced by contemporary Gulf evidence showing that guidance and oversight remain protective when balanced with empathy and dialogue. Overall, the study portrays intergenerational differences in perceptions as reflections of evolving communication practices within stable, caring family systems, rather than differences in interpretation, affection, or functioning. 4.2 Parent-adolescent discrepancies in reports of cyberbullying victimization and willingness to report (RQ2) The findings revealed significant discrepancies between parents’ and adolescents’ reports of cyberbullying victimization and the likelihood of adolescents telling their parents about such incidents, with these differences varying by both gender and age. These findings suggest that parent-adolescent discrepancies extend beyond traditional family domains into digital interactions, indicating that relational misunderstandings also influence online experiences. This pattern reflects the same type of discrepancy identified in RQ1, where parents and adolescents differed in their perceptions of family functioning and positive parenting, showing that similar differences in understanding also extend to the digital domain (Rapp et al., 2025 ). Parents tended to underestimate adolescents’ online risks, including cyberbullying victimization, revealing a discrepancy between parental perceptions and adolescents’ real levels of exposure. Parents’ underestimation of how often adolescents experience cyberbullying may stem from limited familiarity with social-media environments and reduced awareness of adolescents’ online interactions. This explanation aligns with evidence showing that parents’ lower digital literacy and engagement often limit their capacity to recognize online risks (Elsaesser et al., 2017 ; Livingstone & Haddon, 2014 ). Adolescents, in contrast, often navigate online spaces privately and may withhold negative experiences to avoid embarrassment or potential restrictions on technology use (Cross et al., 2015 ). Within Gulf Arab societies, these discrepancies may be amplified by strong norms around family privacy and concern for social reputation, which can discourage adolescents, particularly boys, from disclosing cyberbullying experiences(Al Ghamdi, 2025 ; Alfakeh et al., 2021). Parents’ limited digital literacy and reduced visibility into adolescents’ online activities likely contribute to the pronounced underestimation of victimization among boys and younger adolescents observed in the results (Alsebaei & Aljasir, 2024 ). Adolescents’ gender and age contributed to these discrepancies, with parents underestimating boys’ cyberbullying victimization more than girls’ and showing larger gaps in awareness for younger adolescents than for older ones. Parents often perceive boys as more resilient and independent, which can lead to a reduced sensitivity to online risks (Barlett & Coyne, 2014 ; Marinoni et al., 2023 ; Xiong et al., 2018 ). In Gulf contexts, cultural expectations surrounding boys’ strength reinforce this reduced sensitivity (Dwairy et al., 2006 ; Dwairy & Menshar, 2006 ). Early adolescents also appeared to conceal negative experiences more frequently, whereas older adolescents, though more autonomous, engaged in selective disclosure based on relational trust (Janssen et al., 2021 ; Livingstone, 2014 ; Steinberg & Morris, 2001 ). A similar discrepancy was also observed in reporting behavior. Parents overestimated how willing adolescents were to disclose cyberbullying incidents, while adolescents reported a lower likelihood of turning to their parents. This difference suggests that parents assume a higher level of communicative openness than adolescents actually experience in situations involving online harm, such as cyberbullying victimization. Such overestimation is consistent with research showing that parents often rely on perceptions of family closeness rather than adolescents’ self-reported likelihood of seeking support (De Los Reyes & Ohannessian, 2016 ; Rapp et al., 2025 ). Adolescents’ lower willingness to disclose aligns with findings that they weigh the potential consequences of reporting before involving parents (Juvonen & Gross, 2008 ; Schittenhelm et al., 2025 ). Within the GCC, parental support is often communicated through guidance and behavioral expectations rather than frequent discussions of emotional difficulties, which may reduce opportunities for adolescents to disclose cyberbullying experiences. This aligns with recent findings that show adolescents may hesitate to report personal or distressing experiences to avoid causing concern or being misunderstood, even in supportive families (Al Ghamdi, 2025 ; Al-Badayneh et al., 2024 ; Khatib et al., 2023 ). Gender and age also influenced reporting behavior. Boys indicated a lower likelihood of disclosure than girls. In Gulf families, boys often enjoy greater autonomy and privileges than girls, which can reduce their tendency to seek parental support for personal difficulties, according to Doha International Family Institute ( 2024 ). Early adolescents, both in the GCC and globally, depend more on adults while navigating autonomy, making them more cautious about disclosing cyberbullying during this developmental shift (Janssen et al., 2021 ; Steinberg & Morris, 2001 ). Taken together, the results suggest a discrepancy between parents’ confidence in family openness and adolescents' reluctance to share sensitive experiences. This interpretation captures the relational pattern emerging from the data each group holds partially accurate yet incomplete assumptions about communication within the family. Parents often believe that open communication ensures that adolescents will disclose their problems, whereas adolescents view disclosure as potentially leading to misunderstandings or increased restrictions. The coexistence of parental confidence and adolescent caution aligns with research on discrepancies in family perceptions(De Los Reyes & Ohannessian, 2016 ) and adolescents’ reluctance to disclose cyberbullying (Schittenhelm et al., 2025 ). Within Gulf Arab families, this dynamic is reinforced by cultural imperatives to preserve family honor and respect parental authority (Dwairy et al., 2006 ). The findings indicate that communication about cyberbullying is limited not by indifference but by competing family logics of care and control. This overall pattern reveals how contrasting family values shape digital communication, an effect that may be intensified by enduring hierarchical norms and collectivist expectations. Comparable dynamics have been observed in Asian and Latin American contexts, yet the Gulf case illustrates how digital modernity interacts with these long-standing familial hierarchies (Bala et al., 2018; Lari, 2023 ). Overall, these interpretations point to the conclusion that discrepancies in how parents and adolescents perceive cyberbullying mirror broader differences in their understandings of trust, communication, and responsibility within the family system. 4.3 Predictors of cyberbullying victimization and likelihood of reporting incidents to parents (RQ3) The regression analyses showed that family functioning was the strongest and most consistent predictor across models. Higher family functioning predicted lower cyberbullying victimization and greater willingness to disclose such incidents. Positive parenting was predicted to be a willingness to report, but it was not related to victimization. Gender and age also contributed to the prediction of these outcomes: being male was associated with higher victimization and lower reporting, while younger age was associated with a greater likelihood of disclosure. Together, these findings indicate that family environment and demographic characteristics jointly shape adolescents’ cyberbullying experiences and reporting behaviour. Family functioning predicted both cyberbullying victimization and reporting. In both parent and adolescent samples, higher family functioning significantly predicted fewer experiences of cyberbullying and a greater likelihood that adolescents would tell parents when such incidents occurred. This suggests that families characterized by open communication and mutual understanding provide adolescents with the emotional security needed to manage digital problems (Huang et al., 2023 ; Rodriguez-Rivas et al., 2022 ). When family functioning was lower, parents also perceived reduced openness, implying that limited everyday communication extends to online matters. Another possible interpretation is that adolescents who experience fewer online difficulties may perceive their families as more functional, as reduced digital stress may reinforce perceptions of family cohesion and effective functioning. Thus, the overall level of family functioning, rather than parental control, appears to be central to reducing risk and promoting discussions of online harm, such as cyberbullying (Stoilova et al., 2024 ). Positive parenting predicted adolescents’ willingness to report but did not predict cyberbullying victimization. This finding suggests that warmth, encouragement, and responsiveness increase adolescents’ readiness to approach parents when difficulties arise online (Makri-Botsari & Karagianni, 2014 ; Martínez et al., 2019 ). Such interactions may help adolescents view parental reactions as supportive rather than punitive, creating conditions where disclosure feels safe. Alternatively, adolescents who are naturally more communicative may also elicit more positive parenting responses, suggesting that the relationship between these constructs could be reciprocal. The absence of a relationship with victimization implies that exposure to cyberbullying depends more on peer or situational contexts than on parenting style. Nevertheless, higher positive-parenting scores in our datasets significantly predicted stronger intentions to communicate about cyberbullying incidents, emphasizing that emotional support and reinforcement act as catalysts for help-seeking. Gender and age also contributed significantly to the prediction models. In both the parent-reported and adolescent self-reported samples, being male predicted higher cyberbullying victimization and lower willingness to report, whereas being female predicted a greater likelihood of disclosure. Age showed a similar pattern; early adolescents were more inclined to report cyberbullying than middle and older adolescents, while willingness to disclose decreased with age (Janssen et al., 2021 ; Livingstone & Haddon, 2014 ; Steinberg & Morris, 2001 ). These predictive effects are consistent with developmental research indicating that boys often receive less emotional support from parents(Hellström & Beckman, 2020 ) and that the transition from early to later adolescence involves increasing autonomy and a greater reliance on private coping strategies (Janssen et al., 2021 ; Steinberg & Morris, 2001 ). This suggests that demographic characteristics meaningfully shape both adolescents’ exposure to cyberbullying and their readiness to seek parental support. Within the GCC, family relationships often emphasise guidance, involvement, and behavioural expectations, which may strengthen the predictive role of family functioning and positive parenting. Families that maintain consistent communication and involvement may be better positioned to recognise adolescents’ online challenges and support disclosure when needed (Khatib et al., 2023 ). Gender and age effects may also reflect cultural expectations: boys’ greater autonomy and privileges can reduce their likelihood of involving parents, while younger adolescents’ closer dependence on family increases their readiness to report (Lari, 2023 ). These contextual factors help explain why family functioning, positive parenting, age, and gender jointly predicted cyberbullying victimization and willingness to disclose in this study. Considered together, the results show that adolescents who report higher family functioning experience fewer cyberbullying incidents and are more willing to communicate with parents about them. This suggests that the relational processes that support everyday family interaction also shape how adolescents manage online difficulties, facilitating both reduced exposure and greater help-seeking (Cui & Li, 2023 ; Rodriguez-Rivas et al., 2022 ). While positive parenting specifically supports disclosure, overall family functioning appears more closely tied to adolescents’ broader capacity to recognize and address digital challenges (Livazović & Ham, 2019 ). 4.4 Associations between family functioning, positive parenting, and reasons for not reporting cyberbullying victimization (RQ4) The findings showed that both family functioning and positive parenting were negatively associated with parents’ and adolescents’ ratings of reasons for not reporting cyberbullying, although family functioning demonstrated a broader influence. Family functioning, which reflects communication quality, emotional support, and collaborative problem-solving, was linked with nearly all reasons across both samples. This supports existing work showing that families with stronger communication and emotional connection perceive fewer relational barriers to discussing online harm(Kowalski et al., 2019 ; Liu et al., 2020 ). In the parent sample, family functioning was associated with nine of the ten reasons parents identified, indicating that parents from well-functioning families see fewer obstacles that might prevent adolescents from disclosing cyberbullying. The sole exception was the belief that “kids can adjust,” which likely reflects a general assumption about adolescent resilience rather than dynamics shaped by communication or emotional support (Sasson & Mesch, 2014 ). Parents who described their families as communicative and emotionally stable appeared less likely to interpret embarrassment, uncertainty, or doubt in parental competence as barriers to disclosure. This aligns with prior research, which shows that open dialogue and emotional availability strengthen trust and comfort in sharing difficult experiences (Cordova et al., 2014 ; Huang et al., 2023 ). A similar pattern emerged in the adolescent sample; family functioning was again linked to most of the reasons adolescents endorsed. Adolescents from cohesive, predictable, and communicative families were less likely to believe that parents would disbelieve them, be unable to help, or react negatively. These interpretations are consistent with evidence that reliable communication and emotional stability reduce adolescents’ fears of judgment or punishment and increase their confidence in parental support (Huang et al., 2023 ; Livingstone, 2014 ; Rodriguez-Rivas et al., 2022 ). In contrast, reasons related to retaliation or peer reactions were less associated with non-reporting when adolescents reported strong family communication and reassurance. Positive parenting, in contrast, showed a more limited role. Among parents, warmth and encouragement were associated with only a small number of reasons, suggesting that while positive emotional exchanges may contribute to comfort, they do not fundamentally change perceptions of credibility, punishment, or parental competence (Desmarais & Poulin, 2025 ; Kowalski et al., 2019 ). In the adolescent sample, positive parenting did not significantly predict reasons for non-reporting, consistent with research indicating that adolescents differentiate between emotional affection and the communicative safety required to share sensitive issues (Huang et al., 2023 ; Ratliff et al., 2023 ). Taken together, these findings indicate that family functioning plays a central role in shaping both parents’ and adolescents’ perceptions of barriers to reporting cyberbullying. Communication quality, emotional stability, and cooperative problem-solving appear essential for reducing concerns about disbelief, judgment, or ineffective parental responses. Positive parenting contributes reassurance, but it does not replace the structural consistency and relational trust found in well-functioning families (Cordova et al., 2014 ; Elsaesser et al., 2017 ). The findings of this study have several practical implications for families and parents of adolescents in the Gulf region. First, the results emphasise the central role of family relationships in shaping adolescents’ cyberbullying experiences and help-seeking behaviours. Family functioning, reflected in communication quality, emotional support, and coordinated problem-solving, was associated with lower cyberbullying victimization and greater willingness to disclose incidents, indicating that everyday relational processes extend into adolescents’ digital lives (Huang et al., 2023 ; Rodriguez-Rivas et al., 2022 ). Second, the distinction between family functioning and positive parenting suggests that parental warmth and praise alone are insufficient unless embedded within stable and communicatively secure family environments. While positive parenting supported adolescents’ willingness to report cyberbullying, it was not associated with reduced victimization (Makri-Botsari & Karagianni, 2014 ; Martínez et al., 2019 ). Third, these findings highlight the need for family-focused approaches that prioritise effective communication, emotional availability, and shared decision-making in everyday interactions. In the GCC context, where parental guidance, involvement, and behavioural expectations are central features of family life, enhancing communicative safety may reduce perceived barriers to disclosure and encourage earlier help-seeking (Khatib et al., 2023 ). Finally, culturally attuned parenting programmes that integrate digital risk awareness with relational communication skills may represent effective pathways for supporting adolescents’ online well-being (Lari, 2023 ). Limitations and future research This study has several limitations. The cross-sectional design restricts causal inference, and reliance on parent and adolescent self-reports may introduce bias, including underreporting of sensitive experiences such as cyberbullying(Livingstone & Haddon, 2014 ). Generalisability is also limited by the focus on adolescents in Qatar and parents across GCC countries. Broader sampling across diverse Gulf and non-Gulf contexts, age groups, and family structures would strengthen external validity. Future research should employ longitudinal and mixed-methods designs to examine how family functioning and disclosure behaviours evolve across developmental stages (Janssen et al., 2021 ). Incorporating observational data, qualitative interviews, or digital-trace measures would improve accuracy and reduce shared-method variance (X. Zhu et al., 2023 ). Intervention studies examining the impact of communication training, parental responsiveness, and digital-literacy programs on adolescents’ help-seeking behaviour could further clarify causal mechanisms and inform culturally grounded prevention efforts (Cordova et al., 2014 ; Elsaesser et al., 2017 ). 5 Conclusion This study demonstrated that parent-adolescent perception gaps in family functioning and positive parenting are central to understanding cyberbullying disclosure in Arab families. Parents viewed family relationships and their own parenting more positively than adolescents and consistently underestimated adolescents’ experiences of cyberbullying while overestimating their willingness to report such incidents. Across both generations, stronger family functioning predicted lower cyberbullying victimization and a greater likelihood of disclosure, whereas positive parenting showed a weaker but still meaningful association with adolescents’ openness. Importantly, higher family functioning also corresponded with fewer perceived barriers to disclosure, indicating that cohesion and constructive communication reduce reluctance to seek help. Taken together, these findings highlight that within Gulf Arab families, structural and relational qualities of the family system, not only expressions of warmth, determine how adolescents manage online distress. Family functioning emerged as a robust protective factor, suggesting that adolescents’ disclosure decisions depend on trust and emotional safety more than on disciplinary or supervisory approaches. Strengthening empathy, mutual understanding, and digital communication within families may therefore represent an effective pathway toward mitigating cyberbullying risks and promoting adolescent well-being in the region. Declarations Author Contribution SB conceptualized and designed the research, curated the data, performed the analysis, and wrote the first draft. DAH mentored, designed and conceptualized the research, validated the analysis, and reviewed and edited the paper. AE mentored, conceptualized and designed the research, and reviewed and edited the paper. RA mentored, conceptualized and designed the research, validated the analysis, reviewed and edited the paper, and secured funding. AY conceptualized and designed the research, designed and supervised the statistical analysis, wrote in the paper, and reviewed and edited it. All authors approved the final version of the paper. Acknowledgement The author would like to thank all participants. 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Childhood Risk and Protective Factors as Predictors of Adolescent Bullying Roles. International Journal of Bullying Prevention , 3 (2), 138–146. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42380-020-00068-1 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files SupplementaryMaterials.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. 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University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Raian","middleName":"","lastName":"Ali","suffix":""},{"id":562831037,"identity":"bdee55a2-f17c-41fd-861b-49cbed86ce0a","order_by":2,"name":"Diana Alsayed Hassan","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Hamad bin Khalifa University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Diana","middleName":"Alsayed","lastName":"Hassan","suffix":""},{"id":562831039,"identity":"bef04705-0ac9-4fef-9a7d-6549a8d86b45","order_by":3,"name":"Aiman Erbad","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Qatar University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Aiman","middleName":"","lastName":"Erbad","suffix":""},{"id":562831040,"identity":"72239c64-df62-405f-b127-836cf075562a","order_by":4,"name":"Ala Yankouskaya","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Bournemouth University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ala","middleName":"","lastName":"Yankouskaya","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-12-19 08:08:47","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8402209/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8402209/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":98805459,"identity":"a02013a9-f61a-4384-bdaa-52cfccbe460c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 14:25:10","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":850158,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"MainTextAnonymised.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8402209/v1/4135c9718d0b3e2255f229e5.docx"},{"id":98805378,"identity":"7dbbfd8c-4439-4b2c-b05c-212f58d35997","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 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14:24:38","extension":"xml","order_by":10,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":291789,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"9d6e0f9d76b34f6696fcba6940e6a27a1structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8402209/v1/a16b4a8aa760961baed07ec2.xml"},{"id":98805379,"identity":"da5d9f99-c0ff-4bd0-b157-73448ea2ffe9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 14:24:48","extension":"html","order_by":11,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":321216,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8402209/v1/1dd820a39f18f3ad6e60a9a1.html"},{"id":98805375,"identity":"3992e900-31c7-4052-8503-f3e903633fe2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 14:24:47","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":284040,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eInteractions between cyberbullying victimization and willingness to report by gender and age.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8402209/v1/85ab82f7ff9e683f8d1d995d.jpeg"},{"id":98805458,"identity":"7938d810-c273-4e98-a2d0-08e898be0fab","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 14:25:07","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":145909,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAssociations between family functioning, positive parenting, and reasons for not reporting cyberbullying incidents to parents (parent sample).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8402209/v1/308dc77d51ef5bfddc7a8ec0.jpeg"},{"id":98805345,"identity":"6060083e-38b5-43e9-857d-404e17517606","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 14:24:37","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":145545,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAssociations between family functioning, positive parenting, and reasons for not reporting cyberbullying incidents to parents (adolescents sample).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8402209/v1/d49d7875246f109578d419ce.jpeg"},{"id":100355855,"identity":"edb8308f-09fe-4935-bed7-7b8a2b988a69","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 06:24:07","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3072303,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8402209/v1/ba64e8d8-debb-41b7-8898-ffbbc4b2aecf.pdf"},{"id":98805357,"identity":"53bccb77-7615-4523-ab3d-1ed2bfbd9034","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 14:24:39","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":381948,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryMaterials.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8402209/v1/fea14f3c38851bcc007640e9.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Intergenerational Differences in Perceptions of Family Functioning, Parenting, and Cyberbullying Victimization in Arab Families","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eDigital technologies have reshaped the social world of adolescents, offering new possibilities for connection while simultaneously creating avenues for harm. One of the most concerning consequences of this transformation is cyberbullying, a pattern of deliberate and repeated aggression carried out through digital means such as social media, messaging platforms, and online forums. It is commonly defined as \u0026ldquo;wilful and repeated harm inflicted through the use of computers, cell phones, and other electronic devices\u0026rdquo; (Hinduja \u0026amp; Patchin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Unlike traditional bullying, which is confined to specific settings, cyberbullying extends beyond school hours and physical boundaries, allowing harassment to intrude into private spaces. The anonymity and permanence of online interactions amplify the psychological impact of cyberbullying, making it a particularly harmful form of peer aggression (Kowalski \u0026amp; Limber, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Peter \u0026amp; Petermann, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Prevalence estimates indicate that between 14% and 57% of adolescents experience cyberbullying victimization (C. Zhu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCyberbullying victimization has been associated with anxiety, depression, psychosomatic complaints, and suicidal ideation (Alrajeh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Fahy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Lee et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Effective responses depend on adolescents informing a trusted adult, typically a parent or a teacher, so that support or intervention can be provided. However, many adolescents choose not to disclose their experiences. In one study, 11.7% of adolescents indicated that they would not report incidents of cybervictimization (Betts et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Another study found that 27% of adolescents did not disclose their cyberbullying experiences to anyone, despite most participants reporting them (Daneback et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Adolescents often refrain from disclosure due to fear of punishment, embarrassment, concerns about losing internet access, or the belief that adults may not be able to help (Cross et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). These factors reflect both individual concerns and broader family communication patterns that influence how young people decide whether to seek assistance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study compares parents\u0026rsquo; and adolescents\u0026rsquo; perceptions of family functioning and positive parenting, examines discrepancies between their reports of cyberbullying victimization and adolescents\u0026rsquo; likelihood of reporting such incidents to parents, and investigates how family functioning, positive parenting, age, and gender relate to victimization and reporting behaviour. It also explores the adolescent- and parent-reported reasons that may inhibit adolescents from reporting cyberbullying incidents to parents in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. The region combines rapid technological growth with strong, family-centred social norms, creating a unique context for examining these variables in the region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.1 Theoretical foundations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecent research has moved from describing cyberbullying to examining it through theoretical models that integrate psychological and social processes (Ansary, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Three frameworks informed the current study. Developmental psychopathology emphasizes that behavior results from the interaction of individual vulnerabilities and environmental influences across development (Hinshaw, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). During adolescence, increasing autonomy and sensitivity to peer evaluation coincide with an ongoing need for parental support (Steinberg \u0026amp; Morris, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). Whether adolescents reveal distressing experiences such as cyberbullying, therefore, depends on how secure and respected they feel within the parent-child relationship. Warm, communicative families promote openness; punitive or distant environments foster secrecy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe social-ecological diathesis-stress model extends this perspective by situating bullying within interconnected systems of family, peers, school, and community (Swearer \u0026amp; Hymel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Within the family domain, supportive communication and monitoring protect against cyber-victimization and increase the likelihood of disclosure (Elsaesser et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Conversely, conflict and poor communication increase risk and reduce help-seeking. The model thus predicts that family functioning and parenting quality will be central to adolescents\u0026rsquo; responses to online aggression.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Disclosure Decision-Making Model (DD-MM) introduces a cognitive dimension, proposing that disclosure results from individuals\u0026rsquo; evaluations of anticipated costs and benefits (Greene et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Adolescents weigh the relief of parental support against anticipated negative reactions such as anger, restrictions, or loss of privacy. When the perceived risks exceed the benefits, nondisclosure becomes a mechanism of self-protection. Integrating this model with developmental and ecological views underscores that decisions to report cyberbullying incidents to parents emerge from both internal appraisals and external relational climates.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTogether, these frameworks suggest that systematic gaps between parents\u0026rsquo; and adolescents\u0026rsquo; perceptions of their relationships, particularly in family functioning and positive parenting, should be reflected in differences in awareness of cyberbullying and willingness to report it. Testing these links within the sociocultural context of the Arabian Peninsula extends the current theory beyond Western settings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.2 Gender and Age Differences in Reporting\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmpirical evidence consistently shows that gender and age shape adolescents\u0026rsquo; disclosure patterns. Boys are generally less likely than girls to confide in parents about victimization, a tendency linked to gender norms that discourage emotional vulnerability (Kowalski et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Xiong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Girls, although typically more communicative, may also withhold information to avoid worrying or disappointing their parents. Developmentally, early adolescents often struggle with competing needs for independence and parental approval, making disclosure more challenging (Janssen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Older adolescents, who possess greater self-regulation and perspective-taking skills, may choose to disclose selectively or seek support from peers, siblings, or other trusted adults rather than their parents (Livingstone, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). These gender- and age-related differences highlight the importance of considering demographic factors when examining adolescents\u0026rsquo; cyberbullying experiences and reporting behaviour.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.3 Cultural Considerations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eExisting research on intergenerational differences in how parents and adolescents perceive family functioning, parenting practices, and cyberbullying-related experiences has been conducted predominantly in Western contexts (De Los Reyes \u0026amp; Ohannessian, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Ohannessian et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Because the family environment is also shaped by cultural norms (Dwairy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Nassar-Mcmillan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), findings from these settings may not fully reflect the dynamics of Gulf Arab families. This study aims to fill this gap by providing insight into these dynamics within the GCC context, thereby clarifying how parents and adolescents perceive their family relationships, cyberbullying-related risks, and the barriers that may prevent adolescents from reporting such incidents to their parents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch indicates that patterns of family communication, emotional expression, and adolescent disclosure differ across cultures (Arat\u0026oacute; et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). For example, studies in Arab and Middle Eastern contexts show that adolescents may avoid discussing sensitive or distressing experiences due to concerns about shame, stigma, or burdening the family (Dwairy \u0026amp; Menshar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Mohammadzadeh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, research from Europe and North America generally reports greater acceptance of open parent-adolescent communication about emotional difficulties (De Los Reyes \u0026amp; Ohannessian, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Kapetanovic et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, although many parents in the region actively use digital technologies, adolescents often interact in private or less visible online spaces, limiting parental awareness of cyberbullying victimization or distress (Alfakeh et al., 2021; Smahel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This mismatch in visibility and openness may help explain why parents and adolescents often diverge in their reports of victimization, willingness to report, and perceived barriers to disclosure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecognising that cultural expectations influence how parents and adolescents perceive communication, emotional climate, problem-solving, positive parenting behaviours, cyberbullying victimization, reporting intentions, and reasons for nondisclosure, the present study examines these intergenerational differences within Gulf Arab families. By situating these constructs within their cultural context, the study provides a more accurate understanding of how family functioning, parenting practices, and the barriers that may prevent adolescents from reporting cyberbullying incidents to their parents relate to disclosure in the region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.4 Family functioning, parenting, and reporting\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily relationships are pivotal in determining how adolescents respond to cyberbullying. Supportive families characterized by warmth, empathy, and constructive communication create a sense of security that encourages openness (Ca\u0026ntilde;as et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Cross et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Grunin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Positive parenting, expressed through praise, guidance, and consistent involvement, has been linked to lower cyber-victimization and greater readiness to seek help (Elsaesser et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Zych et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Conversely, poor family functioning, inconsistency, or harsh discipline fosters mistrust and avoidance. Perceptions of these relationships are equally important. Parents often view their families as cohesive and communicative, whereas adolescents may perceive criticism or excessive control (De Los Reyes \u0026amp; Ohannessian, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Lozano-Blasco et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). When such perceptions diverge, adolescents may anticipate misunderstanding or punishment, reducing their likelihood of disclosure. In GCC families, where obedience and respect are moral imperatives (Dwairy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e), these perception gaps can strengthen, reinforcing barriers such as fear, shame, or feelings of helplessness. Building on this reasoning, this study examined parent-adolescent perception gaps in family functioning and positive parenting and investigated whether parents underestimate adolescents\u0026rsquo; experiences of cyberbullying victimization and overestimate their willingness to report such incidents. It also examined the relationship between family functioning and positive parenting, and their impact on adolescents\u0026rsquo; likelihood of disclosure and reasons for nondisclosure within Gulf Arab families.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.5 Research gaps and the present study\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite increasing concern about cyberbullying in the Gulf, research examining its relational and familial dimensions remains scarce. Most regional studies focus on prevalence or attitudes rather than on how family dynamics shape communication about online victimization. Few include both parents and adolescents, leaving intergenerational perception gaps unexplored. The present cross-sectional study addresses these gaps by investigating parent\u0026ndash;adolescent discrepancies in perceptions of family functioning, positive parenting, cyberbullying victimization, and willingness to report such incidents within Gulf Arab families. It further examines how family functioning, positive parenting, gender, and age relate to adolescents\u0026rsquo; experiences of cyberbullying, their likelihood of reporting these incidents, and their reasons for nondisclosure. This comparative approach provides a comprehensive understanding of how family and demographic factors jointly influence communication about cyberbullying in the Gulf context. The study, therefore, addresses four research questions:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eRQ1.\u003c/b\u003e Do parents and adolescents differ in their perceptions of a) family functioning and b) positive parenting practices?\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRQ2.\u003c/b\u003e Is there a significant discrepancy between parents\u0026rsquo; perceptions of their children\u0026rsquo;s experiences of cyberbullying victimization and willingness to report such incidents, and adolescents\u0026rsquo; self-reports of these experiences and willingness to report them to their parents? And does this discrepancy vary by age and gender?\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eRQ3\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo what extent do a) family functioning, b) positive parenting, and c) demographic factors (age and gender) predict adolescents\u0026rsquo; a) cyberbullying victimization and b) likelihood of reporting cyberbullying incidents to their parents?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eRQ4.\u003c/b\u003e To what extent do a) family functioning and b) positive parenting predict adolescents\u0026rsquo; and parents\u0026rsquo; reasons for not reporting cyberbullying incidents to parents?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"2 Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Participants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants included adolescents and parents from Arab Gulf countries. The adolescent sample consisted of school students in Qatar, recruited through school administrators who served as gatekeepers and facilitated the distribution of the online questionnaire using a secure survey platform (SurveyMonkey Inc.). The link to the questionnaire was shared with students attending five public schools across the country. Public schools in Qatar are government funded and managed by the state and primarily enroll Qatari citizens and some expatriate students, as they provide free education with Arabic as the language of instruction. These schools are also gender segregated, meaning that male and female students attend separate institutions. In contrast, private schools are funded by tuition fees, managed by private organizations, and predominantly enroll expatriate students. They follow diverse international curricula and are typically not gender segregated.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the adolescent sample, surveys were administered during designated activity classes (e.g., in school computer laboratories) to avoid disruption to regular academic instruction. In compliance with national guidelines, no surveys were conducted during examination periods, which influenced the level of responsiveness across schools. A total of 650 survey responses were initially collected. After excluding incomplete responses and those not meeting the study\u0026rsquo;s inclusion criteria, 351 students were retained in the final analytical sample. The final sample consisted of 176 male students (50.14%) and 175 female students (49.86%), with a mean age of 14.75 years (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.09; range\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13\u0026ndash;16 years). The relatively modest sample size reflected the voluntary nature of participation, the length of the questionnaire, and restrictions on survey administration within schools.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe parent sample was recruited online through the CINT research platform (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"http://www.cint.com\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ewww.cint.com\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.cint.com\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e), a reputable international online research panel. Eligible participants were Arab parents residing in Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. The final parent sample comprised 400 participants, including 224 males (56.0%) and 176 females (44.0%). The mean age of parent participants was 40.59 years (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.74; range\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;30\u0026ndash;62 years). Age distribution was as follows, 19.0% were aged 30\u0026ndash;34 years, 56.5% were aged 35\u0026ndash;44 years, and 24.5% were aged 45 years or older. In terms of education, 0.25% reported no formal education, 0.75% had completed primary education, 4.25% had completed secondary education, 5.75% had pursued or completed vocational or technical education, 66.0% had obtained a bachelor\u0026rsquo;s degree, and 23.0% had completed postgraduate education (e.g., master\u0026rsquo;s or doctoral degrees). This demographically diverse and well-educated sample provides valuable insights into parental attitudes and experiences across the GCC region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the time of data collection (February to June 2025), all participants were informed about the purpose of the study, that their participation was voluntary, and that they could skip any question or withdraw from the survey at any time. The adolescent survey was available in Arabic, and an English version was also developed for research and ethical review purposes. Semantic equivalence between versions was ensured through a rigorous back-translation process (Brislin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1970\u003c/span\u003e). Informed consent was obtained from parents or legal guardians through coordination with school administrative offices, and assent was secured from all participating students. Ethical approval for both the adolescent and parent components of the study was obtained from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at [details blinded for peer review]. Permissions were also secured from the participating schools prior to data collection. All participation was voluntary and anonymous, and all participating schools were public and operated on a gender-segregated basis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Measures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eCyberbullying victimization.\u003c/b\u003e Both adolescents and parents were first introduced to the definition of cyberbullying before responding to the relevant items. Adolescents were asked to indicate the frequency with which they had personally experienced cyberbullying victimization on social media platforms. Responses were recorded using a six-point Likert-type scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Very Infrequently, 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Infrequently, 3\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Somewhat Infrequently, 4\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Somewhat Frequently, 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Frequently, 6\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Very Frequently), with higher scores reflecting greater exposure to cyberbullying victimization. Parents were asked to indicate how often they believed their adolescent had experienced cyberbullying victimization using a five-point Likert-type scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Never, 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Rarely, 3\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Sometimes, 4\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Often, 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Very Often).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eReporting behavior to parents.\u003c/b\u003e Adolescents rated their likelihood of reporting incidents of cyberbullying victimization to a parent using a six-point Likert-type scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Very Unlikely, 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Unlikely, 3\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Somewhat Unlikely, 4\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Somewhat Likely, 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Likely, 6\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Very Likely). Parents completed an equivalent item assessing how likely they believed their adolescent would report such an incident to them, using the same six-point scale. Higher scores represented greater perceived willingness to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMcMaster Family Assessment Device (FAD).\u003c/b\u003e The McMaster Family Assessment Device (Epstein et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e) was used to assess perceptions of general family functioning among adolescents and parents. For the present study, only the General Functioning subscale was used, comprising 12 items (e.g., \u0026ldquo;In times of crisis we can turn to each other for support\u0026rdquo;) rated on a four-point Likert scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Strongly Disagree to 4\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Strongly Agree). Negatively worded items were reverse-coded, and higher scores indicated poorer family functioning. Adolescents and parents rated how well each statement described their family, with higher scores reflecting better family functioning. Numerous studies have demonstrated the strong internal consistency of the FAD across different cultural and family contexts (Cong et al., 2022; Panourgia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Staccini et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). In the present study, Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha for the General Functioning subscale was .88, indicating excellent internal reliability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAlabama Parenting Questionnaire (APQ).\u003c/b\u003e Positive parenting practices were measured using selected items from the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire (Frick, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e). The APQ is designed to evaluate specific parenting behaviors linked to positive reinforcement and consistent discipline practices (Shelton et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). For the current study, items from the Positive Parenting subscale were used to capture the extent to which parents engage in supportive and affirming interactions with their adolescents. Each item was rated on a five-point Likert scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Never to 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Always), with higher scores indicating more frequent positive parenting behaviors. The APQ has been validated across multiple cultural contexts and demonstrates stable psychometric properties for both adolescent and parent respondents (Elgar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). In the present study, Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha for the Positive Parenting subscale was .88, indicating excellent internal reliability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eBarriers to reporting cyberbullying to parents.\u003c/b\u003e Parents completed ten items examining reasons why adolescents might not report cyberbullying incidents to their parents. Responses were recorded using a six-point Likert-type scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Strongly Disagree to 6\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Strongly Agree), with higher scores indicating stronger barriers to reporting. The items were adapted from (Stives et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and reflect common parental beliefs about why adolescents might choose not to disclose bullying or cyberbullying experiences (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItems measuring barriers to reporting cyberbullying to parents among parents (Stives et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem No.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem code\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem Description\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAshamed or embarrassed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAshamed or embarrassed to tell Me\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHandles it themselves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMy child handles it themselves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfraid of punishment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfraid of being punished by bully if they tell\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDoesn\u0026rsquo;t bother enough\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSometimes it Doesn\u0026rsquo;t bother them enough to tell\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTells when severe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThey only told Me about it when bullying became severe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDoesn\u0026rsquo;t think I can help\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMy child Doesn\u0026rsquo;t think I can understand or help\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuits telling me\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt happens so much my child quit telling Me about it\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKids can adjust\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBullying is common/Kids adjust to it\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot sure why\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI\u0026rsquo;m not sure why they Don\u0026rsquo;t tell Me\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDoesn\u0026rsquo;t recognize it\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThey Don\u0026rsquo;t always recognize They\u0026rsquo;ve been cyberbullied\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdolescents, on the other hand, completed nine items assessing reasons why they might not report cyberbullying incidents to their parents. Responses were recorded using a six-point Likert-type scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Strongly Disagree to 6\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Strongly Agree), with higher scores indicating stronger barriers to reporting. The items were adapted from Li (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) to capture common concerns related to fear of disbelief, embarrassment, retaliation, or minimization of the problem (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItems measuring barriers to reporting cyberbullying to parents among adolescents (Li, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem No.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem code\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem Description\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParents would not believe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI don\u0026rsquo;t think my parent/guardian would understand or believe me\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParents Don\u0026rsquo;t know to help\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI don\u0026rsquo;t think my parent/guardian would know how to stop it\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCould be my fault\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI could get myself into trouble because I could also be at fault\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMight get into trouble\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI could get myself into trouble, even if I had done nothing wrong\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCyberbully might retaliate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe cyberbully could get back at me and make things even worse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents would make fun\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther students could make fun of me\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParents restrict access\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMy parents could find out and might restrict my access to the Internet or other technologies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeal with it alone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI need to learn to deal with cyberbullying by myself\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo big deal / ignore it\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCyberbullying is no big deal. People should just ignore it\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.1 Demographic Information\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth the adolescent and parent questionnaires collected demographic information, including age, gender, and education level. Parents reported their highest level of education. Adolescents indicated their current school grade (7th \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;11th).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.2 Data Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics were computed to summarize the demographic characteristics of parents and adolescents, including gender, age, education level, and the main study variables; family functioning, positive parenting, cyberbullying victimization, reporting behaviors, and barriers to reporting. All analyses were conducted separately for parents and adolescents to account for potential differences in their perceptions and experiences.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo address RQ1 and RQ2, two binary logistic regression analyses were conducted separately. The first model examined whether family functioning and positive parenting predicted group membership (parent vs. adolescent). The second model tested discrepancies between parents\u0026rsquo; and adolescents\u0026rsquo; reports of cyberbullying victimization and willingness to report such incidents to parents, while also exploring the moderating effects of adolescent gender and age. Interaction effects were further probed using simple-effects analyses. Model performance was evaluated using Wald z statistics, odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs), model fit indices (Nagelkerke R\u0026sup2;), and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor RQ3, multivariate multiple regression (MMR) analyses were performed to examine whether family functioning, positive parenting, age, and gender predicted cyberbullying victimization frequency and the likelihood of reporting incidents to parents. Pearson\u0026rsquo;s correlation coefficients were calculated to examine associations among the continuous study variables prior to running the MMR. Regression coefficients (β), t values, p values, 95% CIs, and adjusted R\u0026sup2; values were reported.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo address RQ4, two separate linear mixed models (LMMs) were conducted to examine how family functioning and positive parenting were related to the reasons for not reporting cyberbullying incidents to parents, based on the parent and adolescent samples. In both models, subjects were treated as random effects to account for within-subject variation, while family functioning and positive parenting were entered as fixed effects. Each model included main effects and interactions between predictors and the reasons for not reporting. Because the interaction terms between the reasons and the family functioning and positive parenting variables were of primary interest, follow-up simple-effect analyses were performed. Simple-effect analyses, therefore, clarified which reasons contributed most to the overall interaction by estimating the effect of each predictor separately for each reason. This approach is appropriate when the reasons variable is a within-subject factor with multiple categories and when significant (or near-significant) predictor and reasons interactions are detected, as was the case in both the parent and adolescent models. Model fit was assessed using conditional and marginal R\u0026sup2; values, and the significance of effects was evaluated using F statistics and corresponding p values.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrior to regression and LMM models, we performed a number of assumptions checks. For the regression analyses (logistic and multivariate multiple), assumption checks indicated no multicollinearity among predictors (all VIF\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2, Tolerance\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.47). Residual diagnostics confirmed normality and homoscedasticity based on histograms and Q\u0026ndash;Q plots, and Durbin\u0026ndash;Watson values ranged from 1.55 to 1.84, confirming independence of residuals. Standardized residuals were within \u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3, indicating no outliers. For the LMM analyses, assumption checks included inspection of Q\u0026ndash;Q plots, histograms, and residuals-versus-predicted plots, which showed that residuals were approximately normally distributed and homoscedastic. Random effects appeared normally distributed, and no influential clusters were detected. Detailed assumption-check results for the regression analyses are provided in Tables S1 and S2 in the Supplementary Materials. All statistical analyses (correlations, logistic regressions, and linear mixed models [LMMs]) were conducted using Jamovi version 2.6.44.0, whereas the multivariate multiple regression (MMR) analyses were performed in R version 4.3.0 (R Core Team, 2025).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Participants Demographics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e summarizes the demographic characteristics of the 751 participants, including gender, age, education level, and cyberbullying experiences and reporting behaviors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipant Demographics, Cyberbullying Experiences, and Reporting Behaviors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParents\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;400)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdolescents\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;351)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e224 (56.00)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e176 (50.14)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e176 (44.00)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e175 (49.86)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAge\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM (SD)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.59 (6.74)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.75 (1.09)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRange\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u0026ndash;16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEducation (%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo formal education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimary education (elementary)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondary education (high school)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePursuing or completed vocational or technical education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePursuing or completed undergraduate degree (bachelor\u0026rsquo;s)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePursuing or completed postgraduate degree (master\u0026rsquo;s, Ph.D)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7th Grade\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8th Grade\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9th Grade\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10th Grade\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11th Grade\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCyberbullying victimization and reporting M (SD)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCyberbullying victimization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.76 (0.93)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.55 (1.72)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReport to parent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.90 (1.44)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.10 (1.78)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Parent-adolescent differences in perceptions of family functioning and positive parenting (RQ1)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA binary logistic regression was conducted to examine whether perceptions of family functioning and positive parenting predicted group membership (Parent vs. Adolescent). The overall model, which included the two predictors, significantly improved model performance compared to the baseline model, Δχ\u0026sup2;(2, N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;751)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;158.15, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001. The model explained approximately 25% of the variance in group classification (Nagelkerke R\u0026sup2; = .25) and correctly classified 73% of cases overall, with 76% accuracy for parents and 69% for adolescents. The area under the ROC curve (AUC) was .76, indicating acceptable model discrimination. The results showed clear group differences, adolescents reported lower levels of positive parenting and family functioning compared to parents, whereas parents reported higher levels of both positive parenting practices and family functioning. Both predictors were statistically significant, with odds ratios greater than 1, indicating that higher scores on these measures increased the odds of being in the parent group. For each one-unit increase in perceived family functioning, the odds of being a parent rather than an adolescent increased by approximately 14%, and by 7% for positive parenting (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBinary logistic regression group differences (Parents vs. Adolescents) in family functioning and positive parenting practices\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% Confidence Interval\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVariable\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEstimate\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSE\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWald z\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ep\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOdds Ratio\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLower\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eUpper\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntercept\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.153\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.081\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.060\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral functioning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.129\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.071\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.036\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003eNote. Groups coded as 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Parent, 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Adolescent. In the logistic regression, parents (1) were treated as the event. Odds ratios\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1 therefore indicate a higher likelihood of being a parent (i.e., lower odds of being an adolescent).\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Parent-adolescent discrepancies in reports of cyberbullying victimization and willingness to report (RQ2)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA binary logistic regression analysis was conducted to examine discrepancies between parents\u0026rsquo; reports of their adolescents\u0026rsquo; experiences of cyberbullying victimization and their perceptions of adolescents\u0026rsquo; willingness to report such incidents to them, and adolescents\u0026rsquo; self-reported experiences and willingness to report these incidents to their parents. The analysis also tested whether these discrepancies varied according to the adolescent\u0026rsquo;s gender and age. The dependent variable represented group membership (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;parent report, 0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;adolescent self-report), while the predictors included cyberbullying victimization, willingness to report to parents, adolescent gender, and adolescent age, along with their two-way interaction terms. The overall model was significant, χ\u0026sup2;(14, N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;751)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;262.00, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, indicating that the predictors reliably differentiated between the parent and adolescent groups. The model explained 25.2% of the variance in group classification (Nagelkerke R\u0026sup2; = .252).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e In regard to cyberbullying victimization, parents tended to underestimate how frequently their adolescents experienced cyberbullying compared with adolescents\u0026rsquo; self-reports. For each one-unit increase in perceived cyberbullying victimization, the odds of belonging to the parent group decreased by approximately 55% (B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.80, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.31, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.009, OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.45, 95% CI [0.24, 0.82]), indicating that adolescents reported experiencing cyberbullying more frequently than parents reported for their adolescents (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). A significant interaction was observed between cyberbullying victimization and adolescent gender (B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2.22, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.69, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001, OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.11), revealing a gender-based difference in the degree of discrepancy (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). To further explore this interaction, simple-effects analyses were conducted separately for males and females. For females, the effect of victimization was nonsignificant, χ\u0026sup2;(1)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.45, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.502; whereas for males, the effect was significant, χ\u0026sup2;(1)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;16.48, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001 (B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1.91, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.47, OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.15, 95% CI [0.06, 0.37]). For males, the odds of being a parent rather than an adolescent decreased by approximately 85%, whereas for females, the difference was negligible (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). Parents thus underestimated cyberbullying experiences for their sons but not for their daughters. As shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e (A), the probability of being classified within the parent group decreased sharply for boys as victimization increased, whereas it remained relatively stable for girls.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough the overall interaction between cyberbullying victimization and adolescent age was not statistically significant, χ\u0026sup2;(3)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.69, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.196, simple-effects analyses indicated age-specific differences. Victimization discrepancies were strongest at ages 13 (B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1.74, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.003) and 14 (B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1.15, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.034), but nonsignificant by ages 15 and 16. The odds of being a parent rather than an adolescent decreased by approximately 82% at age 13 and by 68% at age 14, while differences were nonsignificant at ages 15 and 16 (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). As illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e (B), parents of early adolescents were less likely to recognize cyberbullying victimization, whereas the discrepancy narrowed slightly among older adolescents. These findings confirm that parents tend to underestimate boys\u0026rsquo; and early adolescents\u0026rsquo; cyberbullying experiences, highlighting gender and developmental differences in parental awareness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor willingness to report cyberbullying incidents, parents consistently overestimated their adolescents\u0026rsquo; willingness to disclose such incidents. For each one-unit increase in perceived willingness to report, the odds of belonging to the parent group increased by approximately 40% (B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.34, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.06, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.40, 95% CI [1.24, 1.59]), indicating that parents perceived their adolescents as more willing to report than adolescents reported themselves (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). A significant interaction was observed between willingness to report cyberbullying incidents to parents and adolescent gender (B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.73, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.13, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.08), suggesting that parents\u0026rsquo; overestimation of willingness to report was more pronounced for boys than for girls (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). To further explore this interaction, simple-effects analyses were performed for males and females. For females, the effect of willingness to report was nonsignificant, χ\u0026sup2;(1)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.11, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.739; for males, the effect was significant, χ\u0026sup2;(1)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;52.26, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001. For males, the odds of being a parent rather than an adolescent increased by approximately 102%, whereas for females, the difference was minimal (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). Parents\u0026rsquo; perceptions of their sons\u0026rsquo; openness to communication were thus substantially more optimistic than adolescents\u0026rsquo; self-reports, whereas perceptions of daughters\u0026rsquo; willingness were relatively accurate, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e (C).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough the interaction between willingness to report and adolescent age was not statistically significant, examination of the simple effects clarified the age-related pattern. Parents\u0026rsquo; overestimation of adolescents\u0026rsquo; willingness to disclose was negligible at age 13 but became more evident from ages 14 to 16. The discrepancy was nonsignificant at age 13 (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.191) but became significant at ages 14 (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.004), 15 (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.011), and 16 (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). The odds of being a parent rather than an adolescent increased by approximately 34% at age 14, 32% at age 15, and 86% at age 16, whereas the effect was nonsignificant at age 13 (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). As shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e (D), parents of older adolescents perceived greater willingness to report than was reflected in adolescents\u0026rsquo; self-reports.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBinary logistic regression group differences (parents vs. adolescents) in cyberbullying victimization frequency and likelihood to report to parents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVariable\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEffect\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eB\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSE\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWald z\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ep\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOR\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eL\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eU\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCB Victimization *\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReport to parent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale vs Female\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.011\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14 vs 13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-3.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15 vs 13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-5.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16 vs 13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-3.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-10.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInteraction of CB Victimization and gender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale vs Female\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-3.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInteraction of CB Victimization and age\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14 vs 13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.435\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15 vs 13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.288\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16 vs 13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.028\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInteraction of Report and gender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale vs Female\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInteraction of Report and age\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14 vs 13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.402\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15 vs 13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16 vs 13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.033\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e Groups coded as 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Parent, 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Adolescent. In the logistic regression, parents (1) were treated as the event. Odds ratios\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1 therefore indicate a higher likelihood of being a parent (i.e., lower odds of being an adolescent).*Variable normalized within each group (adolescents, parents) to align 6- and 5-point response scales; higher scores indicate greater victimization.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimple effects of cyberbullying victimization and willingness to report by gender and age.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVariable\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eB\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSE\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWald z\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ep\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOR\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eL\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eU\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCyberbullying victimization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.502\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-4.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.163\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.516\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWillingness to Report\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.739\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.191\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.011\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Predictors of cyberbullying victimization and likelihood of reporting incidents to parents (RQ3)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultivariate multiple regression (MMR) was conducted to examine whether family functioning, positive parenting, and demographic variables (age and gender) predicted adolescents\u0026rsquo; cyberbullying victimization frequency and likelihood of reporting cyberbullying incidents to parents, separately for the parent and adolescent samples. Pearson\u0026rsquo;s correlation was first conducted to analyze the associations between the MMR variables (see Table\u0026nbsp;7). Table\u0026nbsp;8 presents the results of the MMR analyses that examine predictors of cyberbullying victimization and the likelihood of reporting cyberbullying incidents to parents in both samples. The models assessed the relationships between family functioning, positive parenting, age, and gender and the two dependent variables.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the parent sample, results of the multivariate multiple regression indicated that family functioning was negatively associated with cyberbullying victimization, suggesting that families with stronger functioning reported fewer incidents of victimization. Positive parenting, age, and gender did not significantly predict victimization. In contrast, both family functioning and positive parenting were positively related to adolescents\u0026rsquo; willingness to report to parents about cyberbullying incidents. Gender and age effects indicated that early and female adolescents were more likely to report to parents than older and male adolescents (see Table\u0026nbsp;8 for full model statistics).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the adolescent sample, family functioning again emerged as a significant negative predictor of cyberbullying victimization and a positive predictor of willingness to report to parents. Positive parenting predicted greater willingness to report to parents but was unrelated to victimization. Gender and age differences mirrored those observed in the parent data, with male adolescents experiencing more frequent victimization and being less likely to disclose incidents to parents, whereas early adolescents showed greater openness in reporting to parents (see Table\u0026nbsp;8 for detailed results).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"14\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"11\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;7. Pearson\u0026rsquo;s correlation between the multivariate multiple regression variables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c14\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVariable\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c14\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Cyberbullying Frequency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.279***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.007\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c14\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Report to Parent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.086\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.238***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.280***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c14\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Family Functioning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.168***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.362***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.368***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c14\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. Positive Parenting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.040\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.255***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.393***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c14\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"11\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote. * p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05, * p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01, ** p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001. Parent dataset is presented below the diagonal, and adolescent dataset is presented above the diagonal.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c14\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ctable\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"14\" nameend=\"c14\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;8. Multivariate multiple regression for predicting cyberbullying victimization frequency and reporting to parents\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCyberbullying Frequency\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c14\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eReport to Parent\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParents Model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAdjR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF (df)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAdjR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF (df)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e0.037\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e0.027\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.76 (4, 395)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e0.185\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e0.177\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e22.41 (4, 395)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePredictors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eβ\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSE\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003et\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ep\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eβ\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSE\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003et\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ep\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily Functioning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-3.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.589\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.139\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.065\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.302\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdolescent Model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAdjR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF (df)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAdjR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF (df)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e0.185\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e0.175\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e19.61 (4, 346)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e0.142\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e0.132\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e14.28 (4, 346)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePredictors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eβ\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSE\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003et\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ep\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eβ\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSE\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003et\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ep\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily Functioning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-4.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.418\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.740\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-3.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-4.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.5 Associations between family functioning, positive parenting, and reasons for not reporting cyberbullying victimization (RQ4)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwo separate linear mixed models (LMMs) were performed to examine the effects of family functioning and positive parenting on participants\u0026rsquo; ratings of the reasons for not reporting cyberbullying incidents to parents in the adolescent and parent samples. In both models, subjects were included as a random effect to account for individual variability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the parent sample, the LMM analysis revealed a conditional R\u0026sup2; of .457, indicating that 45.7% of the variance in the dependent variable was explained by both the fixed and random effects, and a marginal R\u0026sup2; of .159, showing that 15.9% of the variance was accounted for by the fixed effects alone. The model\u0026rsquo;s fit was significant, χ\u0026sup2;(30)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1697.597, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001 for the conditional model, and χ\u0026sup2;(29)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;770.397, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001 for the marginal model. The analysis showed a significant main effect of family functioning, F(1, 397)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;36.80, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, indicating that parents from better-functioning families rated fewer reasons for non-reporting. The main effect of positive parenting was also significant, F(1, 397)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.12, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.043, suggesting that higher positive parenting predicted fewer perceived reasons for withholding cyberbullying incidents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, there was a significant association between reason and family functioning, F(9, 3573)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.00, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001, and a marginally significant association between reason and positive parenting, F(9, 3573)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.81, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.061. These findings suggest that the influence of family functioning and positive parenting on parents\u0026rsquo; ratings of non-reporting reasons varied depending on the specific reason considered.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo further explore these associations, simple-effect analyses were conducted (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). Overall, the association patterns across reasons for non-reporting are presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, where (A) shows family functioning and cyberbullying non-reporting, and (B) shows positive parenting and cyberbullying non-reporting in the parent sample.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 9\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimple effects of family functioning and positive parenting across reasons for not reporting cyberbullying incidents to parents\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReasons of not reporting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePredictor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eU\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR1 - Ashamed or embarrassed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFamily Functioning\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.063\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.013\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-4.97\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.088\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.038\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.122\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.044\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-2.81\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.005\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.208\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.037\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR2 - Handles it themselves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFamily Functioning\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.057\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.013\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-4.45\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.082\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.032\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.041\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.349\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.126\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.045\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR3 - Afraid of punishment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFamily Functioning\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.054\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.013\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-4.27\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.079\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.029\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.055\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.209\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.031\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR4 - Doesn\u0026rsquo;t bother enough\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFamily Functioning\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.026\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.013\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-2.04\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e.042\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.051\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.046\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.294\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.131\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.040\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR5 - Tells when severe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFamily Functioning\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.054\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.013\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-4.22\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.079\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.029\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.105\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.044\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-2.42\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.015\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.191\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.023\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR6 - Doesn\u0026rsquo;t think I can help\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFamily Functioning\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.070\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.013\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-5.54\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.095\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.045\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.564\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.110\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR7 - Quits telling me\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFamily Functioning\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.050\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.013\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-3.95\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.075\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.025\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.944\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.088\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.082\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR8 - Kids can adjust\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily Functioning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.161\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.043\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.007\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.046\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.291\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.131\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.039\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR9 - Not sure why\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFamily Functioning\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.069\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.013\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-5.46\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.094\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.044\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.067\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.126\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.152\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR10 - Doesn\u0026rsquo;t recognize it\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFamily Functioning\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.037\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.013\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-2.93\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.003\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.062\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.012\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.112\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.044\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-2.58\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.010\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.198\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.027\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the adolescent sample, the LMM analysis revealed a conditional R\u0026sup2; of .488, indicating that 48.8% of the variance in the dependent variable was explained by both the fixed and random effects, and a marginal R\u0026sup2; of .105, showing that 10.5% of the variance was accounted for by the fixed effects alone. The model\u0026rsquo;s fit was significant, χ\u0026sup2;(27)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1400.440, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001 for the conditional model, and χ\u0026sup2;(26)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;308.297, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001 for the marginal model. The analysis showed a significant main effect of family functioning, F(1, 348)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;46.89, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, indicating that adolescents from better-functioning families reported fewer reasons for not disclosing cyberbullying incidents. The main effect of positive parenting was not significant, F(1, 348)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.68, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.195.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, a significant association was found between reason and family functioning, F(8, 2784)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.14, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, whereas the association between reason and positive parenting was not significant, F(8, 2784)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.09, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.364. These findings suggest that the influence of family functioning on adolescents\u0026rsquo; reasons for non-reporting varied depending on the specific reason considered, while positive parenting showed no differential effects. To further explore this association, simple-effect analyses were conducted (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). Family functioning was negatively associated with most reasons for not reporting cyberbullying, indicating that adolescents from well-functioning families were less likely to report these barriers, particularly those related to disbelief or lack of parental support. Positive parenting showed no significant effects across the reasons for non-reporting (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eA for family functioning and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eB for positive parenting associations in the adolescent sample)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab8\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 10\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimple effects of family functioning and positive parenting across reasons for not reporting cyberbullying incidents to parents\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReasons of not reporting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePredictor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eU\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR1 - Parents would not believe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFamily Functioning\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.101\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.016\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-6.43\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.132\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.070\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.032\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.486\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.086\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.041\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR2 - Parents Don\u0026rsquo;t know to help\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFamily Functioning\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.119\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.016\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-7.56\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.150\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.088\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.054\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.032\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.092\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.118\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR3 - Could be my fault\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFamily Functioning\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.072\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.016\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-4.58\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.103\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.041\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.059\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.032\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.069\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.122\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR4 - Might get into trouble\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFamily Functioning\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.077\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.016\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-4.89\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.108\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.046\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.032\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.473\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.040\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.086\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR5 - Cyberbully might retaliate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFamily Functioning\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.07\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.016\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-4.43\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.100\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.039\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.054\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.032\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.095\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.117\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR6 - Students would make fun\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFamily Functioning\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.093\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.016\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-5.92\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.124\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.062\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.032\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.032\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.323\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.031\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.095\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR7 - Parents restrict access\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFamily Functioning\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.086\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.016\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-5.45\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.117\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.055\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.033\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.032\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.307\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.030\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.096\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR8 - Deal with it alone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily Functioning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.058\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.061\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.032\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.665\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.049\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.077\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR9 - No big deal / ignore it\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFamily Functioning\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.032\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.016\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-2.05\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.041\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.063\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePositive Parenting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.032\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.583\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.046\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.081\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4 Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study investigated parent\u0026ndash;adolescent differences in perceptions of family functioning and positive parenting, together with discrepancies between their reports of adolescents\u0026rsquo; cyberbullying victimization and reporting to parents. It also examined how family functioning and positive parenting predicted adolescents\u0026rsquo; experiences of cyberbullying, their willingness to report such incidents to parents, and the reasons for not disclosing to parents from the perspectives of both parents and adolescents within Arab families. The findings revealed several consistent patterns. Parents rated both family functioning and positive parenting more positively than adolescents, indicating clear perception gaps between the two groups. Parents also reported lower levels of adolescents\u0026rsquo; cyberbullying victimization and higher likelihoods of reporting compared to adolescents\u0026rsquo; self-reports, showing that parents underestimated their children\u0026rsquo;s exposure to cyberbullying and overestimated their willingness to disclose. Analyses examining predictive relationships showed that both family functioning and positive parenting were significantly related to adolescents\u0026rsquo; experiences and reporting behavior. Higher levels of family functioning were associated with fewer cyberbullying incidents and a greater likelihood of reporting to parents, while positive parenting was also positively linked to reporting behavior. Finally, separate analyses were conducted for the parent and adolescent samples to assess reasons for non-disclosure. In both groups, higher levels of family functioning and positive parenting were associated with fewer reported barriers to telling parents about cyberbullying. Parents and adolescents from better-functioning and more supportive families reported lower endorsement of reasons such as fear of punishment, embarrassment, or disbelief.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Parent-adolescent differences in perceptions of family functioning and positive parenting (RQ1)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis demonstrated intergenerational differences in perceptions of family functioning and positive parenting. Parents consistently rated both constructs more positively, reflecting a divergence in how family life is interpreted across generational roles. While both groups viewed their families favourably, they applied different evaluative frameworks to the same environment. Parents\u0026rsquo; higher ratings reflect their focus on clear communication, supportive interactions, and cooperative problem-solving, whereas adolescents\u0026rsquo; lower ratings highlight the importance they place on emotional responsiveness, openness, and direct praise. These findings align with meta-analytic evidence indicating systematic discrepancies between parents and adolescents in reported family functioning and parenting (Kouros \u0026amp; Garber, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Nichols \u0026amp; Tanner-Smith, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Such discrepancies appear to arise not from relational discord but from contrasting perspectives on what constitutes support within everyday interactions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e Parents perceived their families as more communicative, emotionally supportive, and effective at resolving problems than adolescents did, highlighting how each generation defines family functioning differently. Parents who coordinate routines and manage responsibilities interpret healthy functioning through cooperative communication and consistent problem-solving. Adolescents, by contrast, assess it through emotional engagement, how often they feel heard, involved, and supported. This contrast suggests that parents associate clarity and cooperation with harmony, while adolescents emphasize empathy and inclusion when evaluating communication. International evidence supports this divergence; parents frequently overrate family communication and harmony, while adolescents are more attuned to relational tension or inconsistency (Hou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Mansfield et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Tian et al., 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch on collectivist families likewise identifies communication and emotional support as core indicators of healthy functioning (Shek et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Within Gulf-Arab families, these perception differences are intensified by cultural norms that link parental authority with care (Dwairy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Dwairy \u0026amp; Menshar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Parents\u0026rsquo; optimism about family functioning reflects enduring ideals of harmony and duty, whereas adolescents exposed to global ideals of communication and negotiation expect greater reciprocity and shared dialogue (Al-Hendawi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Almahmoud et al., 2025). Parents often regard guidance and discipline as protective responsibilities, while adolescents shaped by global norms of negotiation and voice perceive such authority as limited openness. Thus, both generations evaluate their families positively but define effective communication differently, parents through clarity and cooperation, adolescents through dialogue and emotional reciprocity. This intergenerational contrast echoes evidence that parent-adolescent perception gaps often stem from the distinct viewpoints each generation brings to daily interaction (De Los Reyes \u0026amp; Ohannessian, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Hou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Nichols \u0026amp; Tanner-Smith, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA similar intergenerational divergence in perceptions appeared for positive parenting. Parents reported engaging in praise, encouragement, and recognition of effort more often than adolescents perceived receiving them, revealing differences in how support is expressed and understood. Parents may regard supervision, advice, or reminders as reinforcement, whereas adolescents expect explicit verbal acknowledgment. These findings indicate that such discrepancies stem from communication style rather than lack of affection. The distinction is subtle but meaningful; parents emphasize behavioural consistency and guidance, while adolescents tend to pay more attention to the emotional tone and immediacy of feedback. Recent studies have shown that adolescents value the explicitness of recognition more than its frequency, linking praise and warmth to self-regulation and overall well-being (Cui \u0026amp; Li, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Henderlong \u0026amp; Lepper, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). This sensitivity to affirmation helps explain why adolescents often perceive indirect support as insufficient even when relationships remain caring. In Gulf societies, supportive communication is typically a substitute for overt verbal praise, providing indirect protection, guidance, and provision (Dwairy \u0026amp; Menshar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Parents interpret such acts as genuine care, yet adolescents accustomed to more expressive environments in school and media may not perceive them as encouragement. This cultural pattern represents distinct intergenerational languages of care, rather than emotional distance, and aligns with regional findings that highlight the balance of warmth and control in Arab parenting (Lari, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The perception difference, therefore, reflects variation in communication expression within a shared framework of affection.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcross these findings, intergenerational differences in perceptions unfold within Gulf families that are simultaneously maintaining traditional authority and embracing modern expectations for openness. Parents\u0026rsquo; optimism about family functioning reflects enduring ideals of duty and collective harmony, whereas adolescents exposed to digital and global influences prioritise reciprocity and mutual recognition. Evidence from Qatar supports this trend; adolescents increasingly seek negotiation and shared decision-making within parent-child relationships (Al-Hendawi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This evolving communication dynamic suggests that these perception gaps are not symptoms of conflict but rather expressions of shifting norms surrounding dialogue and relational closeness. Comparable research across collectivist contexts likewise shows that modernization encourages more reciprocal communication between parents and adolescents (Tian et al., 2024). Both generations maintain largely positive views of their families; they diverge chiefly in emphasis parents prioritise responsibility and cooperative communication, adolescents\u0026rsquo; empathy and responsiveness. Such intergenerational asymmetries illustrate how modernization reshapes relational expectations while preserving mutual understanding and connection within families.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTaken together, the findings highlight two complementary dimensions of family life that account for these intergenerational perception gaps. Family functioning encompasses the systemic processes of communication, emotional support, and collaborative problem-solving that sustain connections, whereas positive parenting represents behavioural reinforcement, praising, recognizing, and encouraging desirable behaviour that affirms adolescents\u0026rsquo; sense of value. Parents interpret consistency and guidance as care, while adolescents focus on the frequency and explicitness of recognition. These patterns mirror classic conceptualisations of family functioning and positive parenting and are reinforced by contemporary Gulf evidence showing that guidance and oversight remain protective when balanced with empathy and dialogue. Overall, the study portrays intergenerational differences in perceptions as reflections of evolving communication practices within stable, caring family systems, rather than differences in interpretation, affection, or functioning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Parent-adolescent discrepancies in reports of cyberbullying victimization and willingness to report (RQ2)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings revealed significant discrepancies between parents\u0026rsquo; and adolescents\u0026rsquo; reports of cyberbullying victimization and the likelihood of adolescents telling their parents about such incidents, with these differences varying by both gender and age. These findings suggest that parent-adolescent discrepancies extend beyond traditional family domains into digital interactions, indicating that relational misunderstandings also influence online experiences. This pattern reflects the same type of discrepancy identified in RQ1, where parents and adolescents differed in their perceptions of family functioning and positive parenting, showing that similar differences in understanding also extend to the digital domain (Rapp et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParents tended to underestimate adolescents\u0026rsquo; online risks, including cyberbullying victimization, revealing a discrepancy between parental perceptions and adolescents\u0026rsquo; real levels of exposure. Parents\u0026rsquo; underestimation of how often adolescents experience cyberbullying may stem from limited familiarity with social-media environments and reduced awareness of adolescents\u0026rsquo; online interactions. This explanation aligns with evidence showing that parents\u0026rsquo; lower digital literacy and engagement often limit their capacity to recognize online risks (Elsaesser et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Livingstone \u0026amp; Haddon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Adolescents, in contrast, often navigate online spaces privately and may withhold negative experiences to avoid embarrassment or potential restrictions on technology use (Cross et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Within Gulf Arab societies, these discrepancies may be amplified by strong norms around family privacy and concern for social reputation, which can discourage adolescents, particularly boys, from disclosing cyberbullying experiences(Al Ghamdi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Alfakeh et al., 2021). Parents\u0026rsquo; limited digital literacy and reduced visibility into adolescents\u0026rsquo; online activities likely contribute to the pronounced underestimation of victimization among boys and younger adolescents observed in the results (Alsebaei \u0026amp; Aljasir, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e Adolescents\u0026rsquo; gender and age contributed to these discrepancies, with parents underestimating boys\u0026rsquo; cyberbullying victimization more than girls\u0026rsquo; and showing larger gaps in awareness for younger adolescents than for older ones. Parents often perceive boys as more resilient and independent, which can lead to a reduced sensitivity to online risks (Barlett \u0026amp; Coyne, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Marinoni et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Xiong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). In Gulf contexts, cultural expectations surrounding boys\u0026rsquo; strength reinforce this reduced sensitivity (Dwairy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Dwairy \u0026amp; Menshar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Early adolescents also appeared to conceal negative experiences more frequently, whereas older adolescents, though more autonomous, engaged in selective disclosure based on relational trust (Janssen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Livingstone, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Steinberg \u0026amp; Morris, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA similar discrepancy was also observed in reporting behavior. Parents overestimated how willing adolescents were to disclose cyberbullying incidents, while adolescents reported a lower likelihood of turning to their parents. This difference suggests that parents assume a higher level of communicative openness than adolescents actually experience in situations involving online harm, such as cyberbullying victimization. Such overestimation is consistent with research showing that parents often rely on perceptions of family closeness rather than adolescents\u0026rsquo; self-reported likelihood of seeking support (De Los Reyes \u0026amp; Ohannessian, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Rapp et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Adolescents\u0026rsquo; lower willingness to disclose aligns with findings that they weigh the potential consequences of reporting before involving parents (Juvonen \u0026amp; Gross, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Schittenhelm et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Within the GCC, parental support is often communicated through guidance and behavioral expectations rather than frequent discussions of emotional difficulties, which may reduce opportunities for adolescents to disclose cyberbullying experiences. This aligns with recent findings that show adolescents may hesitate to report personal or distressing experiences to avoid causing concern or being misunderstood, even in supportive families (Al Ghamdi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Al-Badayneh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Khatib et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Gender and age also influenced reporting behavior. Boys indicated a lower likelihood of disclosure than girls. In Gulf families, boys often enjoy greater autonomy and privileges than girls, which can reduce their tendency to seek parental support for personal difficulties, according to Doha International Family Institute (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Early adolescents, both in the GCC and globally, depend more on adults while navigating autonomy, making them more cautious about disclosing cyberbullying during this developmental shift (Janssen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Steinberg \u0026amp; Morris, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTaken together, the results suggest a discrepancy between parents\u0026rsquo; confidence in family openness and adolescents' reluctance to share sensitive experiences. This interpretation captures the relational pattern emerging from the data each group holds partially accurate yet incomplete assumptions about communication within the family. Parents often believe that open communication ensures that adolescents will disclose their problems, whereas adolescents view disclosure as potentially leading to misunderstandings or increased restrictions. The coexistence of parental confidence and adolescent caution aligns with research on discrepancies in family perceptions(De Los Reyes \u0026amp; Ohannessian, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) and adolescents\u0026rsquo; reluctance to disclose cyberbullying (Schittenhelm et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Within Gulf Arab families, this dynamic is reinforced by cultural imperatives to preserve family honor and respect parental authority (Dwairy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). The findings indicate that communication about cyberbullying is limited not by indifference but by competing family logics of care and control. This overall pattern reveals how contrasting family values shape digital communication, an effect that may be intensified by enduring hierarchical norms and collectivist expectations. Comparable dynamics have been observed in Asian and Latin American contexts, yet the Gulf case illustrates how digital modernity interacts with these long-standing familial hierarchies (Bala et al., 2018; Lari, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Overall, these interpretations point to the conclusion that discrepancies in how parents and adolescents perceive cyberbullying mirror broader differences in their understandings of trust, communication, and responsibility within the family system.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3 Predictors of cyberbullying victimization and likelihood of reporting incidents to parents (RQ3)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe regression analyses showed that family functioning was the strongest and most consistent predictor across models. Higher family functioning predicted lower cyberbullying victimization and greater willingness to disclose such incidents. Positive parenting was predicted to be a willingness to report, but it was not related to victimization. Gender and age also contributed to the prediction of these outcomes: being male was associated with higher victimization and lower reporting, while younger age was associated with a greater likelihood of disclosure. Together, these findings indicate that family environment and demographic characteristics jointly shape adolescents\u0026rsquo; cyberbullying experiences and reporting behaviour.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily functioning predicted both cyberbullying victimization and reporting. In both parent and adolescent samples, higher family functioning significantly predicted fewer experiences of cyberbullying and a greater likelihood that adolescents would tell parents when such incidents occurred. This suggests that families characterized by open communication and mutual understanding provide adolescents with the emotional security needed to manage digital problems (Huang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Rodriguez-Rivas et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). When family functioning was lower, parents also perceived reduced openness, implying that limited everyday communication extends to online matters. Another possible interpretation is that adolescents who experience fewer online difficulties may perceive their families as more functional, as reduced digital stress may reinforce perceptions of family cohesion and effective functioning. Thus, the overall level of family functioning, rather than parental control, appears to be central to reducing risk and promoting discussions of online harm, such as cyberbullying (Stoilova et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePositive parenting predicted adolescents\u0026rsquo; willingness to report but did not predict cyberbullying victimization. This finding suggests that warmth, encouragement, and responsiveness increase adolescents\u0026rsquo; readiness to approach parents when difficulties arise online (Makri-Botsari \u0026amp; Karagianni, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Mart\u0026iacute;nez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Such interactions may help adolescents view parental reactions as supportive rather than punitive, creating conditions where disclosure feels safe. Alternatively, adolescents who are naturally more communicative may also elicit more positive parenting responses, suggesting that the relationship between these constructs could be reciprocal. The absence of a relationship with victimization implies that exposure to cyberbullying depends more on peer or situational contexts than on parenting style. Nevertheless, higher positive-parenting scores in our datasets significantly predicted stronger intentions to communicate about cyberbullying incidents, emphasizing that emotional support and reinforcement act as catalysts for help-seeking.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender and age also contributed significantly to the prediction models. In both the parent-reported and adolescent self-reported samples, being male predicted higher cyberbullying victimization and lower willingness to report, whereas being female predicted a greater likelihood of disclosure. Age showed a similar pattern; early adolescents were more inclined to report cyberbullying than middle and older adolescents, while willingness to disclose decreased with age (Janssen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Livingstone \u0026amp; Haddon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Steinberg \u0026amp; Morris, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). These predictive effects are consistent with developmental research indicating that boys often receive less emotional support from parents(Hellstr\u0026ouml;m \u0026amp; Beckman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) and that the transition from early to later adolescence involves increasing autonomy and a greater reliance on private coping strategies (Janssen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Steinberg \u0026amp; Morris, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). This suggests that demographic characteristics meaningfully shape both adolescents\u0026rsquo; exposure to cyberbullying and their readiness to seek parental support.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin the GCC, family relationships often emphasise guidance, involvement, and behavioural expectations, which may strengthen the predictive role of family functioning and positive parenting. Families that maintain consistent communication and involvement may be better positioned to recognise adolescents\u0026rsquo; online challenges and support disclosure when needed (Khatib et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Gender and age effects may also reflect cultural expectations: boys\u0026rsquo; greater autonomy and privileges can reduce their likelihood of involving parents, while younger adolescents\u0026rsquo; closer dependence on family increases their readiness to report (Lari, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). These contextual factors help explain why family functioning, positive parenting, age, and gender jointly predicted cyberbullying victimization and willingness to disclose in this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsidered together, the results show that adolescents who report higher family functioning experience fewer cyberbullying incidents and are more willing to communicate with parents about them. This suggests that the relational processes that support everyday family interaction also shape how adolescents manage online difficulties, facilitating both reduced exposure and greater help-seeking (Cui \u0026amp; Li, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Rodriguez-Rivas et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). While positive parenting specifically supports disclosure, overall family functioning appears more closely tied to adolescents\u0026rsquo; broader capacity to recognize and address digital challenges (Livazović \u0026amp; Ham, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.4 Associations between family functioning, positive parenting, and reasons for not reporting cyberbullying victimization (RQ4)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings showed that both family functioning and positive parenting were negatively associated with parents\u0026rsquo; and adolescents\u0026rsquo; ratings of reasons for not reporting cyberbullying, although family functioning demonstrated a broader influence. Family functioning, which reflects communication quality, emotional support, and collaborative problem-solving, was linked with nearly all reasons across both samples. This supports existing work showing that families with stronger communication and emotional connection perceive fewer relational barriers to discussing online harm(Kowalski et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e In the parent sample, family functioning was associated with nine of the ten reasons parents identified, indicating that parents from well-functioning families see fewer obstacles that might prevent adolescents from disclosing cyberbullying. The sole exception was the belief that \u0026ldquo;kids can adjust,\u0026rdquo; which likely reflects a general assumption about adolescent resilience rather than dynamics shaped by communication or emotional support (Sasson \u0026amp; Mesch, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Parents who described their families as communicative and emotionally stable appeared less likely to interpret embarrassment, uncertainty, or doubt in parental competence as barriers to disclosure. This aligns with prior research, which shows that open dialogue and emotional availability strengthen trust and comfort in sharing difficult experiences (Cordova et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Huang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA similar pattern emerged in the adolescent sample; family functioning was again linked to most of the reasons adolescents endorsed. Adolescents from cohesive, predictable, and communicative families were less likely to believe that parents would disbelieve them, be unable to help, or react negatively. These interpretations are consistent with evidence that reliable communication and emotional stability reduce adolescents\u0026rsquo; fears of judgment or punishment and increase their confidence in parental support (Huang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Livingstone, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Rodriguez-Rivas et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, reasons related to retaliation or peer reactions were less associated with non-reporting when adolescents reported strong family communication and reassurance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePositive parenting, in contrast, showed a more limited role. Among parents, warmth and encouragement were associated with only a small number of reasons, suggesting that while positive emotional exchanges may contribute to comfort, they do not fundamentally change perceptions of credibility, punishment, or parental competence (Desmarais \u0026amp; Poulin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Kowalski et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In the adolescent sample, positive parenting did not significantly predict reasons for non-reporting, consistent with research indicating that adolescents differentiate between emotional affection and the communicative safety required to share sensitive issues (Huang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Ratliff et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e Taken together, these findings indicate that family functioning plays a central role in shaping both parents\u0026rsquo; and adolescents\u0026rsquo; perceptions of barriers to reporting cyberbullying. Communication quality, emotional stability, and cooperative problem-solving appear essential for reducing concerns about disbelief, judgment, or ineffective parental responses. Positive parenting contributes reassurance, but it does not replace the structural consistency and relational trust found in well-functioning families (Cordova et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Elsaesser et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study have several practical implications for families and parents of adolescents in the Gulf region. First, the results emphasise the central role of family relationships in shaping adolescents\u0026rsquo; cyberbullying experiences and help-seeking behaviours. Family functioning, reflected in communication quality, emotional support, and coordinated problem-solving, was associated with lower cyberbullying victimization and greater willingness to disclose incidents, indicating that everyday relational processes extend into adolescents\u0026rsquo; digital lives (Huang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Rodriguez-Rivas et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Second, the distinction between family functioning and positive parenting suggests that parental warmth and praise alone are insufficient unless embedded within stable and communicatively secure family environments. While positive parenting supported adolescents\u0026rsquo; willingness to report cyberbullying, it was not associated with reduced victimization (Makri-Botsari \u0026amp; Karagianni, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Mart\u0026iacute;nez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Third, these findings highlight the need for family-focused approaches that prioritise effective communication, emotional availability, and shared decision-making in everyday interactions. In the GCC context, where parental guidance, involvement, and behavioural expectations are central features of family life, enhancing communicative safety may reduce perceived barriers to disclosure and encourage earlier help-seeking (Khatib et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Finally, culturally attuned parenting programmes that integrate digital risk awareness with relational communication skills may represent effective pathways for supporting adolescents\u0026rsquo; online well-being (Lari, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eLimitations and future research\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study has several limitations. The cross-sectional design restricts causal inference, and reliance on parent and adolescent self-reports may introduce bias, including underreporting of sensitive experiences such as cyberbullying(Livingstone \u0026amp; Haddon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Generalisability is also limited by the focus on adolescents in Qatar and parents across GCC countries. Broader sampling across diverse Gulf and non-Gulf contexts, age groups, and family structures would strengthen external validity. Future research should employ longitudinal and mixed-methods designs to examine how family functioning and disclosure behaviours evolve across developmental stages (Janssen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Incorporating observational data, qualitative interviews, or digital-trace measures would improve accuracy and reduce shared-method variance (X. Zhu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Intervention studies examining the impact of communication training, parental responsiveness, and digital-literacy programs on adolescents\u0026rsquo; help-seeking behaviour could further clarify causal mechanisms and inform culturally grounded prevention efforts (Cordova et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Elsaesser et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5 Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study demonstrated that parent-adolescent perception gaps in family functioning and positive parenting are central to understanding cyberbullying disclosure in Arab families. Parents viewed family relationships and their own parenting more positively than adolescents and consistently underestimated adolescents\u0026rsquo; experiences of cyberbullying while overestimating their willingness to report such incidents. Across both generations, stronger family functioning predicted lower cyberbullying victimization and a greater likelihood of disclosure, whereas positive parenting showed a weaker but still meaningful association with adolescents\u0026rsquo; openness. Importantly, higher family functioning also corresponded with fewer perceived barriers to disclosure, indicating that cohesion and constructive communication reduce reluctance to seek help. Taken together, these findings highlight that within Gulf Arab families, structural and relational qualities of the family system, not only expressions of warmth, determine how adolescents manage online distress. Family functioning emerged as a robust protective factor, suggesting that adolescents\u0026rsquo; disclosure decisions depend on trust and emotional safety more than on disciplinary or supervisory approaches. Strengthening empathy, mutual understanding, and digital communication within families may therefore represent an effective pathway toward mitigating cyberbullying risks and promoting adolescent well-being in the region.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSB conceptualized and designed the research, curated the data, performed the analysis, and wrote the first draft. DAH mentored, designed and conceptualized the research, validated the analysis, and reviewed and edited the paper. AE mentored, conceptualized and designed the research, and reviewed and edited the paper. RA mentored, conceptualized and designed the research, validated the analysis, reviewed and edited the paper, and secured funding. AY conceptualized and designed the research, designed and supervised the statistical analysis, wrote in the paper, and reviewed and edited it. All authors approved the final version of the paper.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe author would like to thank all participants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data and questionnaire design are available at Open Science Framework link:https://osf.io/nfa8m/overview?view_only=39f6cad9e039489892edfb5659d65b33\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAl Ghamdi, A. (2025). 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Childhood Risk and Protective Factors as Predictors of Adolescent Bullying Roles. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Bullying Prevention\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e(2), 138\u0026ndash;146. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s42380-020-00068-1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s42380-020-00068-1\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Cyberbullying, family functioning, positive parenting, disclosure, adolescents, Arab families, Gulf Cooperation Council","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8402209/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8402209/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eCyberbullying is a growing concern among adolescents in Gulf societies, where family relationships strongly shape whether young people disclose such experiences to their parents. This study examined differences between parents\u0026rsquo; and adolescents\u0026rsquo; perceptions of family functioning and positive parenting, and how these perceptions relate to cyberbullying victimization, willingness to report incidents, and barriers to disclosure. This study included 351 adolescents aged 13\u0026ndash;16 years from public schools in Qatar and 400 parents residing across the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. Parents underestimated adolescents\u0026rsquo; experiences of cyberbullying and overestimated their willingness to report cyberbullying incidents to their parents. Adolescents aged 13\u0026ndash;14 years were more likely to report cyberbullying incidents than those aged 15\u0026ndash;16 years, and boys reported higher victimization and lower willingness to disclose than girls. Family functioning and positive parenting were both significant predictors of adolescents\u0026rsquo; likelihood of reporting cyberbullying incidents to their parents. At the same time, higher family functioning was also linked to lower levels of victimization. In both samples, family functioning showed a stronger and consistent association with fewer reasons for not reporting cyberbullying incidents to parents. In contrast, positive parenting demonstrated a smaller and less consistent effect. These findings highlight the central role of supportive and communicative family dynamics in addressing cyberbullying. In Gulf societies, fostering empathy, trust, and open dialogue between parents and adolescents may help bridge communication gaps, encourage disclosure, and promote safer digital experiences.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Intergenerational Differences in Perceptions of Family Functioning, Parenting, and Cyberbullying Victimization in Arab Families","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-22 14:22:15","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8402209/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"d2c9e7c7-8c62-4fbd-9a3c-ceff3eba1439","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 22nd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-05T22:08:44+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-22 14:22:15","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8402209","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8402209","identity":"rs-8402209","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}