Monitoring Fumonisins Contamination in Corn Snacks in 2020-2024 and Assessments of Dietary Exposure

Monitoring Fumonisins Contamination in Corn Snacks in 2020-2024 and Assessments of Dietary Exposure | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Monitoring Fumonisins Contamination in Corn Snacks in 2020-2024 and Assessments of Dietary Exposure Cavidan DEMİR GÖKIŞIK, Mehmet Kahtalı This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7921707/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The presence of fumonisins in corn and corn-based products is a global public health problem. This study aimed to assess the contamination level of fumonisins (FBs: FB1 and FB2) in corn snacks and the tolerable daily intakes of consumers. A total of 96 corn snack samples were analyzed over four years. In this study, 30 corn snack samples with different contents purchased from supermarkets in Giresun in 2020 were examined to assess the presence, amount, and public health risk of FB 1 and FB 2 . The same products with fumonisin levels above 200 ng/g in the 30 analyzed corn snack samples were purchased from the same supermarkets in 2021, 2023, and 2024, and FB 1 and FB 2 levels were monitored. Fumonisin occurrence rates in 2020, 2021, 2023, and 2024 were 90%, 95.5%, 59%, and 50%, respectively, with concentrations ranging from 79 to 4126 ng/g, 18 to 5055 ng/g, 20 to 1035 ng/g, and 20 to 1360 ng/g. High fumonisin levels were detected in 2020 and 2021, and lower levels in 2023 and 2024. Fumonisin exposure was determined as the average probable daily intake (APDI) and maximum probable daily intake (MPDI) for adults. APDI and MPDI values ​​ranged from 0.2 to 0.7 µg/kg body weight/day and 0.6 to 2.8 µg/kg bw/day, respectively. In 2021, a maximum intake of 2.8 µg/kg bw/day was observed, exceeding the PMTDI of 2 µg/kg bw/day set by JECFA. To protect public health and ensure food safety, stricter enforcement and controls, and increased monitoring of corn snacks, are needed. Fumonisins corn corn-based products exposure assessment food safety Introduction Corn, or maize (Zea mays L.), is one of the most important agricultural crops globally, ranking second only to wheat in production, consumption, and trade. Maize is of increasing importance in global agri-food systems. Global maize production has increased rapidly over the past few decades, driven by a combination of rising demand and technological advances, increasing yields, and area expansion. Maize is currently the leading cereal in terms of volume production and yield diversity and is projected to be among the most grown and traded crops by the 2030s (Ernest et al. 2022). Maize is a versatile, multipurpose industrial grain used in over 500 different product formulations, including feed, food, and beverages. Beyond its industrial value, maize is particularly important as a staple food in regions of the Global South such as Sub-Saharan Africa, China, India, Indonesia, and Latin America (Scussel et al. 2014 ; Li et al. 2015 ; Ekwonadu et al. 2020). However, the frequent contamination of maize with mycotoxins is a global problem. The global reliance on maize elevates concerns regarding mycotoxin contamination, which poses serious risks to food safety, public health, and international trade (Reinhold et al. 2024 ). Mycotoxins are toxic and carcinogenic secondary metabolites produced by fungi such as Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium, commonly found in grains during field production and post-harvest storage (Gomes et al. 2024 ; Anumudu et al. 2025). Major mycotoxins detected in maize include aflatoxins, fumonisins, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, and ochratoxins, which frequently co-occur (Chen et al. 2018 ). Among these, fumonisins are the most prevalent mycotoxins in maize globally (Song et al. 2025 ). Fumonisins are a group of mycotoxins produced in cereals by fungi of the genus Fusarium, particularly Fusarium verticillioides and Fusarium proliferatum , and found at high levels in corn grains worldwide. Other fungi, such as Aspergillus niger and Alternaria sp., also produce fumonisins at lower levels (Yli-Mattila & Sundheim, 2022 ). Fumonisins are one of the most important classes of mycotoxins globally due to their widespread occurrence, significant health risks to humans and animals, and significant economic impact (Ekwonadu et al. 2020). The chemical structure of fumonisins was isolated by Gelderblom et al. in 1988 following outbreaks of equine leukoencephalo-malacia (ELEM) and porcine pulmonary edema (PPE) linked to consumption of F. verticillioides contaminated maize (Gelderblom et al. 1988 ). Since the discovery of fumonisins, their toxicity has been extensively studied worldwide, and numerous toxic effects, including ELEM, PPE, liver cancer, kidney lesions, infertility, and immune system impairment, have been reported (Yang et al. 2024). Fumonisins are known to exhibit neurotoxic, hepatotoxic, nephrotoxic and carcinogenic properties in experimental animals. Epidemiological studies have reported an association between long-term exposure to fumonisins and esophageal cancer, particularly in regions where maize is a staple food, such as South China (Xue et al. 2019 ), Italy (Girolamo et al. 2010) and Sub-Saharan Africa (Yli-Mattila & Sundheim, 2022 ). Notably, studies have indicated potential links between fumonisin exposure and neural tube defects in newborns, as well as growth impairment in children consuming fumonisin-contaminated maize products (Chen et al. 2018 ; Reinhold et al. 2024 ). To date, more than 30 fumonisin analogs have been identified and classified into four main groups: series A, B, C, and P. Group B fumonisins (FBs), particularly fumonisins B 1 (FB 1 ), B 2 (FB 2 ), B 3 (FB 3 ), and B 4 (FB 4 ), are the most frequently detected in corn and corn-based products (Scussel et al. 2014 ; Song et al. 2025 ). Of these, FB 1 and FB 2 are the most abundant and toxic analog, typically constituting 70–80% of total fumonisin content, followed by FB 2 (15–25%), FB 3 (3–8%), and FB 4 (less than 5%) (Redeer et al. 2002). FB 1 , the most toxic and highest found in corn and corn products, is considered potentially carcinogenic to humans and is classified as Group 2B (IARC 2002 ). Structurally, fumonisins are long-chain aliphatic amines with methyl and hydroxyl groups that resemble sphingolipids such as sphinganine and sphingosine. FBs disrupt sphingolipid metabolism by altering endogenous sphingolipids, thus inhibiting ceramide biosynthesis and sphingolipid metabolism (Torres et al. 2015 ; Vanhoutte et al., 2016), leading to cellular and organ dysfunction (Anumudu et al. 2025 ). Acute fumonisin exposure can result in liver damage, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, edema, impaired consciousness, and, in severe cases, death (James & Zikankuba, 2018). Chronic exposure has been associated with esophageal cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, immune suppression, renal toxicity, reproductive disorders, and growth impairment in children (Chen et al. 2018 ; Reinhold et al. 2024 ; Anumudu et al. 2025). In animals, acute fumonisin intoxication leads to liver and kidney damage, neurological disorders, respiratory issues, anorexia, abortion, and often mortality (James & Zikankuba, 2018). Importantly, Fumonisins, like other mycotoxins, are chemically stable and heat-stable, and not effectively eliminated during conventional food processing, posing a persistent risk in corn-based products (Bryla et al. 2016; Matos et al. 2024; Soraia et al. 2025 ). Currently, the European Commission has established maximum allowable fumonisin levels in maize and maize-based products: 4000 µg/kg for unprocessed maize, 2000 µg/kg for maize flour, 1000 µg/kg for maize intended for direct human consumption, 800 µg/kg for maize-based snacks, and 200 µg/kg for baby foods (ECR, 2007). Duo to the health risks mentioned above, the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) for fumonisins was set as 2 µg/kg body weight/day by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA, 2017). Türkiye adheres to the same regulatory limits as the European Union. Despite extensive research and the implementation of good agricultural practices, fumonisin contamination remains a public health and global food safety problem. Study Objective The first objective of this study was to determine the presence of fumonisins B1 and B2 in commonly consumed corn-based snacks. For this purpose, our 2020 study found that fumonisin levels in some corn snacks were significantly above the limit value (800 µg/kg). This study aimed to monitor fumonisin contamination levels in corn snacks on an annual basis and determine daily exposure. Materials and Methods Collection of Corn snack Samples In November 2020, a total of 30 different corn snack samples were purchased from all varieties sold in the market, with different production contents (spicy, salty, sugary, cheese, etc.), and analyzed for the presence of FBs (FB 1 and FB 2 ). Of the 30 corn snacks samples, 18 were purchased from institutional economy supermarkets and 12 were purchased from other institutional supermarkets. Of the 30 corn snacks analyzed in 2020, 22 corn snacks varieties with total fumonisin levels above 200 µg/kg were purchased from the same supermarkets in January 2021, 2023, and 2024, and their fumonisin levels were monitored for 3 years. In 2022, the study could not be carried out because the chemical materials required for analysis could not be supplied. Chemicals and Reagents The chemicals used were of HPLC quality and grade. Acetonitrile (ACN) and Methanol (MeOH) were sourced from Merck KGaA. 2-Mercaptoethanol (MCE) and o-Phthaldialdehyde (OPA) were obtained from Sigma. Sodium dihydrogen phosphate (NaH 2 PO 4 2H 2 O) and sodium tetraborate (Na 2 B 4 O 5 10H 2 O) were acquired from Merck. The certified standard of FB1 + FB2 (50 µg/mL) was purchased from Romer Labs Diagnostic GmbH (Austria). BiopureTM MIX 3 contains 50 µg/mL each of FB 1 and FB 2 in an acetonitrile-water mixture (5050, v/v). All standard solutions were prepared in acetonitrile-water (50:50). o-Phthaldialdehyde solution (OPA), 40 mg of OPA was dissolved in 1 ml methan ol, then 5 ml of sodium tetraborate solution (0.1 M Na 2 B 4 O 5 ) was added, and then 50 µl of MCE was added and vortexed. Extraction dissolvent, acetonitrile-methanol-water (25:25:50, v/v/v). Preparation of fumonisin B 1 + B 2 calibration stock standard, 500 µL of fumonisin standard (FB 1 + FB 2 , 50 µg/mL) was taken and pipetted into a 5 ml vial. 5 ng/g working stock standard was prepared by completing 5 ml with acetonitrile /water (50:50, v/v). Mobile phase solution, methanol and sodium dihydrogen phosphate solution (NaH 2 PO 4 .2H 2 O) (77:23, v/v), adjusted to pH 3.35 with orthophosphoric acid (Merck) (H 3 PO 4 ). Then, Mobile phase was filtered with 0.45 µm membrane. Solvent solutions; water -acetonitrile (50 + 50, v/v) and methanol -acetik acit (1 + 99, v/v). Apparatus and Enstruments High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) was performed using the Agilent 1100 system. The system includes a quaternary pump, automatic sampler, solvent degasser, column heater, and fluorescence detector (Agilent, Germany). Filter papers are of the Whatman No. 4 brand (Millipore Corp., Bedford, MA). The HPLC column is a 150 × 4.6 mm internal diameter, 5 µm C18 reverse-phase column, supplied by GL Sciences Inc. (Tokyo). Solid-phase extraction (SPE) columns, provided by Welchrom (Austria), are of P-SAX, 2 g/10 mL, and C18 types. Chromatographic Conditions This study was conducted according to the AOAC Official Method 2001.04, as reported by Visconti et al. ( 2001 ). SPE column was used in 2020 and 2021 and immunoaffinity column was used in 2023 and 2024. The HPLC pump was set to deliver a constant flow rate of 1 mL/min, and the injection system was calibrated to deliver 20 µL. HPLC column: 150 × 4.6 mm, GL Sciences 5C 18 , 5 µm; mobile phase: methanol/0.1 M NaH2PO4 (77/23, v/v), adjusted to pH 3.35 with H3PO4; flow rate: 1.0 mL/min; fluorescence detector: excitation at 335 nm and emission at 440 nm. Samlpe Extraction and HPLC Analysis The extraction of samples was performed according to the method of Visconti et al. ( 2001 ). Corn snacks were ground using a coffee grinder. A 20 g portion of the ground samples was weighed into a 250 mL bottle, and 50 mL of a methanol: acetonitrile: water (25:25:50, v/v/v) mixture was added. The mixture was homogenized by shaking on an orbital shaker for 60 minutes and then centrifuged at 2500 x g for 10 minutes. The supernatant obtained after centrifugation was filtered through filter paper (Whatman No. 4). The remaining solid was then re-extracted with an additional 50 mL of extraction solvent and centrifuged again at 2500 x g for 10 minutes; the supernatant was filtered through the same filter paper. Both filtrates were combined in a single container, homogenized by vortexing for 5 minutes, and then 10 mL of the filtered extract was cleaned up using a pre-conditioned SPE column. The SPE column was conditioned with 5 mL of methanol and 5 mL of a methanol-water (3:1) solution, respectively. After conditioning the column, 10 mL of the filtered sample extract was passed through the SPE column, and the extract was further cleaned with 5 mL of a methanol-water (3:1, v/v) solution and then washed with 3 mL of methanol. The fumonisin elution was performed at a flow rate of 1 mL/min using 10 mL of an acetic acid/methanol (1:99, v/v) solution. The eluate was collected in a 20 mL capacity collection flask and dried under nitrogen gas at 60°C. A 10 mL filtrate was allowed to flow through the FumoniTest™ immunoaffinity column at a rate of approximately 1–2 drops/second. The loaded immunoaffinity column was then washed with 10 mL of PBS at a rate of 1–2 drops/second until air was removed from the column. The column was eluted with 1.5 mL of methanol at a rate of 1 drop/second, and fumonisins were transferred to a vial. The methanol was removed under nitrogen gas. The dried residue was stored at 4˚C until analysis. The dried eluates were dissolved by adding 200 µL of acetonitrile/water (50:50, v/v) and vortexed. Then, 50 µL aliquots of the extract were transferred into 1 mL test tubes, and 50 µL of OPA reagent was added. The derivatized solution was vortexed, and 20 µL was injected into the LC system. FBs (FB 1 and FB 2 ) were quantified based on their expected retention times: 8.05 min for FB 1 and 15.53 min for FB 2 . Consumption Frequency Daily intake of corn snacks, consumption frequency was assessed based on sales volumes in the supermarkets where corn snack samples were purchased. A 3-month registration form was kept in the supermarkets where samples were collected to assess consumption frequency. The age, weight, consumption frequency, and packaging quantities of corn snack purchasers were recorded over a 3-month period. Consumption volume was calculated based on the most frequent consumers. Due to school closures during the Covid-19 pandemic, the consumption frequency was found to be very low in 2020 (20 g/day) and 2021 (40 g/day). The highest consumption frequency was found in 2023 and 2024 in people aged 19–30 weighing 55–84 kg (average 70 kg), with the highest consumption frequencies being 60 g/day and 50 g/day, respectively. In Türkiye, children are not allowed to consume snacks and chips by their parents. Children were not evaluated because their consumption is very low. In this study, average probable daily intake (APDI) and maximum probable daily intake (MPDI) for young adults in Giresun province were evaluated according to the PMTDI of 2 µg/kg body weight/day determined by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA, 2017). Method Performance Method performance was carried out on linearity, selectivity, sensitivity, accuracy, reproducibility and precision. (In 2020 and 2021) The linearity was performed by constructing a calibration curve for FB 1 + FB 2 ranging from 0.05 to 4.00 µg/kg (0.05, 0.25, 1.00 and 4.00) and the retention times of FB 1 and FB 2 were 8.05 min ± 0.5 and 15.54 min ± 0.5, respectively. The coefficients of correlation (R 2 ) were 0.9999 and 0.9996 for FB 1 and FB 2 , respectively. The sensitivity of the method was determined using the limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantificication (LOQ). The LOD (3:1) and LOQ (10:1) were based on signal-to-noise (S/N) and the LODs were 4.5 and 6 µg kg − 1 for FB 1 and FB 2 respectively, and the LOQs 15 and 20 µg kg − 1 for FB 1 and the FB 2 , respectively. The accuracy was confirmed through recovery experiments. The recoveries were determined with spiked samples at concentrations of 0.25, 0.50 and 1.00 ng/µL for each and analyse them in triplicate on the same day. The average recoveries were 88% for FB 1 and 81% for FB 2 in corn snacks. Relative standard deviations (RSDs) ranged from 2.40% to 6.84%, averaging 3.81%. (In 2023 and 2024) The analytical performance was studied by taking the average of 6 replicates of samples spiked at 2 levels (750 and 1500 ng/g) on different days by two different analysts. The linearity was performed by constructing a calibration curve for FB 1 + FB 2 ranging from 0.05 to 10.000 µg/kg (0.05, 0.25, 0.50, 5.00 and 10.00 µg/kg). The coefficients of correlation (R 2 ) were 0.9999 and 0.9998 for FB 1 and FB 2 , respectively. The average recoveries were 93% for FB 1 and 85% for FB 2 . The LOD and LOQ values were calculated from the standard deviation and means taken after 8 readings of samples inoculated with 300 µg/kg fumonisin. The LODs were 2.68 µg/kg for FB 1 and 7.38 µg/kg for FB 2, and the LOQs were 55 µg/kg for FB 1 and 60 µg/kg for FB 2 . The RSDs were 1.93% and 2.07% for FB 1 and FB 2 , respectively. Analytical performance results are provided in Table 1 . Table 1 Performance of the analytical method Year Fumonisins Recovery LOQ - LOD RSD (%) R 2 Regression equation [2020 2021] FB 1 FB 2 88% 81% 15 - 4,5 20 - 6,0 2.84 5.12 1.000 0.9996 y = 32.175x + 1.0236 y = 23.816x + 0.5153 [2023 2024] FB 1 FB 2 93% 86% 55 - 17 60 - 18 2.10 2.68 0.99999 0.99998 y = 10.0126 + 0.0876 y = 12.276x + 0.184 These results indicate that the analytical method is applicable for the detection of FB 1 and FB 2 in corn snack samples. These results suggest that the chosen analytical method exhibits good accuracy and precision for the detection of FB 1 and FB 2 in corn snacks. Statistical Analysis In this study, all statistical analyses were performed using the SPSS 23 version. In the experimental study, the data were collected in 4 groups as 2020,2021, 2023 ve 2024. Results and Discussion Occurrence of Fumonisins in Corn snacks In this study, 22 corn snack samples with different additives and production methods were monitored for fumonisin contamination levels over a four-year period (2020, 2021, 2023, and 2024), and the results are presented in Table 2 . FB 1 and FB 2 analysis was performed on a total of 96 corn snack samples in four years. Of the 30 corn snack samples purchased from supermarkets in 2020, 27 (90%) contained FB 1 at concentrations ranging from 63 ng/g to 3958 ng/g, and 18 contained FB 2 at concentrations ranging from 20 to 168 ng/g. Total fumonisins (FBs: FB 1 + FB 2 ) ranged from 79 to 4126 ng/g, with the mean of positive samples being 1042 ± 905 ng/g. As for 2021, 22 corn snacks with high fumonisin levels (200 ng/g) were analyzed in 2020, and 21 (95.5%) were found to be contaminated with fumonisins ranging from 18 to 5055 ng/g. FB 1 ranged from 18 to 4313 ng/g in 21 samples, and FB 2 ranged from 20 to 742 ng/g in 17 samples. The mean of positive samples was calculated as 1296 ± 1280 ng/g. In contrast, these levels were much lower in 2023 and 2024, with total fumonisins being 1041 ng/g and 932 ng/g, respectively. The mean of positive samples was 449 to 334 and 319 to 308 ng/g. Eleven samples in 2020, 12 in 2021, 2 in 2023, and 3 in 2024 were found to be above the maximum limit (800 ng/g). The results revealed that FB contamination levels in corn snacks varied significantly between years, with average concentrations ranging from 1042 ng/g in 2020 to 319 ng/g in 2024. The high fumonisin levels in 2020 and 2021 may have been due to raw material supply shortages. Table 2 Fumonisin B 1 and Fumonisin B 2 levels in corn snacks (ng/g) Fumonisin B 1 (ng/g) Fumonisin B 2 (ng/g) Total fumonisin (FB 1 + FB 2 , ng/g) Taken year of Samples Positive/total samples (%) Range Positive/total samples Range Range Average 2020 27/30 (90) 63- 3958 8/30 20–168 79- 4126 1042 ± 905 2021 21/22 (95.5) 18- 4313 17/22 20–742 18-5055 1296 ± 1280 2023 13/22 (59) 20–823 9/22 20–218 20-1041 449 ± 334 2024 11/22 (50) 32–730 11/22 20–236 32–932 319 ± 308 The mean of positive samples was taken. There is a significant difference (P ˂ 0.05) between years and corn snacks. In 2023, 13 out of 22 samples (59%) were contaminated with fumonisins ranging from ≤ LOQ (20 ng/g) to 1041 ng/g. FB 1 ranged from 20 ng/g to 823 ng/g in 13 samples, and FB 2 ranged from 20 to 218 ng/g in 9 samples. The mean of positive samples was 449 ± 334 ng/g. 3 örnek limiti aştı. In 2024, Fifteen out of 22 samples (68%) were found to be contaminated with fumonisins at levels ranging from 32 to 932 ng. The mean of positive samples was 319 ± 308 ng/g. FB 1 ranged from 32 to 730 ng/g in 15 samples, and FB 2 ranged from 20 ng/g to 236 ng/g in 11 samples. In 2020, 40% of samples, 40.9% in 2021, 13% in 2023, and 9% in 2024 were above the maximum standard of 800 ng/g. In this study, samples were not collected randomly, and corn snack samples with high fumonisin contamination levels from 2020 (in 2021, 2023 and 2024) were monitored. In this study, we monitored and evaluated FB 1 and FB 2 contamination levels in corn snacks between 2020 and 2024. We observed high levels of fumonisin in corn snacks in 2020 and 2021, with maximum total fumonisin levels of 4126 ng/g and 5055 ng/g, respectively. The levels were much lower in 2023 and 2024, at 1041 ng/g and 932 ng/g, respectively. However, more than half of the samples contaminated with fumonisins in all four years. Similarly, Bordin et al. (2014; 2015) found FB 1 1208 µg/kg in corn flakes samples in 2014 and 170 µg/kg in 2015, but it was lower than the results of this study. In this study, the fumonisin contamination rate found in corn snack samples varied from year to year. Eleven samples in 2020, nine samples in 2021, two samples in 2023, and three samples in 2024 were found to be above the maximum allowable limit (800 ng/g) in corn snacks. Based on these results, it is considered possible that moldy corn was processed in 2020 and 2021. The observed annual variation in fumonisin levels may be influenced by multiple factors, including climatic conditions during corn cultivation, fungal infection pressure, and storage or processing practices (Logrieco et al., 2018). In particular, the highest mean and maximum concentrations in 2020 and 2021 coincided with the COVID-19 pandemic years, suggesting that older corn may have been used due to corn grain scarcity in these years. In contrast, 2023 and 2024 showed relatively lower contamination, likely reflecting improvements in feedstock selection, storage practices, or climate differences. These fluctuations are consistent with previous findings that fumonisin levels are highly dependent on annual environmental conditions and maize harvest quality (James and Zikankuba, 2018). Since fumonisins are not much affected by heat processing and food processing stages, the fumonisins found in corn are also carried over to their products. Traditional food processing methods often fall short in eliminating these toxins due to their remarkable heat stability (Karlovsky et al. 2016; Wan et al. 2020). There are few studies on the presence of fumonisins in corn and corn-based products in Türkiye. In previous studies conducted in Türkiye, Omurtag ( 2001 ) reported 2660 ng/g FB 1 in corn-bades products, Bakırcı ( 2014 ) reported 132.4 to 9589.4 ng/g FB 1 in corn and corn-based products. When our results were compared with previous studies conducted in Turkey, they were found to be higher than those reported by Omurtag ( 2001 ) and lower than those reported by Bakırcı ( 2014 ). Fumonisins are one of the most concerning mycotoxins affecting corn and its derivatives worldwide, particularly for populations with high maize consumption. Their presence varies significantly by region, influenced by climatic conditions, agricultural practices, storage methods, and regulatory regulations. Fumonisins are carcinogenic mycotoxins known to cause a variety of toxic effects on human and animal health (IARC 2002 ). Maksimum limitler are intended to be health protective and to ensure that fumonisin exposure is below the PMTDI of 2 µg/kg body weight/day established by JECFA. However, in many parts of the world, authors have reported that corn-based products consumed with fumonisin contamination above maximum limits. High levels of fumonisins in corn and corn-based products from different countries around the world are shown in Table 3. Tablo 3. High levels of fumonisin levels in corn and corn-based products from different countries/regions of the world. Country Products Total Fumonisin Incidence References USA Corn products 2679 µg/kg 65% Gutema et al. 2000 Honduras Corn tortilla 0.63-12.04 mg/kg 100% Cabrera-Meraz et al. 2021 Argentina Corn puff Infant cereals 1649 µg/kg 992 µg/kg 95% 84.2% Federico et al. 2010 Cendoya et al. 2025 Brazil Corn Popcorn Corn products Popcorn Corn meal 9033 µg/kg 3213; 2158 µg/kg 2908.2 μg/kg 3338.5 6920 46.6% 100% 100% 96.6% Scussel et al. (2014) Andrade et al. 2018;2020 Matos et al. 2024 Gomes et al. 2024 Savi et al. 2016 Mexico Tortillas Tortillas 689.3 µg/kg 1579 µg/kg 90% 98% Wall- Martinez et al. 2019 Gilbert Sandoval et al. 2020 Italya Corn products Corn Corn meal 6.790 µg/kg 11.100 µg/kg 961 µg/kg 100% 100% 95% Doko and Visconti, 1994 Berardo et al. 2011 Espito et al. 2016 Portugal Breakfast cereals Popcorn Cornflakes Breakfast cereals 295 µg/kg 1381 µg/kg/ 991 µg/kg 67 µg/kg 17% 11% 88% 81% 58% Soria et al. 2024 Martins et al. 2012 Martins et al. 2018 Poland Corn snacks Corn snacks Popcorn Corn flour Popcorn 6342 µg/kg 7331 µg/kg 7000 µg/kg 6342 µg/kg 763 µg/kg 77% 28% 45% 61.5% Pokrzywa and Surma 2022 Bryla et al. 2016 Kowalska et al. 2017 Slovenia Maize and its products 27.483 µg/kg 23.5% Kirinic et al. 2015 Hungary Corn grits Cornflakes 2540 µg/kg 70 µg/kg 41.9% 28% Zentai et al. 2019 Serbian Corn flakes 579.4 µg/kg 73.3% Torovic, 2017 Iran Cookie samples 2300 µg/kg 93.4% Azizi IG, Rouhi S 2013 Japan Corn snacks Corn snacks 2551µg/kg 1850 µg/kg 86.7% 100% Sugita-Konisha et al., 2013 Yoshinari et al. 2020 China Corn meal Cornflakes Corn products 5046 µg/kg 171 µg/kg 6209 µg/kg 100% 100% 89.5% 95.8% Li et al. 2015, Song et al. 2025 Zhang et al. 2021 Indonesia Maize snacks 400 µg/kg 100% Shantika et al. 2024 Lebanon Cornflakes 6285 µg/kg 87.5% Hasan et al., 2023 South Africa Maize Maize 11.347 µg/kg 14.347 µg/kg 100% 100% Meyer et al. 2019 Ekwonadu et al. 2020 Malawi Corn flour 10.306 µg/kg 100% Reinhold et al. 2024 Nigeria Maize products 11.552 77% Chilaca et al. 2016 Tanzania Corn 11.048 µg/kg 52% Chen et al.2018 Zimbabwe Corn 432.32 µg/kg 100% Murashiki et al. 2017 Guatemala Maize 17.100 µg/kg 100% Torres et al.2015 In comparison, the 2020 and 2021 maximum values ​​in the presented study (4126 and 5052 µg/kg) are lower than the maximum values ​​in Brazil and Honduras, but higher than the results in Argentina and Mexico. The 2023 result (1041 µg/kg) and 2024 result (932 µg/kg) are lower than most South American findings, indicating a relative improvement. In China, levels of up to 6209 µg/kg in corn products (Song et al. 2025 ) and 5046 µg/kg in corn flour (Li et al. 2015 ) with a 100% contamination rate have been reported. Similarly, in Japan, Sugita-Konisha et al. (2013) and Yoshinari et al. ( 2020 ) reported contamination levels of 2551 µg/kg and 1850 µg/kg in corn snacks, respectively, whereas Indonesia, on the contrary, reported a relatively lower level of 400 µg/kg of fumonisin in corn-based products (Shantika et al., 2024 ). The 2020 result (4126 µg/kg) and 2021 result (5052 mg/kg) from the current study closely match the values ​​seen in China and Japan, but are still lower than the results reported in China. The 2024 level (932 µg/kg) is more similar to the results from India but more than double the values ​​reported in Indonesia. In South America, fumonisin contamination in corn and corn products is widely and highly reported. In Brazil, various products, including popcorn, corn flour, and breakfast cereals, contained fumonisin at levels ranging from 81 µg/kg to 6920 µg/kg (Savi et al., 2016 ; Matos et al., 2024), with prevalence often at or near 100%. Argentina reported 1649 µg/kg in corn flakes and 992 µg/kg in baby cereals (Federico et al., 2010 ; Cendoya et al., 2025). In Honduras, corn tortillas showed levels between 6300 µg/kg and 12,040 µg/kg (Cabrera-Meraz et al., 2021 ), while Mexico reported 1579 µg/kg in tortillas (Gilbert-Sandoval et al., 2020 ). European countries generally report lower fumonisin levels due to stricter regulations and well-developed food safety infrastructure. However, there are exceptions. An extremely high value of 27.483 µg/kg was reported in corn products in Slovenia (Kirinic et al., 2015), while in Poland, 7331 µg/kg (Bryla et al., 2016) and 6342 mg/kg (Pokrzywa and Surma, 2022) were reported in corn snacks. These findings were higher than the findings of our study. Other European countries, such as Italy, Portugal, Spain, and Hungary, reported more moderate levels, ranging from 961 µg/kg (Espito et al., 2016) to 2,540 µg/kg (Zentai et al., 2019 ). Additionally, Zinedin et al. (2005) measured contamination levels at 5844 µg/kg in Morocco. These findings demonstrate that fumonisin contamination is a widespread problem worldwide, and that various environmental factors, agricultural practices, and storage conditions play a significant role in these contamination levels, with fumonisin contamination varying from year to year. Assessing the Risk of Exposure to Fumonisins The FBs exposure, APDI and MPDI were calculated using the average levels of fumonisins and the maximum concentrations found in the samples and divided by 70 kg body weight (Bordin et al. 2015; Song et al. 2025 ). Adults aged 19–30 years were the largest consumers of corn snacks in Giresun, and the fumonisin exposure assessment was based on this group. In Türkiye, children under 15 years of age are not permitted to consume snacks and chips by their parents. Therefore, snack and chip consumption rates in children under 15 are low. Children primarily consume breakfast cereals designed for children. APDI and MPDI values ​​are given in Table 4 . APDI and MPDI in adults ranged from 0.227 µg/kg bw/day to 0.741 µg/kg bw/day and 0.665 to 2.8 µg/kg bw/day, respectively. APDI for adults was lower than the PMTDI of 2 µg/kg bw/day recommended by JECFA. However, the MPDI (2.8 µg/kg bw/day) value in 2021 was found to be higher than the PMTDI value of 2 mg/kg body weight/day. The MPDI was found to be 1.47 µg/kg in 2020, 0.892 µg/kg in 2023, and 0.665 µg/kg bw/day in 2024. These values ​​were lower than the PMTDI value. These values ​​were lower than the PMTDI value. Table 4. The average tolerable daily intake (APDI) and maximum tolerable daily intake (MPDI) for adults Years Total FBs (ng/g) Mean ± SD Median Consumption (g/day) ATDI (µg/kg bw/day) 18 ≤ Adults PMTDI% MTDI (µg/kg bw/day) 18 ≤ Adults PMTDI % 2020 2021 2023 2024 1042 ± 905 1296 ± 1280 449 ± 334 319 ± 308 807 981 354 188 25 40 60 50 0.372 18.6% 0.741 37% 0.384 19% 0.228 11.4% 1.473 74.6% 2.888 144% 0.892 44.6% 0.665 33% MDI (Mean Daily Intake) estimates were calculated from the mean. Body weight 70 for adults. PMTDI of 2 µg/kg body weight/day for fumonisins (WHO 2002). Recent worldwide research has focused on human exposure to mycotoxins (Sspuuya et al. 2018; Shephard et al. 2019; Yoshinarı et al. 2020; Soraia et al. 2024; Song et al. 2025 ). A study by Soraia et al. (2024) in Poland reported the highest FB 1 levels in breakfast cereals as 4051.22 µg/kg bw/day for infants and 1011.25 µg/kg bw/day for children. In Turkey, products made from corn flour are not used in child nutrition. Therefore, exposure to corn-based products in infants and children is almost negligible. In Honduras, Cabrera-Meraz et al. ( 2021 ) estimated dietary exposure to FBs between 6.16 and 151.98 µg/kg bw/day. In Brazil, Andrade et al. ( 2018 ) found the maximum consumption of popcorn with maximum (MPDI) of the mycotoxin concentrations led to an FBs intake of 26.78 µg/kg bw/day (13 times greater than PMTDI) and for consuming cornflakes was 0.027µg/kg bw/ day. In the study conducted in China, Song et al. ( 2025 ) found that the 95th and 99th FB exposures for children and adolescents were estimated at 2.18 to 3.46 µg/kg body weight/day, exceeding the PMTDI of 2 µg/kg bw/day. Probabilistic analysis also showed that the 99th exposures for all age groups were 2.06 to 3.08 µg/kg bw/day. The results presented above are higher than the maximum result of this study (2.8 µg/kg bw/day) and pose a higher health risk. In addition, Martins et al. ( 2012 ) determined the APDI and MPDI for Brazilians as 120.58 and 256.04 ng/kg bw/day, Savi et al. ( 2016 ) estimated the mean probable daily intake as 133.9 ng/kg bw/day and the maximum probable daily intake as 340.9 ng/kg bw/day for the population of the state of Santa Catarina (Brazil), similar to the results of this study. There are studies that are well below the PMTDI limit and do not pose a risk of exposure. Yoshinarı et al. (2020) reported that the mean intake of free fumonisin in the Japanese population was 3.9 ng/kg, and the mean intake of total fumonisin (free + hidden fumonisin) ranged from 3.3 to 12.5 ng/kg bw/day, which was much lower than in this study. In studies in China, Li et al. ( 2015 ) and Liu et al. (2017) estimated daily exposure as 0.08 µg/kg bw/day and 0.12 µg/kg bw/day, respectively, and Bordin et al. (2019) estimated the total probable daily intake (PDI) of fumonisins in Brazil as 96.9 ng/kg bw/day. Pokrzywa et al. (2022) found PMTDI in the range of 0.50–0.92% and 0.05–0.42% in corn flour and corn semolina, respectively. They observed the highest values in corn flakes (0.14–1.84% PMTDI), with the highest value found in the 4–6 age group. Kirimker et al ( 2020 ) found mean fumonisin exposures for infants and toddlers to be 0.093 and 0.068 µg/kg bw/day, respectively, while P95 exposure estimates were 0.079 and 0.058 µg/kg bw/day. In Türkiye, children's foods and breakfast cereals do not pose a health risk from fumonisins (Gökışık & Kahtalı, 2023). However, the same cannot be said for cereal snacks, as they do pose a risk. Conclusions This study focused on commercially available corn-based snacks collected from supermarkets in a single province (Giresun, Turkey). Broader surveillance across multiple regions and product categories would provide a more comprehensive understanding of fumonisin contamination in Türkiye. This study was showed the occurrence of fumonisins (FB1 + FB2) in corn-based snacks consumed in Türkiye between 2020 and 2024, with mean levels ranging from 319 to 1296 ng/g. Although overall contamination levels were comparable to reports from other regions of the world, occasional exceedances of international safety thresholds highlight the need for continued monitoring. The annual variation in fumonisin levels highlights the influence of climatic, agricultural, and processing factors on contamination. While most products meet current European regulatory standards, consumption of such snacks by children and young adults raises concerns about potential chronic exposure. Strengthening good agricultural and production practices, and expanding surveillance and public awareness efforts are crucial to minimize health risks and ensure food safety in Türkiye. As a result of intensive studies conducted since the isolation of fumonisin from corn (1988), the presence of high levels of fumonisin in corn and corn products continues to be a global health and economic problem. The presence of health-threatening levels of fumonisin in corn and corn products is also a significant public health concern in Türkiye and may require close monitoring. Contamination of corn and corn products with fumonisins poses a health risk in Türkiye, as has been reported in many countries worldwide. Declarations Acknowledgements This study was supported by the Giresun University Scientific Research Foundation (grant number BAP-C-281119-80) in 2020 and 2021. The 2020 and 2021 data for this study are part of a master's thesis conducted at the Department of Bioprocess Engineering at Giresun University. We thank the Giresun University Scientific Research Projects (BAP) Commission for their support. The studies conducted in 2023 and 2024 were conducted with the authors' own funds and efforts. Declaration of Competing interests The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Author Contributions Cavidan Demir Gökışık : Formal analysis, Writing - Original Draft, Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Investigation, Data Curation, Writing- Review& Editing, Supervision, Project administration, Daily consumption records, Funding acquisition Mehmet Kahtalı : Resources, Funding acquisition, Investigation, sample collection References Andrade GCRM, Pimpinato RF, Francisco JG, Monteiro SH, Calori- Domingues MA, Tornisielo VL (2018) Evaluation of mycotoxins and their estimated daily intake in popcorn and cornflakes using LC-MS techniques. Lebensm Wiss Technol 95:240–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2018.04.073 Andrade PD, Dias JV, Souza DM, Brito AP, van Donkersgoed G, Pizzutti IR, Caldas ED (2020) Mycotoxins in cereals and cereal-based products: incidence and probabilistic dietary risk assessment for the Brazilian population. 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08:18:27","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":13476,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Highlights.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7921707/v1/626bc93a3d48b1769dd3df38.docx"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Monitoring Fumonisins Contamination in Corn Snacks in 2020-2024 and Assessments of Dietary Exposure","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eCorn, or maize (Zea mays L.), is one of the most important agricultural crops globally, ranking second only to wheat in production, consumption, and trade. Maize is of increasing importance in global agri-food systems. Global maize production has increased rapidly over the past few decades, driven by a combination of rising demand and technological advances, increasing yields, and area expansion. Maize is currently the leading cereal in terms of volume production and yield diversity and is projected to be among the most grown and traded crops by the 2030s (Ernest et al. 2022). Maize is a versatile, multipurpose industrial grain used in over 500 different product formulations, including feed, food, and beverages. Beyond its industrial value, maize is particularly important as a staple food in regions of the Global South such as Sub-Saharan Africa, China, India, Indonesia, and Latin America (Scussel et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Li et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Ekwonadu et al. 2020). However, the frequent contamination of maize with mycotoxins is a global problem. The global reliance on maize elevates concerns regarding mycotoxin contamination, which poses serious risks to food safety, public health, and international trade (Reinhold et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMycotoxins are toxic and carcinogenic secondary metabolites produced by fungi such as Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium, commonly found in grains during field production and post-harvest storage (Gomes et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Anumudu et al. 2025). Major mycotoxins detected in maize include aflatoxins, fumonisins, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, and ochratoxins, which frequently co-occur (Chen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Among these, fumonisins are the most prevalent mycotoxins in maize globally (Song et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Fumonisins are a group of mycotoxins produced in cereals by fungi of the genus Fusarium, particularly \u003cem\u003eFusarium verticillioides\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eFusarium proliferatum\u003c/em\u003e, and found at high levels in corn grains worldwide. Other fungi, such as \u003cem\u003eAspergillus niger\u003c/em\u003e and Alternaria sp., also produce fumonisins at lower levels (Yli-Mattila \u0026amp; Sundheim, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Fumonisins are one of the most important classes of mycotoxins globally due to their widespread occurrence, significant health risks to humans and animals, and significant economic impact (Ekwonadu et al. 2020). The chemical structure of fumonisins was isolated by Gelderblom et al. in 1988 following outbreaks of equine leukoencephalo-malacia (ELEM) and porcine pulmonary edema (PPE) linked to consumption of \u003cem\u003eF. verticillioides\u003c/em\u003e contaminated maize (Gelderblom et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e). Since the discovery of fumonisins, their toxicity has been extensively studied worldwide, and numerous toxic effects, including ELEM, PPE, liver cancer, kidney lesions, infertility, and immune system impairment, have been reported (Yang et al. 2024). Fumonisins are known to exhibit neurotoxic, hepatotoxic, nephrotoxic and carcinogenic properties in experimental animals. Epidemiological studies have reported an association between long-term exposure to fumonisins and esophageal cancer, particularly in regions where maize is a staple food, such as South China (Xue et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), Italy (Girolamo et al. 2010) and Sub-Saharan Africa (Yli-Mattila \u0026amp; Sundheim, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Notably, studies have indicated potential links between fumonisin exposure and neural tube defects in newborns, as well as growth impairment in children consuming fumonisin-contaminated maize products (Chen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Reinhold et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). To date, more than 30 fumonisin analogs have been identified and classified into four main groups: series A, B, C, and P. Group B fumonisins (FBs), particularly fumonisins B\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e (FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e), B\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e (FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e), B\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e (FB\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e), and B\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e (FB\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e), are the most frequently detected in corn and corn-based products (Scussel et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Song et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Of these, FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e and FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e are the most abundant and toxic analog, typically constituting 70\u0026ndash;80% of total fumonisin content, followed by FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e (15\u0026ndash;25%), FB\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e (3\u0026ndash;8%), and FB\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e (less than 5%) (Redeer et al. 2002). FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e, the most toxic and highest found in corn and corn products, is considered potentially carcinogenic to humans and is classified as Group 2B (IARC \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Structurally, fumonisins are long-chain aliphatic amines with methyl and hydroxyl groups that resemble sphingolipids such as sphinganine and sphingosine. FBs disrupt sphingolipid metabolism by altering endogenous sphingolipids, thus inhibiting ceramide biosynthesis and sphingolipid metabolism (Torres et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Vanhoutte et al., 2016), leading to cellular and organ dysfunction (Anumudu et al. 2025\u003cb\u003e).\u003c/b\u003e Acute fumonisin exposure can result in liver damage, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, edema, impaired consciousness, and, in severe cases, death (James \u0026amp; Zikankuba, 2018). Chronic exposure has been associated with esophageal cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, immune suppression, renal toxicity, reproductive disorders, and growth impairment in children (Chen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Reinhold et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Anumudu et al. 2025). In animals, acute fumonisin intoxication leads to liver and kidney damage, neurological disorders, respiratory issues, anorexia, abortion, and often mortality (James \u0026amp; Zikankuba, 2018). Importantly, Fumonisins, like other mycotoxins, are chemically stable and heat-stable, and not effectively eliminated during conventional food processing, posing a persistent risk in corn-based products (Bryla et al. 2016; Matos et al. 2024; Soraia et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Currently, the European Commission has established maximum allowable fumonisin levels in maize and maize-based products: 4000 \u0026micro;g/kg for unprocessed maize, 2000 \u0026micro;g/kg for maize flour, 1000 \u0026micro;g/kg for maize intended for direct human consumption, 800 \u0026micro;g/kg for maize-based snacks, and 200 \u0026micro;g/kg for baby foods (ECR, 2007). Duo to the health risks mentioned above, the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) for fumonisins was set as 2 \u0026micro;g/kg body weight/day by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA, 2017). T\u0026uuml;rkiye adheres to the same regulatory limits as the European Union. Despite extensive research and the implementation of good agricultural practices, fumonisin contamination remains a public health and global food safety problem.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStudy Objective\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe first objective of this study was to determine the presence of fumonisins B1 and B2 in commonly consumed corn-based snacks. For this purpose, our 2020 study found that fumonisin levels in some corn snacks were significantly above the limit value (800 \u0026micro;g/kg). This study aimed to monitor fumonisin contamination levels in corn snacks on an annual basis and determine daily exposure.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eCollection of Corn snack Samples\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn November 2020, a total of 30 different corn snack samples were purchased from all varieties sold in the market, with different production contents (spicy, salty, sugary, cheese, etc.), and analyzed for the presence of FBs (FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e and FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e). Of the 30 corn snacks samples, 18 were purchased from institutional economy supermarkets and 12 were purchased from other institutional supermarkets. Of the 30 corn snacks analyzed in 2020, 22 corn snacks varieties with total fumonisin levels above 200 \u0026micro;g/kg were purchased from the same supermarkets in January 2021, 2023, and 2024, and their fumonisin levels were monitored for 3 years. In 2022, the study could not be carried out because the chemical materials required for analysis could not be supplied.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eChemicals and Reagents\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe chemicals used were of HPLC quality and grade. Acetonitrile (ACN) and Methanol (MeOH) were sourced from Merck KGaA. 2-Mercaptoethanol (MCE) and o-Phthaldialdehyde (OPA) were obtained from Sigma. Sodium dihydrogen phosphate (NaH\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003ePO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e2H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO) and sodium tetraborate (Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eB\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e10H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO) were acquired from Merck. The certified standard of FB1\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;FB2 (50 \u0026micro;g/mL) was purchased from Romer Labs Diagnostic GmbH (Austria). BiopureTM MIX 3 contains 50 \u0026micro;g/mL each of FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e and FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e in an acetonitrile-water mixture (5050, v/v). All standard solutions were prepared in acetonitrile-water (50:50). o-Phthaldialdehyde solution (OPA), 40 mg of OPA was dissolved in 1 ml methan ol, then 5 ml of sodium tetraborate solution (0.1 M Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eB\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e) was added, and then 50 \u0026micro;l of MCE was added and vortexed. Extraction dissolvent, acetonitrile-methanol-water (25:25:50, v/v/v). Preparation of fumonisin B\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;B\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e calibration stock standard, 500 \u0026micro;L of fumonisin standard (FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, 50 \u0026micro;g/mL) was taken and pipetted into a 5 ml vial. 5 ng/g working stock standard was prepared by completing 5 ml with acetonitrile /water (50:50, v/v). Mobile phase solution, methanol and sodium dihydrogen phosphate solution (NaH\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003ePO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e.2H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO) (77:23, v/v), adjusted to pH 3.35 with orthophosphoric acid (Merck) (H\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003ePO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e). Then, Mobile phase was filtered with 0.45 \u0026micro;m membrane. Solvent solutions; water -acetonitrile (50\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;50, v/v) and methanol -acetik acit (1\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;99, v/v).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eApparatus and Enstruments\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHigh-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) was performed using the Agilent 1100 system. The system includes a quaternary pump, automatic sampler, solvent degasser, column heater, and fluorescence detector (Agilent, Germany). Filter papers are of the Whatman No. 4 brand (Millipore Corp., Bedford, MA). The HPLC column is a 150 \u0026times; 4.6 mm internal diameter, 5 \u0026micro;m C18 reverse-phase column, supplied by GL Sciences Inc. (Tokyo). Solid-phase extraction (SPE) columns, provided by Welchrom (Austria), are of P-SAX, 2 g/10 mL, and C18 types.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eChromatographic Conditions\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted according to the AOAC Official Method 2001.04, as reported by Visconti et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). SPE column was used in 2020 and 2021 and immunoaffinity column was used in 2023 and 2024. The HPLC pump was set to deliver a constant flow rate of 1 mL/min, and the injection system was calibrated to deliver 20 \u0026micro;L. HPLC column: 150 \u0026times; 4.6 mm, GL Sciences 5C\u003csub\u003e18\u003c/sub\u003e, 5 \u0026micro;m; mobile phase: methanol/0.1 M NaH2PO4 (77/23, v/v), adjusted to pH 3.35 with H3PO4; flow rate: 1.0 mL/min; fluorescence detector: excitation at 335 nm and emission at 440 nm.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSamlpe Extraction and HPLC Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe extraction of samples was performed according to the method of Visconti et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). Corn snacks were ground using a coffee grinder. A 20 g portion of the ground samples was weighed into a 250 mL bottle, and 50 mL of a methanol: acetonitrile: water (25:25:50, v/v/v) mixture was added. The mixture was homogenized by shaking on an orbital shaker for 60 minutes and then centrifuged at 2500 x g for 10 minutes. The supernatant obtained after centrifugation was filtered through filter paper (Whatman No. 4). The remaining solid was then re-extracted with an additional 50 mL of extraction solvent and centrifuged again at 2500 x g for 10 minutes; the supernatant was filtered through the same filter paper. Both filtrates were combined in a single container, homogenized by vortexing for 5 minutes, and then 10 mL of the filtered extract was cleaned up using a pre-conditioned SPE column. The SPE column was conditioned with 5 mL of methanol and 5 mL of a methanol-water (3:1) solution, respectively. After conditioning the column, 10 mL of the filtered sample extract was passed through the SPE column, and the extract was further cleaned with 5 mL of a methanol-water (3:1, v/v) solution and then washed with 3 mL of methanol. The fumonisin elution was performed at a flow rate of 1 mL/min using 10 mL of an acetic acid/methanol (1:99, v/v) solution. The eluate was collected in a 20 mL capacity collection flask and dried under nitrogen gas at 60\u0026deg;C. A 10 mL filtrate was allowed to flow through the FumoniTest\u0026trade; immunoaffinity column at a rate of approximately 1\u0026ndash;2 drops/second. The loaded immunoaffinity column was then washed with 10 mL of PBS at a rate of 1\u0026ndash;2 drops/second until air was removed from the column. The column was eluted with 1.5 mL of methanol at a rate of 1 drop/second, and fumonisins were transferred to a vial. The methanol was removed under nitrogen gas. The dried residue was stored at 4˚C until analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe dried eluates were dissolved by adding 200 \u0026micro;L of acetonitrile/water (50:50, v/v) and vortexed. Then, 50 \u0026micro;L aliquots of the extract were transferred into 1 mL test tubes, and 50 \u0026micro;L of OPA reagent was added. The derivatized solution was vortexed, and 20 \u0026micro;L was injected into the LC system. FBs (FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e and FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) were quantified based on their expected retention times: 8.05 min for FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e and 15.53 min for FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eConsumption Frequency\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDaily intake of corn snacks, consumption frequency was assessed based on sales volumes in the supermarkets where corn snack samples were purchased. A 3-month registration form was kept in the supermarkets where samples were collected to assess consumption frequency. The age, weight, consumption frequency, and packaging quantities of corn snack purchasers were recorded over a 3-month period. Consumption volume was calculated based on the most frequent consumers. Due to school closures during the Covid-19 pandemic, the consumption frequency was found to be very low in 2020 (20 g/day) and 2021 (40 g/day). The highest consumption frequency was found in 2023 and 2024 in people aged 19\u0026ndash;30 weighing 55\u0026ndash;84 kg (average 70 kg), with the highest consumption frequencies being 60 g/day and 50 g/day, respectively. In T\u0026uuml;rkiye, children are not allowed to consume snacks and chips by their parents. Children were not evaluated because their consumption is very low. In this study, average probable daily intake (APDI) and maximum probable daily intake (MPDI) for young adults in Giresun province were evaluated according to the PMTDI of 2 \u0026micro;g/kg body weight/day determined by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA, 2017).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMethod Performance\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMethod performance was carried out on linearity, selectivity, sensitivity, accuracy, reproducibility and precision. (In 2020 and 2021) The linearity was performed by constructing a calibration curve for FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e ranging from 0.05 to 4.00 \u0026micro;g/kg (0.05, 0.25, 1.00 and 4.00) and the retention times of FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e and FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e were 8.05 min\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5 and 15.54 min\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5, respectively. The coefficients of correlation (R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) were 0.9999 and 0.9996 for FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e and FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, respectively. The sensitivity of the method was determined using the limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantificication (LOQ). The LOD (3:1) and LOQ (10:1) were based on signal-to-noise (S/N) and the LODs were 4.5 and 6 \u0026micro;g kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e for FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e and FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e respectively, and the LOQs 15 and 20 \u0026micro;g kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e for FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e and the FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, respectively. The accuracy was confirmed through recovery experiments. The recoveries were determined with spiked samples at concentrations of 0.25, 0.50 and 1.00 ng/\u0026micro;L for each and analyse them in triplicate on the same day. The average recoveries were 88% for FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e and 81% for FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e in corn snacks. Relative standard deviations (RSDs) ranged from 2.40% to 6.84%, averaging 3.81%. (In 2023 and 2024) The analytical performance was studied by taking the average of 6 replicates of samples spiked at 2 levels (750 and 1500 ng/g) on different days by two different analysts. The linearity was performed by constructing a calibration curve for FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e ranging from 0.05 to 10.000 \u0026micro;g/kg (0.05, 0.25, 0.50, 5.00 and 10.00 \u0026micro;g/kg). The coefficients of correlation (R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) were 0.9999 and 0.9998 for FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e and FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, respectively. The average recoveries were 93% for FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e and 85% for FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e. The LOD and LOQ values were calculated from the standard deviation and means taken after 8 readings of samples inoculated with 300 \u0026micro;g/kg fumonisin. The LODs were 2.68 \u0026micro;g/kg for FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e and 7.38 \u0026micro;g/kg for FB\u003csub\u003e2,\u003c/sub\u003e and the LOQs were 55 \u0026micro;g/kg for FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e and 60 \u0026micro;g/kg for FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e. The RSDs were 1.93% and 2.07% for FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e and FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, respectively. Analytical performance results are provided in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePerformance of the analytical method\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFumonisins\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRecovery\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLOQ - LOD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRSD (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegression equation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[2020\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2021]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e88%\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e81%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15 - 4,5\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e20 - 6,0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.84\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.9996\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ey\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;32.175x\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;1.0236\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ey\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;23.816x\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;0.5153\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[2023\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2024]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e93%\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e86%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55 - 17\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e60 - 18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.99999\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.99998\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ey\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10.0126\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;0.0876\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ey\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12.276x\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;0.184\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese results indicate that the analytical method is applicable for the detection of FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e and FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e in corn snack samples. These results suggest that the chosen analytical method exhibits good accuracy and precision for the detection of FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e and FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e in corn snacks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study, all statistical analyses were performed using the SPSS 23 version. In the experimental study, the data were collected in 4 groups as 2020,2021, 2023 ve 2024.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eOccurrence of Fumonisins in Corn snacks\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study, 22 corn snack samples with different additives and production methods were monitored for fumonisin contamination levels over a four-year period (2020, 2021, 2023, and 2024), and the results are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e and FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e analysis was performed on a total of 96 corn snack samples in four years. Of the 30 corn snack samples purchased from supermarkets in 2020, 27 (90%) contained FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e at concentrations ranging from 63 ng/g to 3958 ng/g, and 18 contained FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e at concentrations ranging from 20 to 168 ng/g. Total fumonisins (FBs: FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) ranged from 79 to 4126 ng/g, with the mean of positive samples being 1042\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;905 ng/g. As for 2021, 22 corn snacks with high fumonisin levels (200 ng/g) were analyzed in 2020, and 21 (95.5%) were found to be contaminated with fumonisins ranging from 18 to 5055 ng/g. FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e ranged from 18 to 4313 ng/g in 21 samples, and FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e ranged from 20 to 742 ng/g in 17 samples. The mean of positive samples was calculated as 1296\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1280 ng/g. In contrast, these levels were much lower in 2023 and 2024, with total fumonisins being 1041 ng/g and 932 ng/g, respectively. The mean of positive samples was 449 to 334 and 319 to 308 ng/g. Eleven samples in 2020, 12 in 2021, 2 in 2023, and 3 in 2024 were found to be above the maximum limit (800 ng/g). The results revealed that FB contamination levels in corn snacks varied significantly between years, with average concentrations ranging from 1042 ng/g in 2020 to 319 ng/g in 2024. The high fumonisin levels in 2020 and 2021 may have been due to raw material supply shortages.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFumonisin B\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e and Fumonisin B\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e levels in corn snacks (ng/g)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFumonisin B\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(ng/g)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFumonisin B\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(ng/g)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal fumonisin (FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, ng/g)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTaken year of Samples\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePositive/total samples (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRange\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePositive/total samples\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRange\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRange Average\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2020\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27/30 (90)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63- 3958\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8/30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u0026ndash;168\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e79- 4126 1042\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;905\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21/22 (95.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18- 4313\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17/22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u0026ndash;742\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18-5055 1296\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1280\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2023\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13/22 (59)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u0026ndash;823\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9/22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u0026ndash;218\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20-1041 449\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;334\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2024\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11/22 (50)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32\u0026ndash;730\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11/22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u0026ndash;236\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32\u0026ndash;932 319\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;308\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003eThe mean of positive samples was taken. There is a significant difference (P ˂ 0.05) between years and corn snacks.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn 2023, 13 out of 22 samples (59%) were contaminated with fumonisins ranging from \u0026le;\u0026thinsp;LOQ (20 ng/g) to 1041 ng/g. FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e ranged from 20 ng/g to 823 ng/g in 13 samples, and FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e ranged from 20 to 218 ng/g in 9 samples. The mean of positive samples was 449\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;334 ng/g. 3 \u0026ouml;rnek limiti aştı. In 2024, Fifteen out of 22 samples (68%) were found to be contaminated with fumonisins at levels ranging from 32 to 932 ng. The mean of positive samples was 319\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;308 ng/g. FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e ranged from 32 to 730 ng/g in 15 samples, and FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e ranged from 20 ng/g to 236 ng/g in 11 samples. In 2020, 40% of samples, 40.9% in 2021, 13% in 2023, and 9% in 2024 were above the maximum standard of 800 ng/g. In this study, samples were not collected randomly, and corn snack samples with high fumonisin contamination levels from 2020 (in 2021, 2023 and 2024) were monitored.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study, we monitored and evaluated FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e and FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e contamination levels in corn snacks between 2020 and 2024. We observed high levels of fumonisin in corn snacks in 2020 and 2021, with maximum total fumonisin levels of 4126 ng/g and 5055 ng/g, respectively. The levels were much lower in 2023 and 2024, at 1041 ng/g and 932 ng/g, respectively. However, more than half of the samples contaminated with fumonisins in all four years. Similarly, Bordin et al. (2014; 2015) found FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e 1208 \u0026micro;g/kg in corn flakes samples in 2014 and 170 \u0026micro;g/kg in 2015, but it was lower than the results of this study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study, the fumonisin contamination rate found in corn snack samples varied from year to year. Eleven samples in 2020, nine samples in 2021, two samples in 2023, and three samples in 2024 were found to be above the maximum allowable limit (800 ng/g) in corn snacks. Based on these results, it is considered possible that moldy corn was processed in 2020 and 2021. The observed annual variation in fumonisin levels may be influenced by multiple factors, including climatic conditions during corn cultivation, fungal infection pressure, and storage or processing practices (Logrieco et al., 2018). In particular, the highest mean and maximum concentrations in 2020 and 2021 coincided with the COVID-19 pandemic years, suggesting that older corn may have been used due to corn grain scarcity in these years. In contrast, 2023 and 2024 showed relatively lower contamination, likely reflecting improvements in feedstock selection, storage practices, or climate differences. These fluctuations are consistent with previous findings that fumonisin levels are highly dependent on annual environmental conditions and maize harvest quality (James and Zikankuba, 2018). Since fumonisins are not much affected by heat processing and food processing stages, the fumonisins found in corn are also carried over to their products. Traditional food processing methods often fall short in eliminating these toxins due to their remarkable heat stability (Karlovsky et al. 2016; Wan et al. 2020).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere are few studies on the presence of fumonisins in corn and corn-based products in T\u0026uuml;rkiye. In previous studies conducted in T\u0026uuml;rkiye, Omurtag (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e) reported 2660 ng/g FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e in corn-bades products, Bakırcı (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) reported 132.4 to 9589.4 ng/g FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e in corn and corn-based products. When our results were compared with previous studies conducted in Turkey, they were found to be higher than those reported by Omurtag (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e) and lower than those reported by Bakırcı (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Fumonisins are one of the most concerning mycotoxins affecting corn and its derivatives worldwide, particularly for populations with high maize consumption. Their presence varies significantly by region, influenced by climatic conditions, agricultural practices, storage methods, and regulatory regulations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFumonisins are carcinogenic mycotoxins known to cause a variety of toxic effects on human and animal health (IARC \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Maksimum limitler are intended to be health protective and to ensure that fumonisin exposure is below the PMTDI of 2 \u0026micro;g/kg body weight/day established by JECFA. However, in many parts of the world, authors have reported that corn-based products consumed with fumonisin contamination above maximum limits. High levels of fumonisins in corn and corn-based products from different countries around the world are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;3.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTablo 3.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eHigh levels of fumonisin levels in corn and corn-based products from different countries/regions of the world.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"567\" class=\"fr-table-selection-hover\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.0511%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCountry\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6349%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eProducts\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21.164%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal Fumonisin\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.9912%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIncidence\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.1587%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eReferences\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.0511%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6349%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn products\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21.164%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2679 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.9912%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e65%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.1587%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGutema et al. 2000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.0511%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHonduras\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6349%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn tortilla\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21.164%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.63-12.04 mg/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.9912%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.1587%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCabrera-Meraz et al. 2021\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.0511%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eArgentina\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6349%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn puff\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInfant cereals\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21.164%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1649 \u0026micro;g/kg\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e992 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.9912%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e95%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e84.2%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.1587%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFederico et al. 2010\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCendoya et al. 2025\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.0511%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBrazil\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6349%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePopcorn\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn products\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePopcorn\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn meal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21.164%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9033 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3213; 2158 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2908.2 \u0026mu;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3338.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6920\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.9912%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46.6%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e96.6%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.1587%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eScussel et al. (2014)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAndrade et al. 2018;2020\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMatos et al. 2024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGomes et al. 2024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSavi et al. 2016\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.0511%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMexico\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6349%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTortillas\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTortillas\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21.164%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e689.3 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1579 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.9912%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e90%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e98%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.1587%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWall- Martinez et al. 2019\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGilbert Sandoval et al. 2020\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.0511%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eItalya\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6349%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn products\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn meal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21.164%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.790 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.100 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e961 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.9912%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e95%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.1587%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDoko and Visconti, 1994\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBerardo et al. 2011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEspito et al. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;2016\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.0511%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePortugal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6349%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBreakfast cereals\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePopcorn\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCornflakes\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBreakfast cereals\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21.164%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e295 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1381 \u0026micro;g/kg/\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e991 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e67 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.9912%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.1587%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSoria et al. 2024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMartins et al. 2012\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMartins et al. 2018\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.0511%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePoland\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6349%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn snacks\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn snacks\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePopcorn\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn flour\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePopcorn\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21.164%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6342 \u0026micro;g/kg\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7331 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7000 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6342 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e763 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.9912%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e61.5%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.1587%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePokrzywa and Surma 2022\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBryla et al. 2016\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKowalska et al. 2017\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.0511%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSlovenia\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6349%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaize and its products\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21.164%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.483 \u0026micro;g/kg\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.9912%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.5%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.1587%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKirinic et al. 2015\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.0511%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHungary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6349%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn grits\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCornflakes\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21.164%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2540 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.9912%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41.9%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.1587%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZentai et al. 2019\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.0511%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSerbian\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6349%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn flakes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21.164%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e579.4 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.9912%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e73.3%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.1587%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Torovic, 2017\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.0511%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIran\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6349%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCookie samples\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21.164%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2300 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.9912%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e93.4%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.1587%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAzizi IG, Rouhi S 2013\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.0511%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJapan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6349%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn snacks\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn snacks\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21.164%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;2551\u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1850 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.9912%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86.7%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.1587%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSugita-Konisha et al., 2013\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYoshinari et al. 2020\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.0511%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChina\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6349%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn meal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCornflakes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn products\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21.164%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5046 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e171 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6209 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.9912%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e89.5%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e95.8%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.1587%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLi et al. 2015,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSong et al. 2025\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZhang et al. 2021\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.0511%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIndonesia\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6349%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaize snacks\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21.164%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e400 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.9912%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.1587%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eShantika et al. 2024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.0511%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLebanon \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6349%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCornflakes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21.164%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6285 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.9912%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e87.5%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.1587%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHasan et al., 2023\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.0511%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSouth Africa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6349%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaize\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaize\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21.164%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.347 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.347 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.9912%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.1587%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMeyer et al. 2019\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEkwonadu et al. 2020\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.0511%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMalawi\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6349%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn flour\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21.164%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.306 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.9912%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.1587%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReinhold et al. 2024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.0511%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNigeria\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6349%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaize products\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21.164%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.552\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.9912%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.1587%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChilaca et al. 2016\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.0511%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTanzania\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6349%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21.164%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.048 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.9912%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.1587%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChen et al.2018\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.0511%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZimbabwe\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6349%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21.164%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e432.32 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.9912%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.1587%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMurashiki et al. 2017\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.0511%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGuatemala\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20.6349%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaize\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21.164%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.100 \u0026micro;g/kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.9912%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.1587%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTorres et al.2015\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn comparison, the 2020 and 2021 maximum values ​​in the presented study (4126 and 5052 \u0026micro;g/kg) are lower than the maximum values ​​in Brazil and Honduras, but higher than the results in Argentina and Mexico. The 2023 result (1041 \u0026micro;g/kg) and 2024 result (932 \u0026micro;g/kg) are lower than most South American findings, indicating a relative improvement. In China, levels of up to 6209 \u0026micro;g/kg in corn products (Song et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) and 5046 \u0026micro;g/kg in corn flour (Li et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) with a 100% contamination rate have been reported. Similarly, in Japan, Sugita-Konisha et al. (2013) and Yoshinari et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) reported contamination levels of 2551 \u0026micro;g/kg and 1850 \u0026micro;g/kg in corn snacks, respectively, whereas Indonesia, on the contrary, reported a relatively lower level of 400 \u0026micro;g/kg of fumonisin in corn-based products (Shantika et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The 2020 result (4126 \u0026micro;g/kg) and 2021 result (5052 mg/kg) from the current study closely match the values ​​seen in China and Japan, but are still lower than the results reported in China. The 2024 level (932 \u0026micro;g/kg) is more similar to the results from India but more than double the values ​​reported in Indonesia. In South America, fumonisin contamination in corn and corn products is widely and highly reported. In Brazil, various products, including popcorn, corn flour, and breakfast cereals, contained fumonisin at levels ranging from 81 \u0026micro;g/kg to 6920 \u0026micro;g/kg (Savi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Matos et al., 2024), with prevalence often at or near 100%. Argentina reported 1649 \u0026micro;g/kg in corn flakes and 992 \u0026micro;g/kg in baby cereals (Federico et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Cendoya et al., 2025). In Honduras, corn tortillas showed levels between 6300 \u0026micro;g/kg and 12,040 \u0026micro;g/kg (Cabrera-Meraz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), while Mexico reported 1579 \u0026micro;g/kg in tortillas (Gilbert-Sandoval et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). European countries generally report lower fumonisin levels due to stricter regulations and well-developed food safety infrastructure. However, there are exceptions. An extremely high value of 27.483 \u0026micro;g/kg was reported in corn products in Slovenia (Kirinic et al., 2015), while in Poland, 7331 \u0026micro;g/kg (Bryla et al., 2016) and 6342 mg/kg (Pokrzywa and Surma, 2022) were reported in corn snacks. These findings were higher than the findings of our study. Other European countries, such as Italy, Portugal, Spain, and Hungary, reported more moderate levels, ranging from 961 \u0026micro;g/kg (Espito et al., 2016) to 2,540 \u0026micro;g/kg (Zentai et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, Zinedin et al. (2005) measured contamination levels at 5844 \u0026micro;g/kg in Morocco. These findings demonstrate that fumonisin contamination is a widespread problem worldwide, and that various environmental factors, agricultural practices, and storage conditions play a significant role in these contamination levels, with fumonisin contamination varying from year to year.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAssessing the Risk of Exposure to Fumonisins\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe FBs exposure, APDI and MPDI were calculated using the average levels of fumonisins and the maximum concentrations found in the samples and divided by 70 kg body weight (Bordin et al. 2015; Song et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Adults aged 19\u0026ndash;30 years were the largest consumers of corn snacks in Giresun, and the fumonisin exposure assessment was based on this group. In T\u0026uuml;rkiye, children under 15 years of age are not permitted to consume snacks and chips by their parents. Therefore, snack and chip consumption rates in children under 15 are low. Children primarily consume breakfast cereals designed for children. APDI and MPDI values ​​are given in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. APDI and MPDI in adults ranged from 0.227 \u0026micro;g/kg bw/day to 0.741 \u0026micro;g/kg bw/day and 0.665 to 2.8 \u0026micro;g/kg bw/day, respectively. APDI for adults was lower than the PMTDI of 2 \u0026micro;g/kg bw/day recommended by JECFA. However, the MPDI (2.8 \u0026micro;g/kg bw/day) value in 2021 was found to be higher than the PMTDI value of 2 mg/kg body weight/day. The MPDI was found to be 1.47 \u0026micro;g/kg in 2020, 0.892 \u0026micro;g/kg in 2023, and 0.665 \u0026micro;g/kg bw/day in 2024. These values ​​were lower than the PMTDI value. These values ​​were lower than the PMTDI value.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe average tolerable daily intake (APDI) and maximum tolerable daily intake (MPDI) for adults\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" style=\"width: 8.867%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYears\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 21.8391%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal FBs (ng/g)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD Median\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConsumption\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(g/day)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eATDI (\u0026micro;g/kg bw/day)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;Adults PMTDI%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMTDI (\u0026micro;g/kg bw/day)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;Adults PMTDI %\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" style=\"width: 8.867%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2020\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2023\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" style=\"width: 15.4351%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1042\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;905\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1296\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1280\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e449\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;334\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e319\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;308\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e807\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e981\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e354\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e188\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.372 18.6%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.741 37%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.384 19%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.228 11.4%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.473 74.6%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.888 144%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.892 44.6%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.665 33%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003eMDI (Mean Daily Intake) estimates were calculated from the mean. Body weight 70 for adults. PMTDI of 2 \u0026micro;g/kg body weight/day for fumonisins (WHO 2002).\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRecent worldwide research has focused on human exposure to mycotoxins (Sspuuya et al. 2018; Shephard et al. 2019; Yoshinarı et al. 2020; Soraia et al. 2024; Song et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). A study by Soraia et al. (2024) in Poland reported the highest FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e levels in breakfast cereals as 4051.22 \u0026micro;g/kg bw/day for infants and 1011.25 \u0026micro;g/kg bw/day for children. In Turkey, products made from corn flour are not used in child nutrition. Therefore, exposure to corn-based products in infants and children is almost negligible. In Honduras, Cabrera-Meraz et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) estimated dietary exposure to FBs between 6.16 and 151.98 \u0026micro;g/kg bw/day. In Brazil, Andrade et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) found the maximum consumption of popcorn with maximum (MPDI) of the mycotoxin concentrations led to an FBs intake of 26.78 \u0026micro;g/kg bw/day (13 times greater than PMTDI) and for consuming cornflakes was 0.027\u0026micro;g/kg bw/ day. In the study conducted in China, Song et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) found that the 95th and 99th FB exposures for children and adolescents were estimated at 2.18 to 3.46 \u0026micro;g/kg body weight/day, exceeding the PMTDI of 2 \u0026micro;g/kg bw/day. Probabilistic analysis also showed that the 99th exposures for all age groups were 2.06 to 3.08 \u0026micro;g/kg bw/day. The results presented above are higher than the maximum result of this study (2.8 \u0026micro;g/kg bw/day) and pose a higher health risk. In addition, Martins et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) determined the APDI and MPDI for Brazilians as 120.58 and 256.04 ng/kg bw/day, Savi et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) estimated the mean probable daily intake as 133.9 ng/kg bw/day and the maximum probable daily intake as 340.9 ng/kg bw/day for the population of the state of Santa Catarina (Brazil), similar to the results of this study. There are studies that are well below the PMTDI limit and do not pose a risk of exposure. Yoshinarı et al. (2020) reported that the mean intake of free fumonisin in the Japanese population was 3.9 ng/kg, and the mean intake of total fumonisin (free\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;hidden fumonisin) ranged from 3.3 to 12.5 ng/kg bw/day, which was much lower than in this study. In studies in China, Li et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) and Liu et al. (2017) estimated daily exposure as 0.08 \u0026micro;g/kg bw/day and 0.12 \u0026micro;g/kg bw/day, respectively, and Bordin et al. (2019) estimated the total probable daily intake (PDI) of fumonisins in Brazil as 96.9 ng/kg bw/day. Pokrzywa et al. (2022) found PMTDI in the range of 0.50\u0026ndash;0.92% and 0.05\u0026ndash;0.42% in corn flour and corn semolina, respectively. They observed the highest values in corn flakes (0.14\u0026ndash;1.84% PMTDI), with the highest value found in the 4\u0026ndash;6 age group. Kirimker et al (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) found mean fumonisin exposures for infants and toddlers to be 0.093 and 0.068 \u0026micro;g/kg bw/day, respectively, while P95 exposure estimates were 0.079 and 0.058 \u0026micro;g/kg bw/day. In T\u0026uuml;rkiye, children\u0026apos;s foods and breakfast cereals do not pose a health risk from fumonisins (G\u0026ouml;kışık \u0026amp; Kahtalı, 2023). However, the same cannot be said for cereal snacks, as they do pose a risk.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study focused on commercially available corn-based snacks collected from supermarkets in a single province (Giresun, Turkey). Broader surveillance across multiple regions and product categories would provide a more comprehensive understanding of fumonisin contamination in T\u0026uuml;rkiye. This study was showed the occurrence of fumonisins (FB1\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;FB2) in corn-based snacks consumed in T\u0026uuml;rkiye between 2020 and 2024, with mean levels ranging from 319 to 1296 ng/g. Although overall contamination levels were comparable to reports from other regions of the world, occasional exceedances of international safety thresholds highlight the need for continued monitoring. The annual variation in fumonisin levels highlights the influence of climatic, agricultural, and processing factors on contamination. While most products meet current European regulatory standards, consumption of such snacks by children and young adults raises concerns about potential chronic exposure. Strengthening good agricultural and production practices, and expanding surveillance and public awareness efforts are crucial to minimize health risks and ensure food safety in T\u0026uuml;rkiye. As a result of intensive studies conducted since the isolation of fumonisin from corn (1988), the presence of high levels of fumonisin in corn and corn products continues to be a global health and economic problem. The presence of health-threatening levels of fumonisin in corn and corn products is also a significant public health concern in T\u0026uuml;rkiye and may require close monitoring. Contamination of corn and corn products with fumonisins poses a health risk in T\u0026uuml;rkiye, as has been reported in many countries worldwide.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was supported by the Giresun University Scientific Research Foundation (grant number BAP-C-281119-80) in 2020 and 2021. The 2020 and 2021 data for this study are part of a master\u0026apos;s thesis conducted at the Department of Bioprocess Engineering at Giresun University. We thank the Giresun University Scientific Research Projects (BAP) Commission for their support. The studies conducted in 2023 and 2024 were conducted with the authors\u0026apos; own funds and efforts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of Competing interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCavidan Demir G\u0026ouml;kışık\u003c/strong\u003e: Formal analysis, Writing - Original Draft, Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Investigation, Data Curation, Writing- Review\u0026amp; Editing, Supervision, Project administration, Daily consumption records, Funding acquisition \u003cstrong\u003eMehmet Kahtalı\u003c/strong\u003e: Resources, Funding acquisition, Investigation, sample collection\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAndrade GCRM, Pimpinato RF, Francisco JG, Monteiro SH, Calori- Domingues MA, Tornisielo VL (2018) Evaluation of mycotoxins and their estimated daily intake in popcorn and cornflakes using LC-MS techniques. 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China CDC Weekly. 16;3(29):627\u0026ndash;631. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.46234/ccdcw2021.136\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.46234/ccdcw2021.136\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"exposure-and-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"wqeh","sideBox":"Learn more about [Exposure and Health](https://www.springer.com/journal/12403)","snPcode":"12403","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12403/3","title":"Exposure and Health","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Fumonisins, corn, corn-based products, exposure assessment, food safety","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7921707/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7921707/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe presence of fumonisins in corn and corn-based products is a global public health problem. This study aimed to assess the contamination level of fumonisins (FBs: FB1 and FB2) in corn snacks and the tolerable daily intakes of consumers. A total of 96 corn snack samples were analyzed over four years. In this study, 30 corn snack samples with different contents purchased from supermarkets in Giresun in 2020 were examined to assess the presence, amount, and public health risk of FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e and FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e. The same products with fumonisin levels above 200 ng/g in the 30 analyzed corn snack samples were purchased from the same supermarkets in 2021, 2023, and 2024, and FB\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e and FB\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e levels were monitored. Fumonisin occurrence rates in 2020, 2021, 2023, and 2024 were 90%, 95.5%, 59%, and 50%, respectively, with concentrations ranging from 79 to 4126 ng/g, 18 to 5055 ng/g, 20 to 1035 ng/g, and 20 to 1360 ng/g. High fumonisin levels were detected in 2020 and 2021, and lower levels in 2023 and 2024. Fumonisin exposure was determined as the average probable daily intake (APDI) and maximum probable daily intake (MPDI) for adults. APDI and MPDI values ​​ranged from 0.2 to 0.7 \u0026micro;g/kg body weight/day and 0.6 to 2.8 \u0026micro;g/kg bw/day, respectively. In 2021, a maximum intake of 2.8 \u0026micro;g/kg bw/day was observed, exceeding the PMTDI of 2 \u0026micro;g/kg bw/day set by JECFA. To protect public health and ensure food safety, stricter enforcement and controls, and increased monitoring of corn snacks, are needed.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Monitoring Fumonisins Contamination in Corn Snacks in 2020-2024 and Assessments of Dietary Exposure","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-19 08:18:22","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7921707/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2025-12-19T08:25:38+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-11-10T09:07:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"Exposure and Health","date":"2025-10-25T14:43:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-10-23T14:50:50+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Exposure and Health","date":"2025-10-22T05:09:25+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"exposure-and-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"wqeh","sideBox":"Learn more about [Exposure and Health](https://www.springer.com/journal/12403)","snPcode":"12403","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12403/3","title":"Exposure and Health","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"d3753c33-9869-4a49-8f29-89cc93943b3a","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 19th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-19T08:18:22+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-19 08:18:22","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7921707","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7921707","identity":"rs-7921707","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}