The evolution of long-range hunting with stone-tipped weapons during the Afrotropic Middle Stone Age: A testable framework based on tip cross-sectional area

The evolution of long-range hunting with stone-tipped weapons during the Afrotropic Middle Stone Age: A testable framework based on tip cross-sectional area | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article The evolution of long-range hunting with stone-tipped weapons during the Afrotropic Middle Stone Age: A testable framework based on tip cross-sectional area Yonatan Sahle, Marlize Lombard This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4990711/v2 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 17 Nov, 2024 Read the published version in Quaternary → Version 2 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Show more versions Abstract In the Afrotropic biogeographic realm, with its diverse and high-density mammal population, early humans may have been hunting with stone-tipped weapons since ~ 500 000 years ago. Being able to hunt effectively from a distance has several important adaptive advantages. Yet, until now, African long-range javelin hunting remained unexplored as intermediate between short/medium-range, hand-delivered and long-range, mechanically projected weapons. Insights gained from a new Afrotropic comparative dataset with 950 weapon tips of known use – including several javelin types – provide a contextually appropriate middle-range tool for assessing the probable effective hunting ranges of Middle Stone Age points. We use a novel application of the ballistically relevant tip cross-sectional area (TCSA) statistic to define contact, short-, medium-, long- and maximum-range hunting and discuss the adaptive advantages for each. The approach is applied to suggest developments and variations in the best-fit hunting ranges of 5597 stone points from 62 Middle Stone Age Afrotropic assemblages. By aligning our results with the Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) record we hypothesize that long-range hunting with stone-tipped weapons at ~ 20–30 m was probably not practiced by ≥ MIS 8, and that experimentation with long-range javelins – similar to those used by contemporary Ethiopian hunters – over this distance may have started during MIS 6, becoming part of the everyday Afrotropic hunting arsenal by the end of MIS 5. Archaeology Anthropology Paleoecology Evolutionary Biology points hunting javelins bow-and-arrow spearthrower-and-dart adaptive advantages Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 1. Introduction There is little doubt that launching stone-tipped weapons accurately and forcefully enough to pierce the hides of prey animals from a distance had important adaptive advantages for early human hunters. It has been suggested that spearthrowers-and-darts or bows-and-arrows represent the only ‘true’ long-range Stone Age weaponry (e.g., Churchill and Rhodes 2009). Some researchers also found that reports of terrestrial javelin hunting were rare, and that trying to distinguish between hand-thrown and thrusting/stabbing spears may not be meaningful, because both represent ‘short-range’ hunting wherein javelins were thought to have an average range of 7.8 m only (Churchill 1993: 18). Milks et al. (2019) showed that wooden spears, comparable to those from Schöningen in Germany, dating to ~ 400 ka, can be thrown with 25% accuracy from ~ 10–15 m. The authors did not, however, demonstrate that these can penetrate animal hides from such distance. The accuracy of experimental wooden spears increased to 58% when thrown from only 5 m (Milks et al. 2019) and can cause serious damage up close (Gaudzinski-Windheuser et al. 2018). The known wooden spears are thus best suited for contact or short-range hunting. Our focus is on the effective hunting ranges of Middle Stone Age stone-tipped weaponry from the Afrotropics that are meant to pierce the hides of prey animals. In their attempt to identify early long-range hunting in eastern Africa, Brooks et al. (2006) found that points from Aduma, Ethiopia, dating to ~ 90 − 80 ka, fall within American ethnographic spearthrower-dart and large arrowhead ranges, and that dimensions decrease through time. Sahle and Brooks (2019) subsequently reported on morphometric aspects, hafting traces, and impact damage patterns of the Aduma points affirming a shift between ~ 100 ka and ~ 80 ka from short-range spear technologies to long-range projectiles comparable to American spearthrower-darts. Sisk and Shea (2011) also used a comparative morphometric approach to suggest that stone points from Porc-Epic (~ 50 − 40 ka) were used to tip long-range projectiles such as American spearthrower darts. Kappelman et al. (2024) proposed bow hunting with tips comparable to North American arrowheads at Shinfa-Metema in Ethiopia by ~ 74 ka, based on tip cross-sectional geometry and micro-wear data. A combination of macro-fracture, use-wear and micro-residue analyses demonstrated that small backed pieces in southern Africa were used as arrow tips and barbs (Lombard and Phillipson 2010; Lombard 2011; de la Pena et al. 2018). Despite the availability of much data on African arrowheads, and no ethno-historical or archaeological records of American-like spearthrowers in the Afrotropics, none of these studies considered the potential use of hunting javelins or used African weapon-tip data for comparative purposes. Instead, the interpretations of African stone-tipped weaponry were based solely on the dimensions of North American arrowheads (n = 118), spearthrower dart tips (n = 40), and experimental stone points (n = 28) (Thomas 1978; Shott 1997; Shea et al. 2001). Yet, during the last few centuries, and still today in some contexts, Afrotropic hunters used/use a range of hunting javelins, bimanual thrusting spears, assegais (single-handed stabbing spears), and bows-and-arrows (Sahle et al. 2023; Lombard et al. 2024). Lombard et al. (2024) further demonstrated that hypothesizing about American-like dart hunting in sub-Saharan Africa based on tip morphometrics is impossible once javelin hunting is considered. Currently, the best prediction for spearthrower use in Africa is that it may have happened in the northern African Palearctic or Saharo-Arabian zoogeographic realm during a green-Sahara phase, instead of the biodiverse Afrotropics (Lombard 2022; see also Lombard and Shea 2021). Comparative morphometric studies, based on large samples of southern African hafted weapon tips of known use (see Lombard et al. 2024 for discussion about metal vs stone tips in the TCSA context) support a hypothesis wherein long-range javelin hunting, in tandem with stabbing/short-range assegais, may have been practiced since MIS 6 (191 − 130 ka), and bow hunting by ~ 71 − 59 ka in the region (Lombard 2021, 2023; Lombard and Churchill 2022; Lombard and Moncel 2023). Schoville et al. (2017) concurred with an interpretation of long-range hunting by ~ 71 − 59 ka while remaining unsure about the delivery system. Use-trace and morphometric data indicated that points from Gademotta, Ethiopia, may have been used as javelin tips by > 279 − 105 ka (Sahle et al. 2013), but in the absence of a javelin-tip reference collection, temporal variability in weapon use at this site-complex could not be resolved. Based on a suite of use-trace (macro-fracture, micro-wear, and residue) analyses, we know that some pointed and backed artefacts from Middle Stone Age contexts were used as hafted tips and/or barbs for hunting weapons (Table 1 ). Of course, this interpretation does not exclude potential alternative uses such as scraping and cutting (e.g., Lombard 2005a; 2006; Schoville et al. 2016; Werner and Willoughby 2018; Douze et al. 2020) – but our focus here is hunting. Discussion of hunting technologies demands following specific protocols that speak directly to the development of hunting traces that can be easily missed (see details in Wadley et al. 2004; Fischer et al. 1984; Lombard 2005a, 2005b; Lombard and Wadley 2007; Pargeter 2011). For example, it is futile to ignore point fragments, broken tips and reams of experimental evidence in a macro-fracture analysis, approaches focusing on edge-damage cannot detect the small surface striations that sometimes develop on weapon tips, and the recognition of animal residues is not always straightforward. Most use-trace methods are appropriate for generating small-scale, tool- and context-specific evidence of African Pleistocene hunting (Lombard 2005a, 2011; Sahle et al. 2013; Rots et al. 2017; Sahle and Brooks 2019), but not for analyzing thousands of artefacts across vast spatiotemporal boundaries required to hypothesize about broad evolutionary trends in tip design for best-fit ballistic probability (Hughes 1998; Shea 2006; Lombard et al. 2024). Importantly, they cannot provide data about hunting range, which is the purpose of the present investigation. Table 1 Examples of use-trace and direct evidence for the use of pointed and backed stone artefacts from the Middle Stone Age as tips and/or barbs for hunting weapons. Age (ka) Tip type, site, country Use-trace methods Sources ~ 500 Points, Kathu Pan, South Africa Macro-fracture Wilkins et al. 2012 > 279 Points, Gademotta, Ethiopia Velocity-dependent micro-fracture features, macro-fracture Sahle et al. 2013; but see Douze and Delagnes 2016; Sahle and Braun 2018 ~ 171 − 83 Points, Ifri n’ Ammar, Morocco Micro-wear, residues Tomasso et al. 2020 ~ 100 Points, Klasies River, South Africa Fractured point in buffalo vertebra Milo 1998 ~ 100 − 80 Points, Aduma, Ethiopia Macro-fracture Sahle and Brooks 2019 ~ 100 − 50 Points, Magubike, Tanzania Edge damage Werner and Willoughby 2018 ~ 89 Points, Blombos, South Africa Macro-fracture Lombard 2007 > 77 Points, Sibudu, South Africa Micro-wear, residues Rots et al. 2017 ≥ 76 Points, Blombos, South Africa Macro-fracture Lombard 2007 ~ 75 Points, Blombos, South Africa Macro-fracture Lombard 2007 ~ 74 Points, Shinfa-Metema, Ethiopia Macro-fracture, micro-wear, Kappelman et al. 2024 ~ 73 − 70 Points, Sibudu, South Africa Macro-fracture, micro-wear, residues Lombard 2006, 2007 ~ 73 − 63 Points, Mumba, Tanzania Micro-wear, residues Bushozi et al. 2017 ≥ 70 Points, Umhlatuzana, South Africa Macro-fracture Lombard 2007 ~ 70 − 60 Backed pieces, Klasies River, South Africa Macro-fracture Wurz and Lombard 2007 ~ 65 − 60 Backed pieces, Sibudu Cave, Srica Macro-fracture, micro-wear, residues Lombard and Phillipson 2010, Lombard 2011, de la Peña et al. 2018 ~ 64 − 53 Points Aduma, Ethiopia Macro-fracture Sahle and Brooks 2019 ~ 64 Points, Sibudu, South Africa Macro-fracture, micro-wear, residues de la Pena et al. 2013 ~ 60 Backed pieces, Umhlatuzana, South Africa Macro-fracture, micro-wear, residues Phillipson and Lombard 2010 ~ 60 − 50 Points, Sibudu, South Africa Macro-fracture, micro-wear, residues Lombard et al. 2004; Lombard 2005a ≥ 55 Points, White Paintings, Botswana Micro-wear Phillipson 2007 ~ 42 Points, Gorgora, Ethiopia Macro-fracture Sahle et al. 2024 ~ 32 Points, Umbeli Belli, South Africa Residues Bader et al. 2016; Tribolo et al. 2014 The tip cross-sectional area (TCSA) method provides a ballistic statistic – with velocity-distance implications – for the maximum sectional area of a weapon tip that opens a hole in the skin/hide for the projectile to enter a target’s body (Hughes 1998). With contextually appropriate, and statistically robust standardized TCSA ranges, large samples can be processed with minimum error. Such studies provide directly comparable quantitative datasets for building broad, testable hypotheses about weapon-assisted hunting through time and across space (Shea 2006; Lombard 2021; Lombard and Moncel 2023). Even though such approaches cannot determine whether each individual artefact was hafted and used for hunting (for that, detailed use-trace work is required), they are effective tools for probable/best-fit ballistic interpretations of artefact classes that are clearly associated with hunting economies and known to have been used as weapon tips (Table 1 ). Afrotropic Middle Stone Age assemblages represent bona fide hunter-gatherer populations for whom hunting was a key techno-behavioral component, often resulting in the representation of large faunal remains (e.g., Assefa 2006). These assemblages cover the full range of animal sizes, from size 1 ( 1000 kg) (see SOM 1 for examples). Direct evidence of hunting with stone-tipped weapons come from Klasies River in South Africa where the tip of a stone point was found embedded in the vertebra of an extinct giant buffalo dated to ~ 100 ka (Milo 1998; Table 1 ). We argue it is therefore reasonable to accept that some pointed stone artefacts were made for hunting during the Afrotropic Middle Stone Age, and contesting such function begs an explanation of how early humans hunted animals during the periods. American weaponry or laboratory experiments are in many ways disconnected from Afrotropic hunting reality. A real-life, contextual middle-range proxy for assessing the evolution of Afrotropic hunting can be gained directly from African hunters and their weapons. We, therefore, use recent self-collected African information and data (see Sahle et al. 2023; Lombard et al. 2024 [the supplementary materials to these papers contain full datasets regarding dimensions, materials, etc.]), for adapting the TCSA method to primarily assess variation in hunting range, with the underlaying weapon-delivery systems being of secondary concern. We present data for 5597 stone points representing 62 assemblages from 34 Middle Stone Age sites across the Afrotropics. Most of the eastern African artefacts were newly measured by one of the coauthors; we also present TCSA data for assemblages from several sites for the first time. Previously published TCSA data are re-analyzed and interpreted using the new hunting-range TCSA framework. Our research question is threefold: Can we generate a feasible chronology for the evolution of long-range, stone-tipped weapons in the Afrotropic? Was there spatiotemporal variability in the use of hunting ranges during the Middle Stone Age? If so, can we suggest testable hypotheses about the different adaptive advantages? 2. Materials and Methods Recent work documented ethnographic hunting javelin types and the distances they can be thrown at (Sahle et al. 2023). Such ‘maximal distance’ relates more to modern target shooting, or sporting competitions (Hughes 1998) than to Afrotropic hunting. ‘Effective distance’, on the other hand, is a hunting concept representing the average range over which hunters deliver their weapons with the necessary accuracy and force (Hughes 1998). Importantly, effective hunting in the Afrotropics is often not associated with deep-penetrating lethality at first strike. Instead, the general aim is to wound an animal with several/many strikes so that it becomes weakened and exhausted. In most instances, it is then killed with a spear thrust to the jugular (the authors’ personal observations of traditional African hunting). For the purposes of this paper, we revisited African javelin hunters to record their preferred-effective hunting ranges (Table 2 ). Table 2 Ethiopian hunting javelins and their maximal vs effective ranges. Weapon type Local names Users General use Maximal distance Effective distance Heavyweight-multipurpose spears/javelins Golda gina , bambele baqe Elite hunters Ceremonial dances symbolising elite-hunting status, and striking at cornered, large and dangerous prey such as buffaloes, large antelopes, bush pigs and forest hogs. ≤ 27 m Contact, < 10 m Heavyweight hunting javelins Koisha gina, dimoyi baqe Competent, experienced hunters Killing large prey and predators (e.g., hyaenas) from a greater distance. 33–40 m ≤ 13 m Long-narrow-tipped hunting javelins Mechamia/ganchiria gina, guruchek baqe Any hunter Ambush hunting, inflicting wounds from a distance, or wounding large, difficult-to-catch prey that is then tracked and killed at close-range with a heavier weapon. ≥ 40 m ~ 19 m Versatile hunting javelins Tsinka gina, bodoy baqe All adult hunters Considered to have superior velocity and efficiency, for long-range throwing to startle, divert, wound/kill startled animals ≥ 50 m ~ 27 m Light-weight hunting javelins Boda gina, donkoche baqe Novice hunters Target practice on small prey, e.g., duikers, porcupines, or bushbucks around the camp 25–40 m not for adult hunting The preferred-effective hunting distances reported here for Afrotropic hunting javelins clearly demonstrate that not all javelins can be thought of as short-range weapons. Especially the effective range of the Ethiopian versatile javelins compare favorably to long-range dart-and-spearthrower hunting that is most effective at ~ 20–30 m and fall just short of bow-hunting that is effective up to ~ 30–45 m (Frayer 1981; Cundy 1989; Friis-Hansen 1990; Churchill 1993; Hitchcock and Bleed 1997; Cattelain 1997; Lombard 2022). We therefore use a scheme of five approximate effective hunting ranges to explore the best-fit distances from which Afrotropic Middle Stone Age weapons may have been used, i.e.: Contact hunting (thrusting/stabbing): Weapons generally do not leave the hands of hunters, e.g., bimanual thrusting spears, or heavyweight-multipurpose/ceremonial javelins. Short-range hunting: Weapons can be used in contact but can also be thrown effectively up to ~ 10 m, e.g., heavier assegais or heavyweight javelins. Medium-range hunting: Weapons are thrown effectively at ~ 11–19 m, e.g., long-narrow-tipped javelins or smaller assegais. Long-range hunting: Weapons are projected effectively over ~ 20–30 m, e.g., versatile Ethiopian javelins or those of the southern African San hunters. Hunting at maximum range: Weapons used at a maximum effective range of > 30 m, e.g., bow hunting. Larger projectiles usually contend with greater air resistance or drag during flight (e.g., Hickman et al. 1947; Cundy 1989; Cotterell and Kamminga 1992), constraining velocity and distance. Sitton et al. (2020) demonstrated that stone points with smaller TCSA values travel at greater velocity compared to those with larger TCSA values when similarly propelled (see also Pettigrew 2023). Smaller/lighter projectiles or weapon tips therefore generally represent greater velocity and increased distance so that weapon velocity is a suitable proxy for hunting distance (Hughes 1998), and the TCSA metric can be used to hypothesize about effective hunting ranges. We first used the Kruskal-Wallis H test (non-parametric one-way ANOVA) on the TCSA data of 950 Afrotropic weapon tips for which the approximate effective hunting ranges are known (SOM 2), resulting in a significant difference (H = 768.2; p < .001) between the TCSA distributions of the five hunting-range categories. The test shows general group differences, but not differences amongst the various hunting ranges. The results of a Mann-Whitney pairwise test further demonstrate that each of the hunting ranges is significantly different in their TCSA distributions from the other at p < .001 (Table 3 ). Based on these results, we use the ethno-historical weapon tips from the Afrotropic to set new TCSA standards for the probable hunting ranges of pointed stone artefacts (Table 3 ). We highlight that the sample size of contact-weapon tips (n = 21) is probably too small to be robust, and the value of > 196 mm² is therefore a provisional standard only. For known Afrotropic thrusting-spear tips, the range is 196–372 mm². For comparative reference, eight European wooden spears, most effectively used as contact/close-range spears, have a mean TCSA of 643 mm² with a standard deviation of 235 mm², and a median of 583 mm² (Lombard et al. 2024). For this study we included stone points with TCSA values 500 mm² as outliers. We use the median statistic for the general interpretation of TCSA results, because it is affected less by outliers in skewed data than the mean statistic, hence representing the predominant trend within an assemblage more accurately. When exploring intra-assemblage variation, we use the < 15% threshold as the lower end of a spectrum focused on manufacturing either larger or smaller pieces, further minimizing the outlier effect. To highlight adaptive advantages in an evolutionary context, we adapted Shea’s (2017) occasional-habitual-obligatory scheme wherein we interpret: As occasional a frequency of 15–32%: Occasional hunting ranges would hypothetically occur irregularly as an optional strategy that has negligible fitness consequences if it is not used. Thus, individuals or groups may gain fitness benefits from hunting at these ranges, but not much more than those who do not (Shea 2017: 206). As habitual a frequency of 33–65%: Habitual hunting ranges are mainstream, used with variable regularity and have variable evolutionary consequences. Thus, Individuals or groups hunting at these ranges reap fitness rewards differently than those who hunt from other ranges or who don’t hunt. The benefits fluctuate spatiotemporally and contextually (Shea 2017: 209). As obligatory a frequency of ≥ 66%: The success of obligatory hunting ranges is otherwise difficult or impossible to obtain. It probably has serious short-term fitness consequences. Individuals or groups who do not hunt from these ranges in a specific socio-ecological context may suffer serious adverse consequences (Shea 2017: 204). To generate a feasible chronology for the evolution of long-range stone-tipped weaponry, assess spatiotemporal variability, and suggest testable adaptive advantages throughout the Afrotropic Middle Stone Age, we amassed as much data as possible. Notwithstanding our best efforts, our analysis was constrained by a shortage of suitable published data and access to data/assemblages outside of Ethiopia and southern Africa. Hopefully this bias can be overcome in future, but unless researchers working in Africa publish their raw morphometric data or are more collaborative towards data-sharing/access to assemblages we can only work with what we have. We also constrained our samples to Afrotropic assemblages with ≥ 20 points and published dates or relative age estimates (Fig. 1 ; Table 4 ) and draw attention to the fact that many assemblages not included here have too few well-contextualized pointed artefacts to work with. Our rigorous sampling strategy allows us to interpret our results according to MIS stages for broad spatiotemporal discussion. For assemblages with age estimates spanning multiple MIS stages, we repeated the results for each stage they may fall in, which allowed us to assess possible best-fit scenarios or to highlight continuity across MIS boundaries. Table 3 Upper half: Results of the Mann-Whitney pairwise test, demonstrating that each of the weapon-tip ranges are significantly different from the other at p < .001. Lower half: TCSA standards for probable effective hunting distances based on existing/historical African weapon-tip use (SOM 2; for more detailed data, also on shaft dimensions see Sahle et al. 2023; Lombard et al. 2024). Results of the Mann-Whitney pairwise test Distance Contact n = 21 ≤ 10 m n = 181 ~ 11–19 m n = 99 ~ 20–30 m n = 310 ≥ 30 m n = 339 Contact n = 21 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 ≤ 10 m n = 181 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 ~ 11–19 m n = 99 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 ~ 20–30 m n = 310 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 ≥ 30 m n = 339 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 196 (provisional) 261 ≤ 10 m n = 181 Short-range 151 43 108–194 140 ~ 11–19 m n = 99 Medium-range 95 23 72–118 96 ~ 20–30 m n = 310 Long-range 61 21 40–82 60 ≥ 30 m n = 339 Maximum-range 23 15 8–38 21 We focus on the Afrotropics (Fig. 1 ), because some of the oldest suggested evidence for the use of stone-tipped hunting weapons comes from this biogeographic realm (Wilkins et al. 2012; Sahle et al. 2013). It therefore provides a meaningful context for developing large-scale, data-based hypotheses about the evolution of long-range hunting with such weapons. Out of the 29 Köppen-Geiger climate zones, the Afrotropics contains more than half (Peel et al. 2007). This corresponds with biodiversity data wherein, apart from the Neotropic, the Afrotropic biogeographic realm is richest in mammal species diversity and density (Fig. 1 ; Kier et al. 2005; Mutke and Barthlott 2005; and see list in Churchill 1993: table 1.2 ). Table 4 Assemblages, age estimates and associated MIS stages for stone point assemblages included in this study arranged from the oldest to the youngest. Assemblages from the same sites with different age estimates, but within the same MIS stage are provided with [A, B, C, D] appendages to distinguish between them. See Fig. 1 for site location and SOM 3 for TCSA data. Assemblage, MIS stage Site/context # of points ~Age (ka) Some sources for age estimates/contexts Kathu Pan, MIS 12 Stratum 4a, Fauresmith 148 > 464 Porat et al. 2010 Gademotta, MIS 8 [A] ETH-72-8B, GDM7 65 > 280 Sahle et al. 2013, 2014; Morgan and Renne 2008 Gademotta, MIS 8 [B] ETH-72-7B, GDM10 37 ~ 280 − 260 Sahle et al. 2013 Rooidam 2, MIS 6 Fauresmith 130 > 174 Szabo and Butzer 1979; Eltzholtz 2020 Florisbad, MIS 6 [A] Earlier MSA phase 63 ~ 175 Grün et al., 1996 Pinnacle Point 13B, MIS 6 Upper DBS, LC-MSA Lower 51 ~ 166 − 159 Jacobs 2010 Olieboomspoort, MIS 6 Pietersburg 79 ~ 164 − 134 Val et al. 2021 Klasies River, MIS 6 MSA I/Klasies River 71 > 126 Brenner and Wurz, 2019 Florisbad, MIS 6 [B] Expedient MSA 70 ~ 121 Grün et al., 1996 Prospect Farm, MIS 5 − 3? Phases I-IV 85 ~ 119 − 53 Michels et al. 1983; Van Baelen et al. 2019 Klasies River, MIS 5e [A] MSA II SBLS 48 > 110 Brenner and Wurz, 2019 Klasies River, MIS 5d [B] MSA II lowest/BOS 236 ~ 110 − 106 Brenner and Wurz, 2019 Makgadikgadi, MIS 5d Site 140 21 ~ 106 Staurset et al. 2023 Klasies River, MIS 5d [C] Lowest SMONE 46 ~ 106 − 100 Brenner and Wurz, 2019 Klasies River, MIS 5d [D] MSA II lower & upper 823 ~ 100 − 95 Wurz et al. 2018 Gademotta, MIS 5d ETH-72-6 24 ~ 105 Brown et al. 2012 Halibee, MIS 5d-c HAL-A2; A25, A29 47 ~ 100 Niespolo et al. 2021 Pinnacle Point 13B, MIS 5c LBS1, SBS-URS 40 ~ 98 − 90 Jacobs 2010 Hollow Rock Shelter, MIS 5c [A] Lower levels, Mossel Bay 30 ~ 97 − 80 Högberg & Lombard 2022 Bushman Rock Shelter MIS 5c-a MSA, Pietersburg 166 ~ 97 − 73 Porraz & Val 2023 Pinnacle Point 5–6, MIS 5c MIS 5 86 ~ 96 − 81 Wilkins et al., 2017 Aduma, MIS 5c ADU-A4 22 ~ 93 Yellen et al. 2005; Sahle et al. 2023b Aduma, MIS 5c-b ADU-A8 35 ~ 91 Yellen et al. 2005; Sahle et al. 2023b Aduma, MIS 5a ADU-A5 25 ~ 80 Yellen et al. 2005; Sahle et al. 2023b ≠Gi Pan, MIS 5a MSA 294 ~ 77 Brooks et al. 1990; Lombard & Churchill 2022 Sibudu Cave, MIS 5a [A] Pre-Still Bay 24 ≥ 77 Jacobs et al. 2008; Lombard et al. 2019 Diepkloof, MIS 5a Still Bay 46 ~ 77 − 71 Jacobs et al. 2008 Blombos Cave, MIS 5a Still Bay 28 ~ 76 − 71 Jacobs et al. 2020 Hollow Rock Shelter, MIS 5a-4 Upper levels, Still Bay 56 ~ 76 − 68 Högberg & Lombard 2022 Shinfa-Metema, MIS 5a MSA 26 ~ 74 Kappelman et al. 2024 Apollo 11, MIS 5a Pre-Still Bay 33 > 73 Vogelsang 1998; Vogelsang et al. 2010 Sibudu Cave, MIS 5a [B] Still Bay 32 ~ 73 − 70 Jacobs et al. 2008; Lombard et al. 2019 Mumba, MIS 5a-4 Bed VI 170 ~ 73 − 63 Gliganic et al. 2012; Bushozi et al. 2017, 2020 Umhlatuzana, MIS 5a Still Bay 39 ≥ 71 Lombard et al. 2010 Pinnacle Point 5–6, MIS 4 MIS 4/Howiesons Poort 88 ~ 71 − 59 Wilkins et al. 2017 Makgadikgadi, MIS 4 Site 33 46 ~ 69 Staurset et al. 2023 Rose Cottage Cave, MIS 4 Howiesons Poort 84 ~ 69 − 62 Jacobs et al. 2008 White Paintings Shelter, MIS 4 MSA 29 ≥ 66 Staurset & Coulson, 2014 Klein Kliphuis, MIS 4 Howiesons Poort 135 ~ 66 − 58 Jacobs et al. 2008 Sibudu Cave, MIS 4 Howiesons Poort 219 ~ 65 − 62 Jacobs et al. 2008 Diepkloof, MIS 4 Howiesons Poort 132 ~ 65 − 59 Jacobs & Roberts 2017 Klipdrift, MIS 4 Howiesons Poort 31 ~ 65 − 59 Henshilwood et al. 2014 Klasies River, MIS 4 Howiesons Poort 56 ~ 64 Jacobs et al. 2008 Apollo 11, MIS 4 Howiesons Poort 57 ~ 63 Vogelsang 1998; Vogelsang et al. 2010 Umhlatuzana, MIS 4 Howiesons Poort 232 ≥ 60 Lombard et al. 2010 K’one, MIS 4 Loc 5 & 5-extension 21 ~ 60 Kurashina 1978; Brandt 1986 Border Cave, MIS 4 − 3 Post-Howiesons Poort 52 ~ 60 − 44 Timbrell et al. 2022 Umhlatuzana, MIS 4 − 3 Post-Howiesons Poort 20 ~ 60 − 40 Lombard et al. 2010 Sibudu Cave, MIS 4 − 3 Post-Howiesons Poort 44 ~ 59 − 55 Vanhaeren et al. 2019 Rose Cottage Cave, MIS 4 − 3 Post-Howiesons Poort 35 ~ 59 − 35 Pienaar et al. 2008 Sibudu Cave, MIS 3 Late MSA 100 ~ 55 − 46 Vanhaeren et al. 2019 Mumba, MIS 3 [A] Bed V 317 ~ 57 − 49 Gliganic et al. 2012; Bushozi et al. 2017 Nasera, MIS 3 Levels 6–7 24 ~ 50 − 47 Ranhorn and Tryon 2018; Martín-Perea et al. 2020 Porc-Epic, MIS 3 Units II-IV 403 ~ 50 − 40 Assefa et al. 2008; Leplongeon 2014 Fincha Habera, MIS 3 ?? 22 ~ 47 − 31 Ossendorf et al. 2019 Goda Buticha, MIS 3 Layers IId-IIf 20 ~ 46 − 33 Tribolo et al. 2017 Umhlatuzana, MIS 3 Final MSA 23 ~ 40 − 34 Lombard et al. 2010 Gorgora, MIS 3 [A] Levels 4–8 21 > 42 Sahle et al. under review Gorgora, MIS 3 [B] Level 9 24 ~ 42 Sahle et al. under review Gorgora, MIS 3 [C] Levels 10–11 93 < 42 Sahle et al. under review Mumba, MIS 3 [B] Bed III 28 ~ 37 Gliganic et al. 2012 Holley Shelter, MIS 3 Final MSA 45 ~ 36 − 34 Bader and Will 2022 TOTAL COUNT 5597 3. Results 3.1. MIS 12 − 8 We only have three assemblages with ≥ 20 pointed artefacts (n = 250) dating to > 243 ka. Cumulatively, the TCSA results suggest that if pointed stone tips were used for hunting, contact hunting was probably habitual with 45% of all the tips falling within this category (Table 5 ). These hominins may have occasionally hunted at close-range (31%), but the longer hunting ranges are all represented below the 15% threshold. This trend is most strongly expressed in the oldest assemblage from Kathu Pan, South Africa, where contact hunting may have been habitual (43%), and short-range hunting occasional (18%). The TCSA results of the oldest Gademotta MIS 8 [A] assemblage from Ethiopia suggest that short-range hunting (48%) was preferred (more frequent) over contact hunting (34%), and that both were habitual. In addition, these hunters may have experimented occasionally with medium-range weapons (18%). During the subsequent Gademotta MIS 8 [B] phase, short-range hunting remains preferred and habitual (38%), and it is supported occasionally by both contact- and medium-range hunting at 30% and 27% respectively. Table 5 TCSA statistics and frequencies of probable hunting ranges for MIS 12 − 8 assemblages (see SOM 3 for point TCSA data). Note: Percentages do not add up to 100, because of overlaps/gaps in ranges see Table 2 . Interpretative scheme:15–32% = occasional, 33–65% = habitual, ≥ 66% = obligatory hunting distances. Assemblage TCSA (mm²) summary statistics % Probable hunting range (TCSA ranges in mm²) Max. ≥ 30 m Long ~ 20–30 m Medium ~ 11–19 m Short ≤ 10 m Contact n Mean SD Median n % n % n % n % n % Kathu Pan, MIS 12 148 219 80 207 0 0 3 2 13 7 33 18 80 43 Gademotta, MIS 8 [A] 65 178 83 162 0 0 3 2 12 18 31 48 22 34 Gademotta, MIS 8 [B] 37 181 91 172 0 0 4 11 10 27 14 38 11 30 Cumulative MIS 12 − 8 250 202 85 193 0 0 10 4 35 14 78 31 113 45 3.2. MIS 6 The oldest MIS 6 assemblage, Rooidam 2, is the only one with a feasible proportion of stone tips suited for occasional long-range hunting (18%) (Table 6 ). Contact hunting (38%) was, however, preferred and habitual, with medium- and short-range hunting occasionally practiced at 24% and 23%, respectively. The TCSA results for the older Florisbad MIS 6 [A] point assemblage suggest that short-range weapons (51%) may have been preferred over contact weapons (46%), and that both were used habitually. During the younger Florisbad MIS 6 [B] phase, both weapon ranges are still habitual, but hunters may now have preferred weapons best suited for contact hunting (51%) over short-range hinting (36%), and occasionally included hunting with medium-range weapons. The MIS 6 assemblage from Pinnacle Point 13B has a relatively high proportion of tips that indicate a preference for habitual short-range hunting (61%), and occasionally medium-range hunting (27%). This trend wherein short-range hunting is habitual and preferred is echoed at Klasies River with 65% of its pointed artefacts falling in this category. Here, such hunting was also occasionally supported by medium-range hunting (20%), but different from Pinnacle Point, also by contact hunting (18%). At Olieboomspoort, the TCSA results suggest that contact hunting (72%) was perhaps obligatory, supported by habitual short-range hunting (49%), and occasional medium-range hunting (30%) (Table 6 ). Table 6 TCSA statistics and frequencies of probable hunting ranges for MIS 6 assemblages (see SOM 3 for point TCSA data). Note and interpretative scheme same as for Table 5 . Assemblage TCSA (mm²) summary statistics % Probable hunting distance (range in mm²) Max. ≥ 30 m Long ~ 20–30 m Medium ~ 11–19 m Short ≤ 10 m Contact n Mean SD Median n % n % n % n % n % Rooidam 2, MIS 6 130 170 101 150 3 2 24 18 31 24 30 23 94 38 Florisbad, MIS 6 [A] 63 200 68 189 0 0 0 0 4 6 32 51 29 46 Pinnacle Point 13B, MIS 6 51 139 50 132 0 0 6 12 14 27 31 61 6 12 Olieboomspoort, MIS 6 79 158 75 139 0 0 7 9 14 30 37 49 21 72 Klasies River, MIS 6 71 159 59 150 0 0 3 4 14 20 46 65 13 18 Florisbad, MIS 6 [B] 70 208 85 198 0 0 4 6 11 16 26 37 36 51 Cumulative MIS 6 464 173 81 158 3 44 9 88 19 202 44 199 43 3.3. MIS 5 For seventeen of the 25 assemblages, it seems that short-range hunting was habitual during MIS 5 (Table 7 ). This is, however, not the case for the oldest Klasies River MIS 5e [A] assemblage with an age estimate of > 110 ka. Here the TCSA results suggest that only long-range weaponry (35%) was in habitual use, supported by the occasional use of maximum- and medium-range weaponry at 29% and 21% respectively. During the MIS 5d glacial sub-stage peaking at ~ 109 ka, the three Klasies River assemblages that indicate habitual short-range hunting (33–50%) also show habitual contact hunting (35–46%). Of these, the Klasies River MIS 5d [C] assemblage also contains artefacts that suggest the occasional use of long-range weaponry (17%), and the Klasies River MIS 5d [D] assemblage the occasional use of medium-range hunting (17%). The Makgadikgadi MIS 5d assemblage from Botswana suggests a preference for habitual contact hunting (43%), occasionally supported by short- and medium-range hunting (29% and 24%). The only MIS 5d assemblage during which medium-range weapons (50%) seem to have been preferred over short-range ones (42%) is that of Gademotta in Ethiopia. At Halibee in Ethiopia, the assemblage spans the MIS 5d-c transition, and here contact hunting (43%) seems to have been habitual, and short-range weapons (32%) used occasionally. Between the MIS 5c (peaking at 96 ka) and MIS 5a (peaking at 82 ka) sub-stages the TCSA results of six assemblages suggest a combination of habitual short- and medium-range weapon use, i.e., Aduma MIS 5c, Aduma MIS 5c-b, Hollow Rock Shelter MIS 5a-4, Diepkloof MIS 5a, Blombos Cave MIS 5a, and Sibudu Cave MIS 5a [B] (Table 7 ). Contact hunting seems to have been practiced occasionally throughout this period, except at ≠ Gi Pan where habitual contact hunting (34%) is indicated. The Pinnacle Point 13B MIS 5c assemblage represent an anomaly in that none of the hunting ranges are either habitual or obligatory, instead weapon tips best-suited for medium-range, short-range and contact hunting are all almost equally represented as occasional (23–25%). In all the other MIS 5c assemblages (i.e., Hollow Rock Shelter MIS 5c [A], Bushman Rock Shelter MIS 5c-a, Pinnacle Point 5–6 MIS 5c, and Aduma MIS 5c), this same combination of medium-range, short-range and contact hunting seems to have been in play. However, hunting with short-range weapons is habitual (36–63%), supported by occasional contact hunting (17–32%), and at Bushman Rock Shelter the additional occasional use of long-range weapons (18%) is indicated. The TCSA results of the Aduma MIS 5c-b transitional assemblage suggest that contact weapons were not used, instead tips best-suited for medium-range weapons (49%) were preferred and habitual, supported by the habitual use of short-range weapons (34%) and the occasional use of long-range ones (29%). The trend towards longer hunting rages becomes increasingly apparent during MIS 5a (peaking at 82 ka). Weapon tips best suited for medium-range hunting is now preferred in five of the eleven assemblages, i.e., Sibudu Cave MIS 5a [A], Blombos Cave MIS 5a, Shinfa-Metema MIS 5a, Sibudu Cave MIS 5a [B], and Umhlatuzana MIS 5a (44–73%) (Table 6 ), and at Shinfa-Metema in Ethiopia the use of such weapons may have been obligatory (73%). Seven assemblages have TCSA results that suggest that in addition to short- and medium-range weaponry, hunters now supplemented their arsenals with long-range weapons. In the contexts of the Aduma MIS 5a, Sibudu Cave MIS 5a [A], and Umhlatuzana MIS 5a assemblages long-range hunting becomes habitual (33–48%), and it plays an occasional role in the Diepkloof MIS 5a, Blombos Cave MIS 5a, Shinfa-Metema MIS 5a, and Sibudu Cave MIS 5a [B] assemblages at 27–32%. The ≠ Gi Pan MIS 5a assemblage is the only one that lacks artefacts suited for medium- or long-range hunting. Here habitual short-range hunting (65%) seems to have been preferred, supported by habitual contact hunting (34%). Contact hunting is only indicated for two other MIS 5a assemblages, i.e., Diepkloof MIS 5a and Mumba MIS 5a-4 at 15% and 19%, respectively (Table 7 ). Table 7 TCSA statistics and frequencies of probable hunting for MIS 5 assemblages (see SOM 3 for point TCSA data). Note and interpretative scheme same as for Table 5 . Assemblage TCSA (mm²) summary statistics % Probable hunting distance (range in mm²) Max. ≥ 30 m Long ~ 20–30 m Medium ~ 11–19 m Short ≤ 10 m Contact n Mean SD Median n % n % n % n % n % Prospect Farm, MIS 5 − 3? 85 144 73 142 4 5 16 19 18 21 37 44 17 20 Klasies River, MIS 5e [A] 48 88 79 62 14 29 17 35 10 21 3 6 5 10 Klasies River, MIS 5d [B] 236 189 94 183 11 15 19 8 29 12 78 33 108 46 Makgadikgadi, MIS 5d 21 183 92 182 0 0 1 2 5 24 6 29 9 43 Klasies River, MIS 5d [C] 46 188 111 175 3 7 8 17 5 11 16 35 20 43 Klasies River, MIS 5d [D] 823 180 76 168 2 0.2 46 6 144 17 412 50 291 35 Gademotta, MIS 5d 24 118 39 108 1 4 2 8 12 50 10 42 2 8 Halibee, MIS 5d-c 47 216 106 202 0 0 2 4 6 13 15 32 20 43 Pinnacle Point 13B, MIS 5c 40 163 77 144 0 0 3 8 10 25 21 23 10 25 Hollow Rock Shelter, MIS 5c [A] 30 150 72 141 1 3 3 10 7 23 19 63 5 17 Bushman Rock Shelter MIS 5c-a 166 146 81 130 6 4 30 18 43 26 62 37 42 25 Pinnacle Point 5–6, MIS 5c 86 151 78 135 1 1 10 12 19 22 41 48 20 23 Aduma, MIS 5c 22 194 108 156 0 0 0 0 9 41 8 36 7 32 Aduma, MIS 5c-b 35 110 45 94 0 0 10 29 17 49 12 34 3 9 Aduma, MIS 5a 25 93 62 73 2 8 12 48 8 32 4 16 2 8 ≠Gi Pan, MIS 5a 294 185 62 171 0 0 0 0 19 6 192 65 101 34 Sibudu Cave, MIS 5a [A] 24 103 66 84 1 4 9 38 12 50 7 29 1 4 Diepkloof, MIS 5a 46 128 64 116 1 2 12 27 16 36 19 43 7 15 Blombos Cave, MIS 5a 28 107 54 95 1 4 9 32 13 46 11 39 1 4 Hollow Rock Shelter, MIS 5a-4 56 132 56 119 0 0 8 14 21 38 28 50 7 13 Shinfa-Metema, MIS 5a 26 93 23 99 0 0 7 27 19 73 7 27 0 0 Apollo 11, MIS 5a 33 182 105 153 1 3 4 12 7 21 15 45 11 3 Sibudu Cave, MIS 5a [B] 32 117 53 102 0 0 10 31 14 44 11 34 4 13 Mumba, MIS 5a-4 170 156 64 144 0 0 9 5 51 30 99 58 32 19 Umhlatuzana, MIS 5a 39 89 31 92 3 8 13 33 22 56 8 21 0 0 Cumulative MIS 5 2482 165 81 150 52 2 260 1 536 22 1141 46 725 29 3.4. MIS 4 Apart from the K’one and White Paintings Shelter assemblages, all the bona fide MIS 4 assemblages contain backed pieces that are connected to Afrotropic weapon use (see Lombard 2020). The TCSA results for the assemblages from this period suggest a preference for long-range and maximum-range hunting (Table 8 ). Hunting at maximum range (78%) may have been obligatory at Pinnacle Point 5–6 and Umhlatuzana. At Pinnacle Point 5–6 it may have been supported by long- and medium-range hunting (19% and 21%), but at Umhlatuzana it may have been the only viable option. At Rose Cottage Cave, Klein Kliphuis, Sibudu Cave, Klipdrift and Apollo 11 hunting at maximum range was probably habitual (47–59%). At White Paintings Shelter, Diepkloof and Klasies River people made weapon tips best suited for habitual long-range hunting (35–35%). It is only at K’one that contact hunting seems to have been the preferred habitual strategy, perhaps supported occasionally by weapons suited for short-, medium- and long-range hunting (19–29%). Also at Prospect Farm, where short-range hunting (44%) may have been the preferred and only habitual strategy, there are TCSA indications of medium- and long-range hunting (21% and 19%). Of the assemblages that span the MIS 4 − 3 transition, the TCSA results for Rose Cottage Cave suggest a preference for habitual long-range hunting (60%), supported by habitual medium-range (43%), and occasional short-range hunting (17%). The other three MIS 4 − 3 transitional assemblages all show a preference for habitual short-range hunting (38–60%). At Border Cave, short-range hunting seems to have been supplemented with habitual contact hunting (33%), as well as with occasional medium- and long-range hunting (27% and 19%), at Umhlatuzana with habitual medium-range (55%) and occasional contact hunting (15%), and at Sibudu Cave with occasional long-range, medium-range and contact hunting (16–30%) (Table 8 ). Table 8 TCSA statistics and frequencies of probable hunting for MIS 4 assemblages (see SOM 3 for point TCSA data). Note and interpretative scheme same as for Table 5 . Assemblage TCSA (mm²) summary statistics % Probable hunting distance (range in mm²) Max. ≥ 30 m Long ~ 20–30 m Medium ~ 11–19 m Short ≤ 10 m Contact n Mean SD Median n % n % n % n % n % Prospect Farm, MIS 5 − 3(?) 85 144 73 142 4 5 16 19 18 21 37 44 17 20 Pinnacle Point 5–6, MIS 4 88 57 58 35 42 78 23 26 16 18 7 8 4 5 Makgadikgadi, MIS 4 46 286 91 280 0 0 0 0 3 7 5 11 39 85 Rose Cottage Cave, MIS 4 84 47 32 39 41 49 27 32 15 18 4 5 0 0 White Paintings Shelter, MIS 4 29 94 31 88 0 0 12 41 17 59 10 34 0 0 Klein Kliphuis, MIS 4 135 52 30 44 53 59 52 39 24 18 6 4 0 0 Sibudu Cave, MIS 4 219 51 44 36 112 51 69 32 28 13 21 10 3 1 Diepkloof, MIS 4 132 58 30 53 42 32 63 48 36 27 13 10 0 0 Klipdrift, MIS 4 31 42 25 35 18 58 11 35 0 0 1 3 0 0 Klasies River, MIS 4 56 59 36 47 18 32 25 45 11 20 8 14 0 0 Apollo 11, MIS 4 57 56 44 51 27 47 18 32 6 11 7 12 1 2 Umhlatuzana, MIS 4 232 24 21 17 118 78 19 8 7 3 4 2 0 0 K’one, MIS 4 21 163 48 153 1 5 4 19 4 19 6 29 8 38 Border Cave, MIS 4 − 3 52 178 100 153 0 0 10 19 14 27 20 38 17 33 Umhlatuzana, MIS 4 − 3 20 148 59 150 0 0 2 10 5 55 12 60 3 15 Sibudu Cave, MIS 4 − 3 44 144 75 140 0 0 7 16 13 30 25 57 7 16 Rose Cottage Cave, MIS 4 − 3 35 78 33 75 2 6 21 60 15 43 6 17 0 0 Cumulative MIS 4 1366 74 74 48 478 35 379 28 232 17 192 14 99 7 3.3. MIS 3 The results for the Prospect Farm, MIS 5 − 3? assemblage, and the four South African MIS 4 − 3 transitional assemblages also pertain to this section, and we do not repeat those results. For all the bona fide MIS 3 assemblages medium-range hunting is indicated (Table 9 ). TCSA results for the Sibudu Cave, Mumba MIS 3 [A], Nasera, Porc-Epic, Goda Buticha, Umhlatuzana, Gorgora MIS 3 [A], and Mumba MIS 3 [B] assemblages suggest that such hunting was practiced habitually in these contexts (33–57%). The Fincha Habera, Gorgora MIS 3 [B] and [C], and Holley Shelter results suggest occasional use of medium-range weaponry (18–30%). For several MIS 3 assemblages short-range hunting was also habitual, and perhaps even preferred, e.g., Sibudu Cave, Mumba MIS 3 [A], Gorgora MIS 3 [A] and [C] (34–60%). In the context of Gorgora MIS 3 [B] and Holley Shelter it may have been obligatory (71% and 67%), and the only other feasible strategy was occasional medium-range hunting (21% and 22%). Habitual long-range hunting is suggested for the Nasera, Porc-Epic, Fincha Habera and Goda Buticha assemblages (33–50%), and at both Porc-Epic and Fincha Habera long-range hunting may have been the preferred strategy. Occasional long-range hunting is indicated for the Sibudu Cave, Mumba MIS 3 [A], Gorgora MIS 3 [C], and Mumba MIS 3 [B] (15–25%) assemblages. At Nasera, our results suggest occasional hunting at maximum range (17%) with stone-tipped weaponry during the period, and Fincha Habera is the only MIS 3 context in which hunters probably practiced a combination of habitual long-range hunting paired with hunting at maximum range (Table 9 ). Table 9 TCSA statistics and frequencies of probable hunting for MIS 3 assemblages (see SOM 3 for point TCSA data). Note and interpretative scheme same as for Table 4 . Assemblage TCSA (mm²) summary statistics % Probable hunting distance (range in mm²) Max. ≥ 30 m Long ~ 20–30 m Medium ~ 11–19 m Short ≤ 10 m Contact n Mean SD Median n % n % n % n % n % Prospect Farm, MIS 5 − 3? 85 144 73 142 4 5 16 19 18 21 37 44 17 20 Border Cave, MIS 4 − 3 52 178 100 153 0 0 10 19 14 27 20 38 17 33 Umhlatuzana, MIS 4 − 3 20 148 59 150 0 0 2 10 5 55 12 60 3 15 Sibudu Cave, MIS 4 − 3 44 144 75 140 0 0 7 16 13 30 25 57 7 16 Rose Cottage Cave, MIS 4 − 3 35 78 33 75 2 6 21 60 15 43 6 17 0 0 Sibudu Cave, MIS 3 100 119 66 104 9 9 23 23 33 33 34 34 14 14 Mumba, MIS 3 [A] 317 126 47 120 3 1 46 15 122 38 190 60 26 8 Nasera, MIS 3 24 78 36 79 4 17 8 33 11 46 4 17 0 0 Porc-Epic, MIS 3 403 94 51 81 21 5 181 45 152 38 109 27 14 3 Fincha Habera, MIS 3 22 51 20 43 8 36 10 45 4 18 0 0 0 0 Goda Buticha, MIS 3 20 81 35 78 1 5 10 50 10 50 3 13 0 0 Umhlatuzana, MIS 3 23 125 48 108 0 0 3 13 11 48 11 49 2 9 Gorgora, MIS 3 [A] 21 133 41 120 0 0 1 5 9 43 12 57 2 10 Gorgora, MIS 3 [B] 24 139 42 143 0 0 3 13 5 21 14 71 2 8 Gorgora, MIS 3 [C] 93 126 51 121 1 1 20 22 28 30 45 48 12 13 Mumba, MIS 3 [B] 28 109 45 101 1 4 7 25 16 57 11 39 2 7 Holley Shelter, MIS 3 45 144 49 136 0 0 5 11 10 22 30 67 6 13 Cumulative MIS 3 1334 118 60 108 46 3 363 27 472 35 563 42 124 9 4. Discussion We know of no hunter groups in the Afrotropics that rely only on a single weapon type or hunting range. Instead, historical and current hunters all use an array of weapons ‘each according to need and fashion’ (Hitchcock and Bleed 1997; see also Krige 1962; Tanaka 1979; Terashima 1983; Sahle et al. 2023). The results presented above demonstrate how our approach is able to highlight probable variation in the hunting ranges and stone-tipped arsenals of ancient Afrotropic hunters. Such variation may indicate adaptive advantages in variable socio-ecological contexts. We started out with a three-pronged research question: a) Can we generate a feasible chronology for the evolution of long-range, stone-tipped weapons in the Afrotropic? b) Was there spatiotemporal variability in the use of hunting ranges during the Middle Stone Age? c) If so, can we suggest testable hypotheses about the different adaptive advantages? Before we address these questions, we find it imperative to highlight how our current study reinforced or constrained previous interpretations about the development of long-range hunting in the Afrotropic Middle Stone Age. 4.1. Previous interpretations of long-range hunting tested and constrained Previous suggestion for the early use of javelins (Sahle et al. 2013) suffered from the lack of African comparative data. We rectified this here, showing that before ~ 280 ka, hunters at Gademotta probably used short-range weapons habitually, similar to the Ethiopian heavyweight hunting javelins. They still did so by ~ 280 − 260 ka, but now started to also experiment occasionally with medium-range javelins, similar to the Ethiopian long-narrow-tipped ones. Early javelin hunting in the Gademotta Middle Stone Age is therefore supported, but does not include hunting with long-range javelins. Javelin hunting was also suggested for southern Africa by ~ 191 − 130 ka (Lombard 2023). Our results suggest habitual hunting with short-range weapons resembling heavier southern African assegais or Ethiopian heavyweight hunting javelins, supported by occasional medium-range hunting. We found a possible indication of occasional long-range weapon use, with tips such as those used for the Ethiopian versatile- or the southern African San javelins, in only one assemblage dating to this phase. Thus, again javelin hunting is supported, but long-range hunting is not necessarily implied. Long-range spearthrower-and-dart hunting was inferred for the Aduma ~ 90 − 80 ka context (Brooks et al. 2006; Sahle and Brooks 2019). Our results support an interpretation of occasional long-range javelin hunting by ~ 91 ka without having to invoke American hunting weapon systems. By ~ 80 ka, hunting with long-range javelins, similar to the Ethiopian versatile ones, seems to have been habitual at Aduma. We found no support for bow-hunting at Shinfa-Metema by ~ 74 ka (cf. Kappelman et al. 2024). Instead, our results suggest that medium-range hunting with weapons reminiscent of the Ethiopian long-narrow-tipped hunting javelins is the most parsimonious ballistic interpretation. Long-range and/or bow hunting was also suggested for southern Africa by ~ 71 − 59 ka (Schoville et al. 2017; Lombard 2021), which is supported by our TCSA results. Long-range hunting is inferred to have existed at Porc-Epic ~ 50 − 40 ka (Sisk and Shea 2011). Our results confirm habitual long-range hunting with weapons more similar to the versatile Ethiopian hunting javelins than to American-like spearthrower darts for this context. 4.2. Chronology of long-range, stone-tipped weapons in the Afrotropics With the TCSA statistic as a middle-range tool, we used Afrotropic weapons with known, real-life, effective hunting ranges to interpret the probable hunting ranges of a large quantity of Middle Stone Age pointed artefacts. This approach resulted in the following working chronology for the evolution of long-range, stone-tipped weapon use in the Afrotropics: ≥MIS 8 glacial (≥ 243 ka): Hunters before ~ 464 ka used contact weapons whilst starting to experiment with throwing them over short distances of up to ~ 10 m. Such short-range hunting with stone-tipped weapons became part of mainstream hunting behaviour by MIS 8 (~ 300 − 243 ka). By that time, hunters started to experiment with medium-range hunting by throwing their weapons over distances of up to ~ 19 m. Currently, true long-range stone-tipped weapons that can be used effectively over distances of ~ 20–30 m do not seem to have been part of the Afrotropic arsenal before or during MIS 8. MIS 7 interglacial (~ 243 − 191 ka): No data meeting our chronological and sample size criteria. MIS 6 glacial (~ 191 − 130 ka): Short-range hunting with stone-tipped weapons remains part of the strategy, but this is relatively consistently paired with both contact- and medium-range hunting. These hunters may have used two or three spear/javelin types according to circumstance. In some instances, they started to experiment with long-range javelins. Whilst javelin hunting is indicated, long-range hunting was not a mainstream hunting strategy during MIS 6. MIS 5 (~ 130 − 71 ka): This stage is characterized by alternating interglacial and glacial sub-stages. The MIS 5 hunters seem to have continued with the three-weapon arsenal wherein up to the MIS 5c interglacial sub-stage (peaking at ~ 96 ka), short-range hunting was often mainstream. Subsequently, there is a shift at several sites towards medium-range hunting becoming a mainstream strategy. During the final MIS 5a interglacial substage (peaking at ~ 82 ka), long-range hunting becomes mainstream in tandem with medium-range hunting at some sites. MIS 5 is therefore the first time during which long-range hunting weapons became part of the everyday Afrotropic hunting arsenal. MIS 4 glacial (~ 71 − 57 ka): During this phase, long-range javelin hunting becomes regularly paired with hunting at maximum distance (e.g., bow hunting) in southern Africa. This geographic patterning is preliminary because dated Middle Stone Age assemblages with backed artefacts from elsewhere in the Afrotropics were not available for our study. It is, however, reasonable to hypothesize that MIS 4 Afrotropic hunters were able to hunt effectively across all the effective ranges to fit their respective needs, ecologies, and socio-cultural traditions. MIS 3 interstadial (~ 57 − 29 ka): Hunting at maximum distance with stone-tipped weaponry becomes rare during this stage. Instead, there is a general return to mainstream hunting with a combination of long-, medium- and short-range spears/javelins, especially in southern Africa. That said, after ~ 40 ka bone points similar to those used by southern African San hunters as arrowheads appear at several sites (e.g., d’Errico et al. 2012; Robbins et al. 2012). The seeming reversion in stone-tipped hunting weaponry may thus in part reflect a shift in the use of tip materials, instead of a socio-cognitive regression (see discussion in Lombard and Parsons 2011). If this was the case, preservation issues may hamper our ability to detect Afrotropic long- and/or maximum-range hunting post-MIS 4. The apparent reversion may also reflect the geographical range expansion (e.g., from the Rift Valley into ecotonal margins and montane habitats) and adaptive plasticity suggested for this period in such regions with very diverse ecogeographic features (Ossendorf et al. 2019; Sahle et al. 2024). The above represents our best-fit, broad, and parsimonious chronology for the evolution of long-range, stone-tipped weapon use in the Afrotropics. It speaks to a co-evolutionary hypothesis wherein the evolution of long-range hunting was a relatively long, incremental, multi-faceted, and continuous process, with the technical aspects thereof probably invented and re-invented throughout the last 500 ka. Apart from the lithic record, other characteristics would have also contributed to the human ability to hunt from a distance. For example, the evolution of the human ‘throwing arm and shoulder’ (e.g., Roach et al. 2013), which would have played a role in our ability to cast long-range javelins effectively. Accurate long-range hunting also requires the necessary visuospatial integration, that synchronizes “inner and outer functional processes, organizing spatial, temporal, and social interactions between the brain, body, and environment” (Bruner et al. 2018: 229). Palaeo-neurological studies suggest that this capacity was probably within the current modern human range by ~ 100 ka (e.g., Bruner et al. 2017). In addition to the necessary visuospatial baseline, effective hunting over the maximum distance with a bimanual technology such as the bow-and-arrow entails the development of the necessary neuro-cognitive pathways to pay attention in complex ways (e.g., Lombard 2024). All these aspects developed at different rates during different stages throughout human evolution, needing to come together with the archaeological record to allow for a robust chronological interpretation. It is our current hypothesis that experimentation with long-range weapons became feasible (physically, cognitively, and technologically) since MIS 6, but that it was the variable climatic conditions of MIS 5 that pushed it into a mainstream Afrotropic hunting behaviour. Being thus prepared, the challenges of the MIS 4 glacial then stimulated the development of bimanual, mechanically projected weapons that are effective at distances of > 30 m. Once this stage was reached, Afrotropic hunters had the capacity to invent, reinvent, produce, and use the full stone-tipped weapon arsenal across all hunting ranges according to their respective socio-ecological contexts. 4.3. Spatiotemporal variability in hunting ranges during the Afrotropic Middle Stone Age In the section above we provided a simplified temporal scheme, but our results section demonstrated intra- and inter-assemblage variability in Middle Stone Age hunting ranges. Some of this variation may reflect specific ecological, demographic and/or social settings. We cannot explore each of the 66 assemblages in detail here – some of that is planned for future research – and we acknowledge the lack of data for large portions of the Afrotropics. Instead, we use the K’one (Ethiopia) and Sibudu Cave (South Africa) MIS 4 assemblages to illustrate how certain aspects may contribute to inter-assemblage variability in stone-tipped weaponry and hunting ranges. In the Ethiopian Rift Valley, ~ 12 km west of Lake Besaka, gully erosion exposed horizontal beds of alluvium, volcanic ash, and fossil soils (Clark and Williams 1978; Williams 2023), one of which contained the small assemblage of obsidian points included in our study (Fig. 2 ). The open-air site at ~ 1600 m.a.s.l. in a geologically active landscape > 400 km away from the nearest coastline, is currently located in a savanna (open-canopied) woodland, nestled between montane forests. During the MIS 4 glacial the vegetation was probably scrubland, with access to pockets of savanna woodland (Basell 2008). Although undated, Kurashina (1978) and Clark and Williams (1978) placed the assemblage in the loam of the arid upper Pleistocene at ~ 70 − 60 ka (Brandt 1986). K’one was probably an obsidian knapping station, where Kurashina (1978) recognized three high-density patches of flaked stone artifacts, indicating prolonged or intense stone knapping activity, perhaps by several knappers. Only rejected or lost pieces would remain on the workshop floor, but these (at least partly) represent artefacts manufactured at the site (Kurashina 1978) to be transported and used elsewhere. The K’one obsidian source is temporally and geographically the most widely represented source in MIS 6 to MIS 3 assemblages across the Afar and Main Ethiopian Rift (Negash et al. 2011). Depending on how long their obsidian collecting and knapping sessions lasted, the knappers may have hunted near the site. Our results suggest that tips best suited for contact hunting was the preferred and only tips in habitual use at K’one during MIS 4. Today, Ethiopian hunters use weapons with such tips to strike at cornered, large and dangerous prey (Sahle et al. 2023). The narrow corridor ~ 3 km northeast of K’one cutting through the caldera plateau (Fig. 2 ) would provide the opportunity to trap passing herds. The landscape is also conducive of driving hunts with medium/long-range javelins, sending animals to plummet over the plateau edge onto the scrubland where they could be killed from up close. Habitual long-range hunting, or maximum-range bow hunting may not have provided adequate adaptive advantages on this cold and arid landscape or may have been too costly and/or cumbersome to maintain for the people who visited the site for short stays to collect raw-material for knapping. For example, bow staves and strings operate under tension and are weather sensitive, so that they may snap in extreme cold and arid conditions, increasing risk of wear and failure and costing much in maintenance (Howard 2004; Pettigrew 2021). As an open-air site, K'one has poor organic preservation so that there is not much fauna to assess these hypotheses, but if it was very cold or frozen during MIS 4 bow-hunting may have been difficult on this landscape. Figure 2 . Top left: A satellite image of the immediate K’one landscape today with the caldera plateau to the east and a land bridge separating the larger and smaller calderas northeast of the site (red pin) that may have functioned as a natural game funnel. Top right: The steep-walled caldera rim. Bottom left: The Middle Stone Age excavation on the flank of the K’one volcanic edifice (Site photos by Williams, 1975). Bottom right: Points from the K’one MIS 4 context. By contrast, Sibudu is a large rock shelter, with a deep occupational sequence and excellent organic preservation ~ 15 km inland of the Indian Ocean at ~ 100 m.a.s.l. (Fig. 3). The riverine habitat below the site was likely relatively persistent throughout the Middle Stone Age, and the mosaic of surrounding habitats could support a wide range of fauna (Wadley 2010). MIS 4 botanical remains imply elevated levels of water availability and humidity in a closed forested environment with a woodland/savanna landscape in the vicinity (Allott 2006; Hall and Woodborne 2010). According to Clark (2017) Sibudu provides the largest MIS 4 faunal sample for South Africa, representing a diverse prey range (indicated as HP in SOM 1). The most common species-level identifications are the blue duiker and bushpig, both of which prefer forested habitats, and taphonomic data confirm humans as the primary contributors (Clark 2017). Blue duiker (Fig. 3) may have been captured using nets or remote capture technology such as traps or snares (e.g., Wadley 2010), but some Mbuti hunters hunt duikers – an important species in their dietary ecology – with unpoisoned arrows. Individual bow hunting is their habitual pattern, but they often also hunt in groups with their bows and arrows. Terashima (1983) sees such group hunting as an archery activity with socio-economic implications wherein at least five or six hunters are needed to be effective, most Mbuti archer bands therefore consist of five to twelve families. The same hunters also use spears and/or javelins for hunting large animals such as elephant and buffalo, the yield of which is great if successful. Hunting large game with spears/javelins, however, involves such great risk that the Mbuti only do it occasionally and in a group (Harako 1976). Our TCSA results indicate that hunting at maximum range was probably the preferred and habitual strategy practiced at Sibudu during MIS 4. Bow hunting could be effective for a variety of animal sizes, including the small blue duiker, and is supported for the MIS 4 at Sibudu by use-trace and residue analysis, as well as experimental work (e.g., Lombard 2011; de la Peña et al. 2013). This flexible strategy – in terms of range, prey type, ecology and group size (Lombard 2016, 2022) – seems to have been a mainstream behaviour amongst the Sibudu MIS 4 hunters. Similar to the Mbuti forest hunters, regular bow hunting in the forests around Sibudu may have afforded them certain adaptive advantages – more so than hunting from other ranges or with other stone-tipped weapons. Resembling current San hunters from southern Africa who always carry leather bags containing a bow-and-arrows and a spear/javelin so that they are prepared for any type of hunting (e.g., Tanaka 1979), our TCSA results suggest that the Sibudu hunters too may have had their long-range javelins at the ready. By MIS 4, all Afrotropic populations were modern Homo sapiens . We may therefore assume that both groups had well-developed throwing arms/shoulders (e.g., Roach et al. 2013), the neuro-cranial morphology for visuospatial integration over a distance (e.g., Bruner et al. 2017), and the neuro-genetic adaptations to pay attention in complex ways (e.g., Lombard 2024). We therefore used these two assemblages with very different TCSA results to highlight how other factors may have contributed to such concurrent variability in hunting ranges and weaponry. These factors may include, amongst other things: a) Whether assemblages come from open-air or sheltered deposits; b) site function; c) ecological conditions; d) geography (topography, elevation, distance from a coastline); e) organic preservation; and e) group size. 4.4. Adaptive advantages of the different hunting ranges Each of the hunting ranges increases the space between hunter and prey animal by ~ 10 m, which may have had broad spatiotemporal as well as specific contextual adaptive advantages. For example, bimanual thrusting spears (with or without stone tips) used for contact hunting currently represent the oldest recognizable, purpose-made hunting weapons. They were used by the Neanderthals in Eurasia, and both Homo heidelbergensis and Homo sapiens in the Afrotropics. Their sharpened tips (wood or stone) would allow for wounding and weakening prey animals more effectively, compared to attacking prey with un-modified objects. Hunters can apply their full bodily force to these robust weapons, doing maximum damage up close. Afrotropic thrusting spears are ~ 2 m long, so that used as a contact weapon there is still more than an arm’s length between hunter and prey. Any kind of spear hunting, especially contact and short-range hunting, is ineffective and very dangerous for the lone hunter. Early spear hunting therefore required group hunting, and for many types of large game, return rates increase meaningfully when hunting occurs in a group (Alvard 2001). Group hunting demands the development of some social cooperation, a key feature in human evolution (e.g., Apicella and Silk 2019). Our TCSA analysis highlights contexts wherein contact hunting in group may have played occasional, habitual, or obligatory roles through time and across the Afrotropic. Short-range hunting weapons, resembling the heavier southern African assegais or Ethiopian heavyweight hunting javelins, are dual-purpose. They are sturdy enough to stab directly into an animal without losing the weapon, but could also be thrown effectively up to ~ 10 m. What is more, because their shaft diameters are small enough to allow effective single-handed use, hunters can carry a second weapon or shield as backup or protection. Having a single weapon that can both stab and be thrown would further stimulate strategic planning and cooperation within a hunting party. The communal success of such dual-purpose, social weapon-use strategies may explain why stone points resembling heavyweight assegais are so prevalent and spatiotemporally well represented in the Middle Stone Age Afrotropics – and why they remained a preferred hunting and warfare weapon until recent times (Sahle et al. 2023; Lombard et al. 2024). During MIS 3 it may have become obligatory to conduct short-range hunting with such weapons at sites such as Gorgora in Ethiopia and Holley Shelter in South Africa, indicating that similar hunting success was difficult for these hunters to obtain with other stone-tipped hunting strategies. Alternatively, their socio-cultural contexts may have caused them to suffer serious adverse consequences, such as difficulty in finding mates for pair bonding or lack of social status, if they were not successful in the social, short-range hunting forays. Medium-range hunting, with weapons such as the Ethiopian long-narrow-tipped hunting javelins and smaller assegais from South Africa, is especially useful for wounding animals during ambush hunting from distances of up to 19 m. They bring with them a meaningful increase in the distance between hunter and prey with less risk of danger/injury. Their relatively small shaft diameters, also means that hunters can now carry up to three backup javelins in their non-throwing hands. Such hunting still relies on group hunting with its socio-cultural implications. In many instances throughout the Afrotropic Middle Stone Age our TCSA results indicate habitual combinations of short-range and medium-range hunting. For such groups it may imply an increased specialization in structured group hunting, wherein different hunters carried different weapons for their respective roles during the hunt (e.g., Sahle et al. 2023; Lombard et al. 2024), stimulating collective strategizing and risk management. Our work with current javelin hunters shows that true long-range hunting, at distances that reach that of American dart hunting, can be achieved with hunting javelins. Such hunting further increases the effective hunting distance but does not necessarily require the invention of a mechanical propelling technology. Yet, by being able to hunt from distances similar to those reached by American spearthrowers, Churchill and Rhodes (2009) predicted that Middle Stone Age hunters were able to broaden their prey range and change their prey-choice economics. For example, long-range hunting is more effective on open landscapes, allowing hunters to exploit new hunting grounds and prey types, widening their subsistence economics and diet breadth (Churchill and Rhodes 2009). The relative safety associated with long-range hunting of up to ~ 30 m, also allows for smaller hunting parties, compared to other spear/javelin hunters. Hunting-group sizes can thus become flexible, able to wax and wane with changes in ecological carrying capacity and social-organization patterns. The adaptive advantages of bow hunting were recently summarized (Lombard 2022 and references therein). First, it allows for maximum-range hunting in open and/or desert landscapes but can also be used over shorter distances in closed forested ecologies. Whilst spear/javelin/dart hunting is most effective for disadvantage and ambush hunting, bow hunting is effective for disadvantage, ambush, approach, pursuit and encounter hunting. Many arrows can be carried in a quiver during a hunting foray, allowing for more shots per trip, longer search times, and distance running. Bows can be re-loaded and fired multiple times in quick succession, from a concealed position, increasing the success rate for small groups and individual hunters. Bow hunting has a relatively high success rate, so that large sharing groups are unnecessary. Cumulatively the adaptive advantages of bow hunting allow for complete flexibility in group size, prey type, landscape and movement across most ecological boundaries. We suggest that these hypotheses about the adaptive advantages of the different hunting ranges are all testable from different angles for most of the assemblages presented in this study. Such work may include contextual use-trace studies, the alignment of hunting ranges with faunal assemblages, the assessment of landscapes and ecologies in terms of best-fit hunting ranges, and the estimation of group sizes and mobility – to name but a few. Lastly, hunting with stone-tipped weaponry, although important during the Middle Stone Age, was not necessarily an obligatory behaviour. Animal proteins can be gained through foraging (e.g., eggs, insects, reptiles), fishing and seafood gathering, or scavenging. Our results, however, show that it was a flexible, habitual practice throughout the Afrotropic Middle Stone Age wherein hunters could adapt their hunting ranges and weapons to reap the best fitness rewards within their specific biocultural and socio-ecological settings. This would be similar to Shea’s (2017: 209) example of cooking as a habitual behavior amongst living humans, wherein: “Cooking is something people do more or less constantly with variable periodicity and intensity. One can microwave, roast, fry, or boil pretty much any foodstuff or eat it raw, but the costs of using one or another such method and the calories one obtains by doing so vary situationally”. 5. Conclusions With this contribution we demonstrated that it is not necessary to invoke American-like spearthrower-and-dart hunting to discuss the evolution of long-range hunting in Africa. Instead, in the most comprehensive study of its kind to date, we used knowledge gained from current/recent Afrotropic hunters and the data of their weapon tips as a more appropriate middle-range proxy for hypothesising about Middle Stone Age point assemblages from the same biogeographic realm. We confirmed that the range of some African hunting javelins can match the approximate effective distances of spearthrower-darts in real-life hunting contexts – representing true long-range hunting. However, we also showed that not all ‘javelins’ are equal, and that some may have served dual stabbing-throwing purposes or represent medium-range hunting. The new hunting-range TCSA approach provides a statistically robust scheme to distinguish between stone tips best suited for each hunting range ballistically. No hunters from the Afrotropics are known to use a single weapon or hunting range only. We therefore used an approach that facilitates thinking about proportional use of different weapon tips and their associated best-fit hunting ranges within each assemblage. Considering these proportions in occasional-habitual-obligatory terms highlighted probable adaptive advantages associated with the weapon sets used in each context that can now be tested with future research. Whilst many factors had to come together for humans to be able to practice long-range hunting with stone-tipped weapons effectively, the summary of our results show that: a) long-range hunting with stone-tipped weapons was probably not practiced in the Afrotropics before or during MIS 8 that ended by ~ 243 ka; b) experimentation with long-range javelins – similar to those used by current Ethiopian hunters – may have started during MIS 6 after ~ 191 ka; and c) such hunting probably became part of the everyday Afrotropic hunting arsenal by the end of MIS 5 at ~ 85 ka. Lastly, it is important to consider that each hunting range and weapon-delivery system comes with its own adaptive advantages. Thus, the human ability to hunt over long- or maximum-range distances with stone-tipped weapons did not necessarily always replace hunting over shorter distances. Instead, since MIS 4, it provided Afrotropic hunters with the full spectrum of hunting ranges and stone-tipped weaponry to hunt effectively in all socio-ecological settings. Declarations Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest. Funding: This work is based on the research supported by National Research Foundation of South Africa (Grant Number :150524) to YS. Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.S. and M.L.; methodology, M.L.; validation, Y.S. and M.L.; formal analysis, Y.S. and M.L.; investigation, Y.S. and M.L.; resources, Y.S. and M.L.; data curation, Y.S. and M.L.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.S. and M.L.; visualization, Y.S. and M.L.; project administration, Y.S.; funding acquisition, Y.S. Both authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Acknowledgments: We thank several museums and colleagues across South Africa, Kenya, and Ethiopia for access to collections. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4990711","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":346637715,"identity":"adc5a16e-d7ea-49af-a896-cca943f5b18d","order_by":0,"name":"Yonatan Sahle","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA/UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYHADHsYDDBXEKj4A0QKkz4AokrQwthGhxeB478HPH2ruMMi3nz1w4OO8w/L2DMwPPzD8scOt5cy5ZIkDx54BGXkJB2duO2zYw8BmLMHAk4xby40cA4kDbIcZDBhyDA7zbjucAHSYGQODBDM+LcY/Dvw7zCDf/8bg8N85IC3s34Di9fi0mEkcbDvMwAC07jBjA0gLD9CWhMM4tUieOWNmcbbvMI/BjTcGB3uOpRv2HOYplkg4cBynFr7jPcY3Kr4dlpPvzzF88KPGWp69vX3jhw9/qnFqUTgAoZFiA+TxBJwaGBjkG/BIjoJRMApGwSgAAwA6r1e5uOwwDQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1098-1685","institution":"University of Cape Town","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yonatan","middleName":"","lastName":"Sahle","suffix":""},{"id":346637716,"identity":"17e6927f-532f-48db-aea6-545b54d5af77","order_by":1,"name":"Marlize Lombard","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0675-0414","institution":"University of Johannesburg","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Marlize","middleName":"","lastName":"Lombard","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-08-28 11:29:14","currentVersionCode":2,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4990711/v2","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4990711/v2","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.3390/quat7040050","type":"published","date":"2024-11-18T00:00:00+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":64624962,"identity":"047ad4a3-26c6-4e9a-a7bb-8052ac078dd2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-16 17:45:17","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2270084,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTop: Archaeological sites in the Afrotropics from which assemblages were included in this study (Table 3). Bottom: Biogeographic realms in Miklos Udvardy’s system (base map adapted from: Carol, CC BY-SA 3.0, \u003ca href=\"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/\"\u003ehttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/\u003c/a\u003e) with data for mammal species and density added by ML from Burgin et al. (2018).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4990711/v2/128fccf2348f256654d60e0d.jpg"},{"id":64624964,"identity":"980da106-c810-4266-80b8-1ccc1c02c71d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-16 17:45:17","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":4980803,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTop left: A satellite image of the immediate K’one landscape today with the caldera plateau to the east and a land bridge separating the larger and smaller calderas northeast of the site (red pin) that may have functioned as a natural game funnel. Top right: The steep-walled caldera rim. Bottom left: The Middle Stone Age excavation on the flank of the K’one volcanic edifice (Photos by Williams; taken in 1975). Bottom right: Points from the K’one MIS 4 context.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4990711/v2/028439d6f1de4b05cd802fd0.png"},{"id":64624965,"identity":"65916657-1ebf-4058-8331-4d4c968d2a86","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-16 17:45:17","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":4786014,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTop: Archaeological sites in the Afrotropics from which assemblages were included in this study (Table 3). Bottom: Biogeographic realms in Miklos Udvardy’s system (base map adapted from: Carol, CC BY-SA 3.0, \u003ca href=\"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/\"\u003ehttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/\u003c/a\u003e) with data for mammal species and density added by ML from Burgin et al. (2018).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4990711/v2/1af7bff84fa859602a6296c3.png"},{"id":69475328,"identity":"c94b00d0-616f-4caf-abd6-7725dfb70220","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-20 19:11:54","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":17771051,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4990711/v2/4a417227-7da2-4d3a-8b9e-e85e5b77a0af.pdf"},{"id":64624963,"identity":"00fa3f71-f508-4b51-bb36-379601c32f0f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-16 17:45:17","extension":"xlsx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":95404,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSupplementary Online Materials 1-3\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"SOM13.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4990711/v2/49426e936a0a547a3353187e.xlsx"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eThe evolution of long-range hunting with stone-tipped weapons during the Afrotropic Middle Stone Age: A testable framework based on tip cross-sectional area\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere is little doubt that launching stone-tipped weapons accurately and forcefully enough to pierce the hides of prey animals from a distance had important adaptive advantages for early human hunters. It has been suggested that spearthrowers-and-darts or bows-and-arrows represent the only \u0026lsquo;true\u0026rsquo; long-range Stone Age weaponry (e.g., Churchill and Rhodes 2009). Some researchers also found that reports of terrestrial javelin hunting were rare, and that trying to distinguish between hand-thrown and thrusting/stabbing spears may not be meaningful, because both represent \u0026lsquo;short-range\u0026rsquo; hunting wherein javelins were thought to have an average range of 7.8 m only (Churchill 1993: 18). Milks et al. (2019) showed that wooden spears, comparable to those from Sch\u0026ouml;ningen in Germany, dating to ~\u0026thinsp;400 ka, can be thrown with 25% accuracy from ~\u0026thinsp;10\u0026ndash;15 m. The authors did not, however, demonstrate that these can penetrate animal hides from such distance. The accuracy of experimental wooden spears increased to 58% when thrown from only 5 m (Milks et al. 2019) and can cause serious damage up close (Gaudzinski-Windheuser et al. 2018). The known wooden spears are thus best suited for contact or short-range hunting. Our focus is on the effective hunting ranges of Middle Stone Age stone-tipped weaponry from the Afrotropics that are meant to pierce the hides of prey animals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn their attempt to identify early long-range hunting in eastern Africa, Brooks et al. (2006) found that points from Aduma, Ethiopia, dating to ~\u0026thinsp;90\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;80 ka, fall within American ethnographic spearthrower-dart and large arrowhead ranges, and that dimensions decrease through time. Sahle and Brooks (2019) subsequently reported on morphometric aspects, hafting traces, and impact damage patterns of the Aduma points affirming a shift between ~\u0026thinsp;100 ka and ~\u0026thinsp;80 ka from short-range spear technologies to long-range projectiles comparable to American spearthrower-darts. Sisk and Shea (2011) also used a comparative morphometric approach to suggest that stone points from Porc-Epic (~\u0026thinsp;50\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;40 ka) were used to tip long-range projectiles such as American spearthrower darts. Kappelman et al. (2024) proposed bow hunting with tips comparable to North American arrowheads at Shinfa-Metema in Ethiopia by ~\u0026thinsp;74 ka, based on tip cross-sectional geometry and micro-wear data. A combination of macro-fracture, use-wear and micro-residue analyses demonstrated that small backed pieces in southern Africa were used as arrow tips and barbs (Lombard and Phillipson 2010; Lombard 2011; de la Pena et al. 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite the availability of much data on African arrowheads, and no ethno-historical or archaeological records of American-like spearthrowers in the Afrotropics, none of these studies considered the potential use of hunting javelins or used African weapon-tip data for comparative purposes. Instead, the interpretations of African stone-tipped weaponry were based solely on the dimensions of North American arrowheads (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;118), spearthrower dart tips (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;40), and experimental stone points (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;28) (Thomas 1978; Shott 1997; Shea et al. 2001). Yet, during the last few centuries, and still today in some contexts, Afrotropic hunters used/use a range of hunting javelins, bimanual thrusting spears, assegais (single-handed stabbing spears), and bows-and-arrows (Sahle et al. 2023; Lombard et al. 2024). Lombard et al. (2024) further demonstrated that hypothesizing about American-like dart hunting in sub-Saharan Africa based on tip morphometrics is impossible once javelin hunting is considered. Currently, the best prediction for spearthrower use in Africa is that it may have happened in the northern African Palearctic or Saharo-Arabian zoogeographic realm during a green-Sahara phase, instead of the biodiverse Afrotropics (Lombard 2022; see also Lombard and Shea 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparative morphometric studies, based on large samples of southern African hafted weapon tips of known use (see Lombard et al. 2024 for discussion about metal vs stone tips in the TCSA context) support a hypothesis wherein long-range javelin hunting, in tandem with stabbing/short-range assegais, may have been practiced since MIS 6 (191\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;130 ka), and bow hunting by ~\u0026thinsp;71\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;59 ka in the region (Lombard 2021, 2023; Lombard and Churchill 2022; Lombard and Moncel 2023). Schoville et al. (2017) concurred with an interpretation of long-range hunting by ~\u0026thinsp;71\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;59 ka while remaining unsure about the delivery system. Use-trace and morphometric data indicated that points from Gademotta, Ethiopia, may have been used as javelin tips by \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;279\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;105 ka (Sahle et al. 2013), but in the absence of a javelin-tip reference collection, temporal variability in weapon use at this site-complex could not be resolved.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on a suite of use-trace (macro-fracture, micro-wear, and residue) analyses, we know that some pointed and backed artefacts from Middle Stone Age contexts were used as hafted tips and/or barbs for hunting weapons (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Of course, this interpretation does not exclude potential alternative uses such as scraping and cutting (e.g., Lombard 2005a; 2006; Schoville et al. 2016; Werner and Willoughby 2018; Douze et al. 2020) \u0026ndash; but our focus here is hunting. Discussion of hunting technologies demands following specific protocols that speak directly to the development of hunting traces that can be easily missed (see details in Wadley et al. 2004; Fischer et al. 1984; Lombard 2005a, 2005b; Lombard and Wadley 2007; Pargeter 2011). For example, it is futile to ignore point fragments, broken tips and reams of experimental evidence in a macro-fracture analysis, approaches focusing on edge-damage cannot detect the small surface striations that sometimes develop on weapon tips, and the recognition of animal residues is not always straightforward. Most use-trace methods are appropriate for generating small-scale, tool- and context-specific evidence of African Pleistocene hunting (Lombard 2005a, 2011; Sahle et al. 2013; Rots et al. 2017; Sahle and Brooks 2019), but not for analyzing thousands of artefacts across vast spatiotemporal boundaries required to hypothesize about broad evolutionary trends in tip design for best-fit ballistic probability (Hughes 1998; Shea 2006; Lombard et al. 2024). Importantly, they cannot provide data about hunting range, which is the purpose of the present investigation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExamples of use-trace and direct evidence for the use of pointed and backed stone artefacts from the Middle Stone Age as tips and/or barbs for hunting weapons.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge (ka)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTip type, site, country\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUse-trace methods\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSources\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoints, Kathu Pan, South Africa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMacro-fracture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWilkins et al. 2012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;279\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoints, Gademotta, Ethiopia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVelocity-dependent micro-fracture features, macro-fracture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSahle et al. 2013; but see Douze and Delagnes 2016; Sahle and Braun 2018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;171\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoints, Ifri n\u0026rsquo; Ammar, Morocco\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMicro-wear, residues\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTomasso et al. 2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoints, Klasies River, South Africa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFractured point in buffalo vertebra\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMilo 1998\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;100\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoints, Aduma, Ethiopia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMacro-fracture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSahle and Brooks 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;100\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoints, Magubike, Tanzania\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEdge damage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWerner and Willoughby 2018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoints, Blombos, South Africa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMacro-fracture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLombard 2007\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoints, Sibudu, South Africa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMicro-wear, residues\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRots et al. 2017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoints, Blombos, South Africa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMacro-fracture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLombard 2007\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoints, Blombos, South Africa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMacro-fracture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLombard 2007\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoints, Shinfa-Metema, Ethiopia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMacro-fracture, micro-wear,\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKappelman et al. 2024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;73\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoints, Sibudu, South Africa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMacro-fracture, micro-wear, residues\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLombard 2006, 2007\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;73\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoints, Mumba, Tanzania\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMicro-wear, residues\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBushozi et al. 2017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoints, Umhlatuzana, South Africa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMacro-fracture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLombard 2007\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;70\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBacked pieces, Klasies River, South Africa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMacro-fracture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWurz and Lombard 2007\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;65\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBacked pieces, Sibudu Cave, Srica\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMacro-fracture, micro-wear, residues\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLombard and Phillipson 2010, Lombard 2011, de la Pe\u0026ntilde;a et al. 2018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;64\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoints Aduma, Ethiopia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMacro-fracture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSahle and Brooks 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoints, Sibudu, South Africa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMacro-fracture, micro-wear, residues\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ede la Pena et al. 2013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBacked pieces, Umhlatuzana, South Africa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMacro-fracture, micro-wear, residues\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhillipson and Lombard 2010\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;60\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoints, Sibudu, South Africa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMacro-fracture, micro-wear, residues\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLombard et al. 2004; Lombard 2005a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoints, White Paintings, Botswana\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMicro-wear\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhillipson 2007\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoints, Gorgora, Ethiopia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMacro-fracture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSahle et al. 2024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoints, Umbeli Belli, South Africa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResidues\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBader et al. 2016; Tribolo et al. 2014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe tip cross-sectional area (TCSA) method provides a ballistic statistic \u0026ndash; with velocity-distance implications \u0026ndash; for the maximum sectional area of a weapon tip that opens a hole in the skin/hide for the projectile to enter a target\u0026rsquo;s body (Hughes 1998). With contextually appropriate, and statistically robust standardized TCSA ranges, large samples can be processed with minimum error. Such studies provide directly comparable quantitative datasets for building broad, testable hypotheses about weapon-assisted hunting through time and across space (Shea 2006; Lombard 2021; Lombard and Moncel 2023). Even though such approaches cannot determine whether each individual artefact was hafted and used for hunting (for that, detailed use-trace work is required), they are effective tools for probable/best-fit ballistic interpretations of artefact classes that are clearly associated with hunting economies and known to have been used as weapon tips (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfrotropic Middle Stone Age assemblages represent bona fide hunter-gatherer populations for whom hunting was a key techno-behavioral component, often resulting in the representation of large faunal remains (e.g., Assefa 2006). These assemblages cover the full range of animal sizes, from size 1 (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;18 kg) to size 5 (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1000 kg) (see SOM 1 for examples). Direct evidence of hunting with stone-tipped weapons come from Klasies River in South Africa where the tip of a stone point was found embedded in the vertebra of an extinct giant buffalo dated to ~\u0026thinsp;100 ka (Milo 1998; Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). We argue it is therefore reasonable to accept that some pointed stone artefacts were made for hunting during the Afrotropic Middle Stone Age, and contesting such function begs an explanation of how early humans hunted animals during the periods. American weaponry or laboratory experiments are in many ways disconnected from Afrotropic hunting reality. A real-life, contextual middle-range proxy for assessing the evolution of Afrotropic hunting can be gained directly from African hunters and their weapons. We, therefore, use recent self-collected African information and data (see Sahle et al. 2023; Lombard et al. 2024 [the supplementary materials to these papers contain full datasets regarding dimensions, materials, etc.]), for adapting the TCSA method to primarily assess variation in hunting range, with the underlaying weapon-delivery systems being of secondary concern. We present data for 5597 stone points representing 62 assemblages from 34 Middle Stone Age sites across the Afrotropics. Most of the eastern African artefacts were newly measured by one of the coauthors; we also present TCSA data for assemblages from several sites for the first time. Previously published TCSA data are re-analyzed and interpreted using the new hunting-range TCSA framework. Our research question is threefold:\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eCan we generate a feasible chronology for the evolution of long-range, stone-tipped weapons in the Afrotropic?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWas there spatiotemporal variability in the use of hunting ranges during the Middle Stone Age?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eIf so, can we suggest testable hypotheses about the different adaptive advantages?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecent work documented ethnographic hunting javelin types and the distances they can be thrown at (Sahle et al. 2023). Such \u0026lsquo;maximal distance\u0026rsquo; relates more to modern target shooting, or sporting competitions (Hughes 1998) than to Afrotropic hunting. \u0026lsquo;Effective distance\u0026rsquo;, on the other hand, is a hunting concept representing the average range over which hunters deliver their weapons with the necessary accuracy and force (Hughes 1998). Importantly, effective hunting in the Afrotropics is often not associated with deep-penetrating lethality at first strike. Instead, the general aim is to wound an animal with several/many strikes so that it becomes weakened and exhausted. In most instances, it is then killed with a spear thrust to the jugular (the authors\u0026rsquo; personal observations of traditional African hunting). For the purposes of this paper, we revisited African javelin hunters to record their preferred-effective hunting ranges (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthiopian hunting javelins and their maximal vs effective ranges.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeapon type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocal names\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral use\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaximal distance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffective distance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeavyweight-multipurpose spears/javelins\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGolda gina\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ebambele baqe\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElite hunters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCeremonial dances symbolising elite-hunting status, and striking at cornered, large and dangerous prey such as buffaloes, large antelopes, bush pigs and forest hogs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;27 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContact, \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;10 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeavyweight hunting javelins\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKoisha gina, dimoyi baqe\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompetent, experienced hunters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKilling large prey and predators (e.g., hyaenas) from a greater distance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u0026ndash;40 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;13 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLong-narrow-tipped hunting javelins\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMechamia/ganchiria gina, guruchek baqe\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAny hunter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmbush hunting, inflicting wounds from a distance, or wounding large, difficult-to-catch prey that is then tracked and killed at close-range with a heavier weapon.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;40 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;19 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVersatile hunting javelins\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTsinka gina, bodoy baqe\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll adult hunters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsidered to have superior velocity and efficiency, for long-range throwing to startle, divert, wound/kill startled animals\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;50 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;27 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLight-weight hunting javelins\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBoda gina, donkoche baqe\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNovice hunters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTarget practice on small prey, e.g., duikers, porcupines, or bushbucks around the camp\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u0026ndash;40 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003enot for adult hunting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe preferred-effective hunting distances reported here for Afrotropic hunting javelins clearly demonstrate that not all javelins can be thought of as short-range weapons. Especially the effective range of the Ethiopian \u003cem\u003eversatile\u003c/em\u003e javelins compare favorably to long-range dart-and-spearthrower hunting that is most effective at ~\u0026thinsp;20\u0026ndash;30 m and fall just short of bow-hunting that is effective up to ~\u0026thinsp;30\u0026ndash;45 m (Frayer 1981; Cundy 1989; Friis-Hansen 1990; Churchill 1993; Hitchcock and Bleed 1997; Cattelain 1997; Lombard 2022). We therefore use a scheme of five approximate effective hunting ranges to explore the best-fit distances from which Afrotropic Middle Stone Age weapons may have been used, i.e.:\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eContact hunting (thrusting/stabbing): Weapons generally do not leave the hands of hunters, e.g., bimanual thrusting spears, or heavyweight-multipurpose/ceremonial javelins.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eShort-range hunting: Weapons can be used in contact but can also be thrown effectively up to ~\u0026thinsp;10 m, e.g., heavier assegais or heavyweight javelins.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium-range hunting: Weapons are thrown effectively at ~\u0026thinsp;11\u0026ndash;19 m, e.g., long-narrow-tipped javelins or smaller assegais.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eLong-range hunting: Weapons are projected effectively over ~\u0026thinsp;20\u0026ndash;30 m, e.g., versatile Ethiopian javelins or those of the southern African San hunters.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eHunting at maximum range: Weapons used at a maximum effective range of \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;30 m, e.g., bow hunting.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLarger projectiles usually contend with greater air resistance or drag during flight (e.g., Hickman et al. 1947; Cundy 1989; Cotterell and Kamminga 1992), constraining velocity and distance. Sitton et al. (2020) demonstrated that stone points with smaller TCSA values travel at greater velocity compared to those with larger TCSA values when similarly propelled (see also Pettigrew 2023). Smaller/lighter projectiles or weapon tips therefore generally represent greater velocity and increased distance so that weapon velocity is a suitable proxy for hunting distance (Hughes 1998), and the TCSA metric can be used to hypothesize about effective hunting ranges. We first used the Kruskal-Wallis H test (non-parametric one-way ANOVA) on the TCSA data of 950 Afrotropic weapon tips for which the approximate effective hunting ranges are known (SOM 2), resulting in a significant difference (H\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;768.2; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001) between the TCSA distributions of the five hunting-range categories. The test shows general group differences, but not differences amongst the various hunting ranges. The results of a Mann-Whitney pairwise test further demonstrate that each of the hunting ranges is significantly different in their TCSA distributions from the other at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001 (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Based on these results, we use the ethno-historical weapon tips from the Afrotropic to set new TCSA standards for the probable hunting ranges of pointed stone artefacts (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe highlight that the sample size of contact-weapon tips (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;21) is probably too small to be robust, and the value of \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;196 mm\u0026sup2; is therefore a provisional standard only. For known Afrotropic thrusting-spear tips, the range is 196\u0026ndash;372 mm\u0026sup2;. For comparative reference, eight European wooden spears, most effectively used as contact/close-range spears, have a mean TCSA of 643 mm\u0026sup2; with a standard deviation of 235 mm\u0026sup2;, and a median of 583 mm\u0026sup2; (Lombard et al. 2024). For this study we included stone points with TCSA values\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;500 mm\u0026sup2; in the contact-hunting category but excluded rare points with values\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;500 mm\u0026sup2; as outliers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe use the median statistic for the general interpretation of TCSA results, because it is affected less by outliers in skewed data than the mean statistic, hence representing the predominant trend within an assemblage more accurately. When exploring intra-assemblage variation, we use the \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;15% threshold as the lower end of a spectrum focused on manufacturing either larger or smaller pieces, further minimizing the outlier effect. To highlight adaptive advantages in an evolutionary context, we adapted Shea\u0026rsquo;s (2017) occasional-habitual-obligatory scheme wherein we interpret:\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs occasional a frequency of 15\u0026ndash;32%: Occasional hunting ranges would hypothetically occur irregularly as an optional strategy that has negligible fitness consequences if it is not used. Thus, individuals or groups may gain fitness benefits from hunting at these ranges, but not much more than those who do not (Shea 2017: 206).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs habitual a frequency of 33\u0026ndash;65%: Habitual hunting ranges are mainstream, used with variable regularity and have variable evolutionary consequences. Thus, Individuals or groups hunting at these ranges reap fitness rewards differently than those who hunt from other ranges or who don\u0026rsquo;t hunt. The benefits fluctuate spatiotemporally and contextually (Shea 2017: 209).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs obligatory a frequency of \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;66%: The success of obligatory hunting ranges is otherwise difficult or impossible to obtain. It probably has serious short-term fitness consequences. Individuals or groups who do not hunt from these ranges in a specific socio-ecological context may suffer serious adverse consequences (Shea 2017: 204).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo generate a feasible chronology for the evolution of long-range stone-tipped weaponry, assess spatiotemporal variability, and suggest testable adaptive advantages throughout the Afrotropic Middle Stone Age, we amassed as much data as possible. Notwithstanding our best efforts, our analysis was constrained by a shortage of suitable published data and access to data/assemblages outside of Ethiopia and southern Africa. Hopefully this bias can be overcome in future, but unless researchers working in Africa publish their raw morphometric data or are more collaborative towards data-sharing/access to assemblages we can only work with what we have. We also constrained our samples to Afrotropic assemblages with \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;20 points and published dates or relative age estimates (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e; Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) and draw attention to the fact that many assemblages not included here have too few well-contextualized pointed artefacts to work with. Our rigorous sampling strategy allows us to interpret our results according to MIS stages for broad spatiotemporal discussion. For assemblages with age estimates spanning multiple MIS stages, we repeated the results for each stage they may fall in, which allowed us to assess possible best-fit scenarios or to highlight continuity across MIS boundaries.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper half: Results of the Mann-Whitney pairwise test, demonstrating that each of the weapon-tip ranges are significantly different from the other at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001. Lower half: TCSA standards for probable effective hunting distances based on existing/historical African weapon-tip use (SOM 2; for more detailed data, also on shaft dimensions see Sahle et al. 2023; Lombard et al. 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResults of the Mann-Whitney pairwise test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContact n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;10 m n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;181\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;11\u0026ndash;19 m n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;20\u0026ndash;30 m n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;310\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;30 m n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;339\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eContact n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;21\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;10 m n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;181\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e~\u0026thinsp;11\u0026ndash;19 m n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;99\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e~\u0026thinsp;20\u0026ndash;30 m n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;310\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;30 m n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;339\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTCSA standards for probable/best-fit preferred-effective hunting distances\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTCSA standard\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHunting range\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMean mm\u0026sup2;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSD mm\u0026sup2;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRange mm\u0026sup2;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMedian mm\u0026sup2;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eContact n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;21\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContact\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e284\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;196 (provisional)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e261\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;10 m n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;181\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShort-range\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e151\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e108\u0026ndash;194\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e140\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e~\u0026thinsp;11\u0026ndash;19 m n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;99\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium-range\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u0026ndash;118\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e~\u0026thinsp;20\u0026ndash;30 m n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;310\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLong-range\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u0026ndash;82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;30 m n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;339\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaximum-range\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u0026ndash;38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe focus on the Afrotropics (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), because some of the oldest suggested evidence for the use of stone-tipped hunting weapons comes from this biogeographic realm (Wilkins et al. 2012; Sahle et al. 2013). It therefore provides a meaningful context for developing large-scale, data-based hypotheses about the evolution of long-range hunting with such weapons. Out of the 29 K\u0026ouml;ppen-Geiger climate zones, the Afrotropics contains more than half (Peel et al. 2007). This corresponds with biodiversity data wherein, apart from the Neotropic, the Afrotropic biogeographic realm is richest in mammal species diversity and density (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e; Kier et al. 2005; Mutke and Barthlott 2005; and see list in Churchill 1993: \u003cem\u003etable 1.2\u003c/em\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssemblages, age estimates and associated MIS stages for stone point assemblages included in this study arranged from the oldest to the youngest. Assemblages from the same sites with different age estimates, but within the same MIS stage are provided with [A, B, C, D] appendages to distinguish between them. See Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e for site location and SOM 3 for TCSA data.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssemblage, MIS stage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite/context\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e# of points\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~Age (ka)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome sources for age estimates/contexts\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKathu Pan, MIS 12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStratum 4a, Fauresmith\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e148\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;464\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePorat et al. 2010\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGademotta, MIS 8 [A]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eETH-72-8B, GDM7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;280\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSahle et al. 2013, 2014; Morgan and Renne 2008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGademotta, MIS 8 [B]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eETH-72-7B, GDM10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;280\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;260\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSahle et al. 2013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRooidam 2, MIS 6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFauresmith\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e130\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;174\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSzabo and Butzer 1979; Eltzholtz 2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlorisbad, MIS 6 [A]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEarlier MSA phase\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;175\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGr\u0026uuml;n et al., 1996\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePinnacle Point 13B, MIS 6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper DBS, LC-MSA Lower\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;166\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;159\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJacobs 2010\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOlieboomspoort, MIS 6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePietersburg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;164\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;134\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVal et al. 2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKlasies River, MIS 6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMSA I/Klasies River\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;126\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBrenner and Wurz, 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlorisbad, MIS 6 [B]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpedient MSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;121\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGr\u0026uuml;n et al., 1996\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProspect Farm, MIS 5\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhases I-IV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;119\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMichels et al. 1983; Van Baelen et al. 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKlasies River, MIS 5e [A]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMSA II SBLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;110\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBrenner and Wurz, 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKlasies River, MIS 5d [B]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMSA II lowest/BOS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e236\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;110\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;106\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBrenner and Wurz, 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMakgadikgadi, MIS 5d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite 140\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;106\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStaurset et al. 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKlasies River, MIS 5d [C]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLowest SMONE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;106\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBrenner and Wurz, 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKlasies River, MIS 5d [D]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMSA II lower \u0026amp; upper\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e823\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;100\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWurz et al. 2018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGademotta, MIS 5d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eETH-72-6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;105\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBrown et al. 2012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHalibee, MIS 5d-c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHAL-A2; A25, A29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNiespolo et al. 2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePinnacle Point 13B, MIS 5c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLBS1, SBS-URS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;98\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJacobs 2010\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHollow Rock Shelter, MIS 5c [A]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLower levels, Mossel Bay\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;97\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u0026ouml;gberg \u0026amp; Lombard 2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBushman Rock Shelter MIS 5c-a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMSA, Pietersburg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e166\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;97\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePorraz \u0026amp; Val 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePinnacle Point 5\u0026ndash;6, MIS 5c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMIS 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;96\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWilkins et al., 2017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAduma, MIS 5c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eADU-A4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYellen et al. 2005; Sahle et al. 2023b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAduma, MIS 5c-b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eADU-A8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYellen et al. 2005; Sahle et al. 2023b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAduma, MIS 5a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eADU-A5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYellen et al. 2005; Sahle et al. 2023b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ne;Gi Pan, MIS 5a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e294\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBrooks et al. 1990; Lombard \u0026amp; Churchill 2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSibudu Cave, MIS 5a [A]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre-Still Bay\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJacobs et al. 2008; Lombard et al. 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiepkloof, MIS 5a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStill Bay\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;77\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJacobs et al. 2008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlombos Cave, MIS 5a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStill Bay\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;76\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJacobs et al. 2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHollow Rock Shelter, MIS 5a-4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper levels, Still Bay\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;76\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u0026ouml;gberg \u0026amp; Lombard 2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShinfa-Metema, MIS 5a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKappelman et al. 2024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApollo 11, MIS 5a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre-Still Bay\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVogelsang 1998; Vogelsang et al. 2010\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSibudu Cave, MIS 5a [B]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStill Bay\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;73\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJacobs et al. 2008; Lombard et al. 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMumba, MIS 5a-4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBed VI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e170\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;73\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGliganic et al. 2012; Bushozi et al. 2017, 2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUmhlatuzana, MIS 5a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStill Bay\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLombard et al. 2010\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePinnacle Point 5\u0026ndash;6, MIS 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMIS 4/Howiesons Poort\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;71\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWilkins et al. 2017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMakgadikgadi, MIS 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite 33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStaurset et al. 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRose Cottage Cave, MIS 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowiesons Poort\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;69\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJacobs et al. 2008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhite Paintings Shelter, MIS 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStaurset \u0026amp; Coulson, 2014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKlein Kliphuis, MIS 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowiesons Poort\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e135\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;66\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJacobs et al. 2008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSibudu Cave, MIS 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowiesons Poort\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e219\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;65\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJacobs et al. 2008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiepkloof, MIS 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowiesons Poort\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e132\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;65\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJacobs \u0026amp; Roberts 2017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKlipdrift, MIS 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowiesons Poort\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;65\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHenshilwood et al. 2014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKlasies River, MIS 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowiesons Poort\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJacobs et al. 2008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApollo 11, MIS 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowiesons Poort\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVogelsang 1998; Vogelsang et al. 2010\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUmhlatuzana, MIS 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowiesons Poort\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e232\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLombard et al. 2010\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eK\u0026rsquo;one, MIS 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLoc 5 \u0026amp; 5-extension\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKurashina 1978; Brandt 1986\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBorder Cave, MIS 4\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost-Howiesons Poort\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;60\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTimbrell et al. 2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUmhlatuzana, MIS 4\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost-Howiesons Poort\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;60\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLombard et al. 2010\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSibudu Cave, MIS 4\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost-Howiesons Poort\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;59\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVanhaeren et al. 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRose Cottage Cave, MIS 4\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost-Howiesons Poort\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;59\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePienaar et al. 2008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSibudu Cave, MIS 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLate MSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;55\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVanhaeren et al. 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMumba, MIS 3 [A]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBed V\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e317\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;57\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGliganic et al. 2012; Bushozi et al. 2017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNasera, MIS 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLevels 6\u0026ndash;7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;50\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRanhorn and Tryon 2018; Mart\u0026iacute;n-Perea et al. 2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePorc-Epic, MIS 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnits II-IV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e403\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;50\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssefa et al. 2008; Leplongeon 2014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFincha Habera, MIS 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e??\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;47\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOssendorf et al. 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGoda Buticha, MIS 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLayers IId-IIf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;46\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTribolo et al. 2017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUmhlatuzana, MIS 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinal MSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;40\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLombard et al. 2010\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGorgora, MIS 3 [A]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLevels 4\u0026ndash;8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSahle et al. \u003cem\u003eunder review\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGorgora, MIS 3 [B]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLevel 9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSahle et al. \u003cem\u003eunder review\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGorgora, MIS 3 [C]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLevels 10\u0026ndash;11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSahle et al. \u003cem\u003eunder review\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMumba, MIS 3 [B]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBed III\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGliganic et al. 2012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHolley Shelter, MIS 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinal MSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;36\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBader and Will 2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTOTAL COUNT\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5597\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. MIS 12\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;8\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe only have three assemblages with \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;20 pointed artefacts (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;250) dating to \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;243 ka. Cumulatively, the TCSA results suggest that if pointed stone tips were used for hunting, contact hunting was probably habitual with 45% of all the tips falling within this category (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). These hominins may have occasionally hunted at close-range (31%), but the longer hunting ranges are all represented below the 15% threshold. This trend is most strongly expressed in the oldest assemblage from Kathu Pan, South Africa, where contact hunting may have been habitual (43%), and short-range hunting occasional (18%). The TCSA results of the oldest Gademotta MIS 8 [A] assemblage from Ethiopia suggest that short-range hunting (48%) was preferred (more frequent) over contact hunting (34%), and that both were habitual. In addition, these hunters may have experimented occasionally with medium-range weapons (18%). During the subsequent Gademotta MIS 8 [B] phase, short-range hunting remains preferred and habitual (38%), and it is supported occasionally by both contact- and medium-range hunting at 30% and 27% respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTCSA statistics and frequencies of probable hunting ranges for MIS 12\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;8 assemblages (see SOM 3 for point TCSA data). Note: Percentages do not add up to 100, because of overlaps/gaps in ranges see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Interpretative scheme:15\u0026ndash;32% = occasional, 33\u0026ndash;65% = habitual, \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;66% = obligatory hunting distances.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"15\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c15\" colnum=\"15\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssemblage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" morerows=\"1\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTCSA (mm\u0026sup2;) summary statistics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"10\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% Probable hunting range (TCSA ranges in mm\u0026sup2;)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMax.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;30 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLong\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;20\u0026ndash;30 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;11\u0026ndash;19 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShort\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;10 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContact\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedian\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKathu Pan, MIS 12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e148\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e219\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e207\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGademotta, MIS 8 [A]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e178\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e162\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGademotta, MIS 8 [B]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e181\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e172\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCumulative MIS 12\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;8\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e250\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e202\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e85\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e193\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e10\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e35\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e14\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e78\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e31\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e113\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e45\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. MIS 6\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe oldest MIS 6 assemblage, Rooidam 2, is the only one with a feasible proportion of stone tips suited for occasional long-range hunting (18%) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). Contact hunting (38%) was, however, preferred and habitual, with medium- and short-range hunting occasionally practiced at 24% and 23%, respectively. The TCSA results for the older Florisbad MIS 6 [A] point assemblage suggest that short-range weapons (51%) may have been preferred over contact weapons (46%), and that both were used habitually. During the younger Florisbad MIS 6 [B] phase, both weapon ranges are still habitual, but hunters may now have preferred weapons best suited for contact hunting (51%) over short-range hinting (36%), and occasionally included hunting with medium-range weapons. The MIS 6 assemblage from Pinnacle Point 13B has a relatively high proportion of tips that indicate a preference for habitual short-range hunting (61%), and occasionally medium-range hunting (27%). This trend wherein short-range hunting is habitual and preferred is echoed at Klasies River with 65% of its pointed artefacts falling in this category. Here, such hunting was also occasionally supported by medium-range hunting (20%), but different from Pinnacle Point, also by contact hunting (18%). At Olieboomspoort, the TCSA results suggest that contact hunting (72%) was perhaps obligatory, supported by habitual short-range hunting (49%), and occasional medium-range hunting (30%) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTCSA statistics and frequencies of probable hunting ranges for MIS 6 assemblages (see SOM 3 for point TCSA data). Note and interpretative scheme same as for Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"15\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c15\" colnum=\"15\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssemblage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" morerows=\"1\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTCSA (mm\u0026sup2;) summary statistics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"10\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% Probable hunting distance (range in mm\u0026sup2;)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMax.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;30 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLong\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;20\u0026ndash;30 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;11\u0026ndash;19 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShort\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;10 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContact\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedian\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRooidam 2, MIS 6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e130\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e170\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e101\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlorisbad, MIS 6 [A]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e189\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePinnacle Point 13B, MIS 6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e139\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e132\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOlieboomspoort, MIS 6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e158\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e139\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKlasies River, MIS 6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e159\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlorisbad, MIS 6 [B]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e208\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e198\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCumulative MIS 6\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e464\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e173\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e81\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e158\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e44\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e9\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e88\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e19\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e202\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e44\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e199\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e43\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3. MIS 5\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor seventeen of the 25 assemblages, it seems that short-range hunting was habitual during MIS 5 (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). This is, however, not the case for the oldest Klasies River MIS 5e [A] assemblage with an age estimate of \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;110 ka. Here the TCSA results suggest that only long-range weaponry (35%) was in habitual use, supported by the occasional use of maximum- and medium-range weaponry at 29% and 21% respectively. During the MIS 5d glacial sub-stage peaking at ~\u0026thinsp;109 ka, the three Klasies River assemblages that indicate habitual short-range hunting (33\u0026ndash;50%) also show habitual contact hunting (35\u0026ndash;46%). Of these, the Klasies River MIS 5d [C] assemblage also contains artefacts that suggest the occasional use of long-range weaponry (17%), and the Klasies River MIS 5d [D] assemblage the occasional use of medium-range hunting (17%). The Makgadikgadi MIS 5d assemblage from Botswana suggests a preference for habitual contact hunting (43%), occasionally supported by short- and medium-range hunting (29% and 24%). The only MIS 5d assemblage during which medium-range weapons (50%) seem to have been preferred over short-range ones (42%) is that of Gademotta in Ethiopia. At Halibee in Ethiopia, the assemblage spans the MIS 5d-c transition, and here contact hunting (43%) seems to have been habitual, and short-range weapons (32%) used occasionally.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBetween the MIS 5c (peaking at 96 ka) and MIS 5a (peaking at 82 ka) sub-stages the TCSA results of six assemblages suggest a combination of habitual short- and medium-range weapon use, i.e., Aduma MIS 5c, Aduma MIS 5c-b, Hollow Rock Shelter MIS 5a-4, Diepkloof MIS 5a, Blombos Cave MIS 5a, and Sibudu Cave MIS 5a [B] (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). Contact hunting seems to have been practiced occasionally throughout this period, except at \u0026ne;\u0026thinsp;Gi Pan where habitual contact hunting (34%) is indicated. The Pinnacle Point 13B MIS 5c assemblage represent an anomaly in that none of the hunting ranges are either habitual or obligatory, instead weapon tips best-suited for medium-range, short-range and contact hunting are all almost equally represented as occasional (23\u0026ndash;25%). In all the other MIS 5c assemblages (i.e., Hollow Rock Shelter MIS 5c [A], Bushman Rock Shelter MIS 5c-a, Pinnacle Point 5\u0026ndash;6 MIS 5c, and Aduma MIS 5c), this same combination of medium-range, short-range and contact hunting seems to have been in play. However, hunting with short-range weapons is habitual (36\u0026ndash;63%), supported by occasional contact hunting (17\u0026ndash;32%), and at Bushman Rock Shelter the additional occasional use of long-range weapons (18%) is indicated. The TCSA results of the Aduma MIS 5c-b transitional assemblage suggest that contact weapons were not used, instead tips best-suited for medium-range weapons (49%) were preferred and habitual, supported by the habitual use of short-range weapons (34%) and the occasional use of long-range ones (29%).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe trend towards longer hunting rages becomes increasingly apparent during MIS 5a (peaking at 82 ka). Weapon tips best suited for medium-range hunting is now preferred in five of the eleven assemblages, i.e., Sibudu Cave MIS 5a [A], Blombos Cave MIS 5a, Shinfa-Metema MIS 5a, Sibudu Cave MIS 5a [B], and Umhlatuzana MIS 5a (44\u0026ndash;73%) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e), and at Shinfa-Metema in Ethiopia the use of such weapons may have been obligatory (73%). Seven assemblages have TCSA results that suggest that in addition to short- and medium-range weaponry, hunters now supplemented their arsenals with long-range weapons. In the contexts of the Aduma MIS 5a, Sibudu Cave MIS 5a [A], and Umhlatuzana MIS 5a assemblages long-range hunting becomes habitual (33\u0026ndash;48%), and it plays an occasional role in the Diepkloof MIS 5a, Blombos Cave MIS 5a, Shinfa-Metema MIS 5a, and Sibudu Cave MIS 5a [B] assemblages at 27\u0026ndash;32%. The \u0026ne;\u0026thinsp;Gi Pan MIS 5a assemblage is the only one that lacks artefacts suited for medium- or long-range hunting. Here habitual short-range hunting (65%) seems to have been preferred, supported by habitual contact hunting (34%). Contact hunting is only indicated for two other MIS 5a assemblages, i.e., Diepkloof MIS 5a and Mumba MIS 5a-4 at 15% and 19%, respectively (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTCSA statistics and frequencies of probable hunting for MIS 5 assemblages (see SOM 3 for point TCSA data). Note and interpretative scheme same as for Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"15\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c15\" colnum=\"15\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssemblage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" morerows=\"1\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTCSA (mm\u0026sup2;) summary statistics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"10\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% Probable hunting distance (range in mm\u0026sup2;)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMax.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;30 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLong\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;20\u0026ndash;30 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;11\u0026ndash;19 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShort\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;10 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContact\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedian\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProspect Farm, MIS 5\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e144\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e142\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKlasies River, MIS 5e [A]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKlasies River, MIS 5d [B]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e236\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e189\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e183\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e108\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMakgadikgadi, MIS 5d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e183\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e182\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKlasies River, MIS 5d [C]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e188\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e111\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e175\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKlasies River, MIS 5d [D]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e823\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e180\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e168\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e144\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e412\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e291\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGademotta, MIS 5d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e118\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e108\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHalibee, MIS 5d-c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e216\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e106\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e202\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePinnacle Point 13B, MIS 5c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e163\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e144\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHollow Rock Shelter, MIS 5c [A]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e141\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBushman Rock Shelter MIS 5c-a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e166\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e146\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e130\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePinnacle Point 5\u0026ndash;6, MIS 5c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e151\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e135\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAduma, MIS 5c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e194\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e108\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e156\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAduma, MIS 5c-b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e110\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAduma, MIS 5a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ne;Gi Pan, MIS 5a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e294\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e185\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e171\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e192\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e101\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSibudu Cave, MIS 5a [A]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e103\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiepkloof, MIS 5a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e128\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e116\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlombos Cave, MIS 5a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e107\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHollow Rock Shelter, MIS 5a-4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e132\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e119\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShinfa-Metema, MIS 5a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApollo 11, MIS 5a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e182\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e105\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e153\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSibudu Cave, MIS 5a [B]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e117\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e102\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMumba, MIS 5a-4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e170\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e156\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e144\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUmhlatuzana, MIS 5a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCumulative MIS 5\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2482\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e165\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e81\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e150\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e52\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e260\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e536\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e22\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1141\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e46\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e725\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e29\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4. MIS 4\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApart from the K\u0026rsquo;one and White Paintings Shelter assemblages, all the bona fide MIS 4 assemblages contain backed pieces that are connected to Afrotropic weapon use (see Lombard 2020). The TCSA results for the assemblages from this period suggest a preference for long-range and maximum-range hunting (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). Hunting at maximum range (78%) may have been obligatory at Pinnacle Point 5\u0026ndash;6 and Umhlatuzana. At Pinnacle Point 5\u0026ndash;6 it may have been supported by long- and medium-range hunting (19% and 21%), but at Umhlatuzana it may have been the only viable option. At Rose Cottage Cave, Klein Kliphuis, Sibudu Cave, Klipdrift and Apollo 11 hunting at maximum range was probably habitual (47\u0026ndash;59%). At White Paintings Shelter, Diepkloof and Klasies River people made weapon tips best suited for habitual long-range hunting (35\u0026ndash;35%). It is only at K\u0026rsquo;one that contact hunting seems to have been the preferred habitual strategy, perhaps supported occasionally by weapons suited for short-, medium- and long-range hunting (19\u0026ndash;29%). Also at Prospect Farm, where short-range hunting (44%) may have been the preferred and only habitual strategy, there are TCSA indications of medium- and long-range hunting (21% and 19%).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOf the assemblages that span the MIS 4\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3 transition, the TCSA results for Rose Cottage Cave suggest a preference for habitual long-range hunting (60%), supported by habitual medium-range (43%), and occasional short-range hunting (17%). The other three MIS 4\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3 transitional assemblages all show a preference for habitual short-range hunting (38\u0026ndash;60%). At Border Cave, short-range hunting seems to have been supplemented with habitual contact hunting (33%), as well as with occasional medium- and long-range hunting (27% and 19%), at Umhlatuzana with habitual medium-range (55%) and occasional contact hunting (15%), and at Sibudu Cave with occasional long-range, medium-range and contact hunting (16\u0026ndash;30%) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab8\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 8\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTCSA statistics and frequencies of probable hunting for MIS 4 assemblages (see SOM 3 for point TCSA data). Note and interpretative scheme same as for Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"15\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c15\" colnum=\"15\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssemblage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" morerows=\"1\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTCSA (mm\u0026sup2;) summary statistics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"10\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% Probable hunting distance (range in mm\u0026sup2;)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMax.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;30 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLong\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;20\u0026ndash;30 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;11\u0026ndash;19 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShort\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;10 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContact\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedian\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProspect Farm, MIS 5\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3(?)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e144\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e142\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePinnacle Point 5\u0026ndash;6, MIS 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMakgadikgadi, MIS 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e286\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e280\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRose Cottage Cave, MIS 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhite Paintings Shelter, MIS 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKlein Kliphuis, MIS 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e135\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSibudu Cave, MIS 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e219\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e112\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiepkloof, MIS 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e132\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKlipdrift, MIS 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKlasies River, MIS 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApollo 11, MIS 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUmhlatuzana, MIS 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e232\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e118\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eK\u0026rsquo;one, MIS 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e163\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e153\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBorder Cave, MIS 4\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e178\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e153\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUmhlatuzana, MIS 4\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e148\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSibudu Cave, MIS 4\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e144\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e140\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRose Cottage Cave, MIS 4\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCumulative MIS 4\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1366\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e74\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e74\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e48\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e478\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e35\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e379\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e28\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e232\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e17\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e192\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e14\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e99\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3. MIS 3\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results for the Prospect Farm, MIS 5\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3? assemblage, and the four South African MIS 4\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3 transitional assemblages also pertain to this section, and we do not repeat those results. For all the bona fide MIS 3 assemblages medium-range hunting is indicated (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). TCSA results for the Sibudu Cave, Mumba MIS 3 [A], Nasera, Porc-Epic, Goda Buticha, Umhlatuzana, Gorgora MIS 3 [A], and Mumba MIS 3 [B] assemblages suggest that such hunting was practiced habitually in these contexts (33\u0026ndash;57%). The Fincha Habera, Gorgora MIS 3 [B] and [C], and Holley Shelter results suggest occasional use of medium-range weaponry (18\u0026ndash;30%). For several MIS 3 assemblages short-range hunting was also habitual, and perhaps even preferred, e.g., Sibudu Cave, Mumba MIS 3 [A], Gorgora MIS 3 [A] and [C] (34\u0026ndash;60%). In the context of Gorgora MIS 3 [B] and Holley Shelter it may have been obligatory (71% and 67%), and the only other feasible strategy was occasional medium-range hunting (21% and 22%). Habitual long-range hunting is suggested for the Nasera, Porc-Epic, Fincha Habera and Goda Buticha assemblages (33\u0026ndash;50%), and at both Porc-Epic and Fincha Habera long-range hunting may have been the preferred strategy. Occasional long-range hunting is indicated for the Sibudu Cave, Mumba MIS 3 [A], Gorgora MIS 3 [C], and Mumba MIS 3 [B] (15\u0026ndash;25%) assemblages. At Nasera, our results suggest occasional hunting at maximum range (17%) with stone-tipped weaponry during the period, and Fincha Habera is the only MIS 3 context in which hunters probably practiced a combination of habitual long-range hunting paired with hunting at maximum range (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab9\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 9\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTCSA statistics and frequencies of probable hunting for MIS 3 assemblages (see SOM 3 for point TCSA data). Note and interpretative scheme same as for Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"15\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c15\" colnum=\"15\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssemblage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" morerows=\"1\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTCSA (mm\u0026sup2;) summary statistics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"10\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% Probable hunting distance (range in mm\u0026sup2;)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMax.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;30 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLong\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;20\u0026ndash;30 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;11\u0026ndash;19 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShort\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;10 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContact\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedian\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProspect Farm, MIS 5\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e144\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e142\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBorder Cave, MIS 4\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e178\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e153\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUmhlatuzana, MIS 4\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e148\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSibudu Cave, MIS 4\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e144\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e140\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRose Cottage Cave, MIS 4\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSibudu Cave, MIS 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e119\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e104\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMumba, MIS 3 [A]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e317\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e126\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e122\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e190\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNasera, MIS 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePorc-Epic, MIS 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e403\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e181\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e152\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e109\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFincha Habera, MIS 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGoda Buticha, MIS 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUmhlatuzana, MIS 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e108\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGorgora, MIS 3 [A]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e133\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGorgora, MIS 3 [B]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e139\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e143\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGorgora, MIS 3 [C]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e126\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e121\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMumba, MIS 3 [B]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e109\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e101\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHolley Shelter, MIS 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e144\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e136\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCumulative MIS 3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1334\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e118\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e60\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e108\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e46\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e363\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e27\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e472\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e35\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e563\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e42\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e124\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e9\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe know of no hunter groups in the Afrotropics that rely only on a single weapon type or hunting range. Instead, historical and current hunters all use an array of weapons \u0026lsquo;each according to need and fashion\u0026rsquo; (Hitchcock and Bleed 1997; see also Krige 1962; Tanaka 1979; Terashima 1983; Sahle et al. 2023). The results presented above demonstrate how our approach is able to highlight probable variation in the hunting ranges and stone-tipped arsenals of ancient Afrotropic hunters. Such variation may indicate adaptive advantages in variable socio-ecological contexts. We started out with a three-pronged research question: a) Can we generate a feasible chronology for the evolution of long-range, stone-tipped weapons in the Afrotropic? b) Was there spatiotemporal variability in the use of hunting ranges during the Middle Stone Age? c) If so, can we suggest testable hypotheses about the different adaptive advantages? Before we address these questions, we find it imperative to highlight how our current study reinforced or constrained previous interpretations about the development of long-range hunting in the Afrotropic Middle Stone Age.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1. Previous interpretations of long-range hunting tested and constrained\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrevious suggestion for the early use of javelins (Sahle et al. 2013) suffered from the lack of African comparative data. We rectified this here, showing that before ~\u0026thinsp;280 ka, hunters at Gademotta probably used short-range weapons habitually, similar to the Ethiopian heavyweight hunting javelins. They still did so by ~\u0026thinsp;280\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;260 ka, but now started to also experiment occasionally with medium-range javelins, similar to the Ethiopian long-narrow-tipped ones. Early javelin hunting in the Gademotta Middle Stone Age is therefore supported, but does not include hunting with long-range javelins. Javelin hunting was also suggested for southern Africa by ~\u0026thinsp;191\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;130 ka (Lombard 2023). Our results suggest habitual hunting with short-range weapons resembling heavier southern African assegais or Ethiopian heavyweight hunting javelins, supported by occasional medium-range hunting. We found a possible indication of occasional long-range weapon use, with tips such as those used for the Ethiopian versatile- or the southern African San javelins, in only one assemblage dating to this phase. Thus, again javelin hunting is supported, but long-range hunting is not necessarily implied.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLong-range spearthrower-and-dart hunting was inferred for the Aduma\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;90\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;80 ka context (Brooks et al. 2006; Sahle and Brooks 2019). Our results support an interpretation of occasional long-range javelin hunting by ~\u0026thinsp;91 ka without having to invoke American hunting weapon systems. By ~\u0026thinsp;80 ka, hunting with long-range javelins, similar to the Ethiopian versatile ones, seems to have been habitual at Aduma. We found no support for bow-hunting at Shinfa-Metema by ~\u0026thinsp;74 ka (cf. Kappelman et al. 2024). Instead, our results suggest that medium-range hunting with weapons reminiscent of the Ethiopian long-narrow-tipped hunting javelins is the most parsimonious ballistic interpretation. Long-range and/or bow hunting was also suggested for southern Africa by ~\u0026thinsp;71\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;59 ka (Schoville et al. 2017; Lombard 2021), which is supported by our TCSA results. Long-range hunting is inferred to have existed at Porc-Epic\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;50\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;40 ka (Sisk and Shea 2011). Our results confirm habitual long-range hunting with weapons more similar to the versatile Ethiopian hunting javelins than to American-like spearthrower darts for this context.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2. Chronology of long-range, stone-tipped weapons in the Afrotropics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith the TCSA statistic as a middle-range tool, we used Afrotropic weapons with known, real-life, effective hunting ranges to interpret the probable hunting ranges of a large quantity of Middle Stone Age pointed artefacts. This approach resulted in the following working chronology for the evolution of long-range, stone-tipped weapon use in the Afrotropics:\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;MIS 8 glacial (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;243 ka): Hunters before ~\u0026thinsp;464 ka used contact weapons whilst starting to experiment with throwing them over short distances of up to ~\u0026thinsp;10 m. Such short-range hunting with stone-tipped weapons became part of mainstream hunting behaviour by MIS 8 (~\u0026thinsp;300\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;243 ka). By that time, hunters started to experiment with medium-range hunting by throwing their weapons over distances of up to ~\u0026thinsp;19 m. Currently, true long-range stone-tipped weapons that can be used effectively over distances of ~\u0026thinsp;20\u0026ndash;30 m do not seem to have been part of the Afrotropic arsenal before or during MIS 8.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eMIS 7 interglacial (~\u0026thinsp;243\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;191 ka): No data meeting our chronological and sample size criteria.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eMIS 6 glacial (~\u0026thinsp;191\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;130 ka): Short-range hunting with stone-tipped weapons remains part of the strategy, but this is relatively consistently paired with both contact- and medium-range hunting. These hunters may have used two or three spear/javelin types according to circumstance. In some instances, they started to experiment with long-range javelins. Whilst javelin hunting is indicated, long-range hunting was not a mainstream hunting strategy during MIS 6.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eMIS 5 (~\u0026thinsp;130\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;71 ka): This stage is characterized by alternating interglacial and glacial sub-stages. The MIS 5 hunters seem to have continued with the three-weapon arsenal wherein up to the MIS 5c interglacial sub-stage (peaking at ~\u0026thinsp;96 ka), short-range hunting was often mainstream. Subsequently, there is a shift at several sites towards medium-range hunting becoming a mainstream strategy. During the final MIS 5a interglacial substage (peaking at ~\u0026thinsp;82 ka), long-range hunting becomes mainstream in tandem with medium-range hunting at some sites. MIS 5 is therefore the first time during which long-range hunting weapons became part of the everyday Afrotropic hunting arsenal.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eMIS 4 glacial (~\u0026thinsp;71\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;57 ka): During this phase, long-range javelin hunting becomes regularly paired with hunting at maximum distance (e.g., bow hunting) in southern Africa. This geographic patterning is preliminary because dated Middle Stone Age assemblages with backed artefacts from elsewhere in the Afrotropics were not available for our study. It is, however, reasonable to hypothesize that MIS 4 Afrotropic hunters were able to hunt effectively across all the effective ranges to fit their respective needs, ecologies, and socio-cultural traditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eMIS 3 interstadial (~\u0026thinsp;57\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;29 ka): Hunting at maximum distance with stone-tipped weaponry becomes rare during this stage. Instead, there is a general return to mainstream hunting with a combination of long-, medium- and short-range spears/javelins, especially in southern Africa. That said, after ~\u0026thinsp;40 ka bone points similar to those used by southern African San hunters as arrowheads appear at several sites (e.g., d\u0026rsquo;Errico et al. 2012; Robbins et al. 2012). The seeming reversion in stone-tipped hunting weaponry may thus in part reflect a shift in the use of tip materials, instead of a socio-cognitive regression (see discussion in Lombard and Parsons 2011). If this was the case, preservation issues may hamper our ability to detect Afrotropic long- and/or maximum-range hunting post-MIS 4. The apparent reversion may also reflect the geographical range expansion (e.g., from the Rift Valley into ecotonal margins and montane habitats) and adaptive plasticity suggested for this period in such regions with very diverse ecogeographic features (Ossendorf et al. 2019; Sahle et al. 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe above represents our best-fit, broad, and parsimonious chronology for the evolution of long-range, stone-tipped weapon use in the Afrotropics. It speaks to a co-evolutionary hypothesis wherein the evolution of long-range hunting was a relatively long, incremental, multi-faceted, and continuous process, with the technical aspects thereof probably invented and re-invented throughout the last 500 ka. Apart from the lithic record, other characteristics would have also contributed to the human ability to hunt from a distance. For example, the evolution of the human \u0026lsquo;throwing arm and shoulder\u0026rsquo; (e.g., Roach et al. 2013), which would have played a role in our ability to cast long-range javelins effectively. Accurate long-range hunting also requires the necessary visuospatial integration, that synchronizes \u0026ldquo;inner and outer functional processes, organizing spatial, temporal, and social interactions between the brain, body, and environment\u0026rdquo; (Bruner et al. 2018: 229). Palaeo-neurological studies suggest that this capacity was probably within the current modern human range by ~\u0026thinsp;100 ka (e.g., Bruner et al. 2017). In addition to the necessary visuospatial baseline, effective hunting over the maximum distance with a bimanual technology such as the bow-and-arrow entails the development of the necessary neuro-cognitive pathways to pay attention in complex ways (e.g., Lombard 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll these aspects developed at different rates during different stages throughout human evolution, needing to come together with the archaeological record to allow for a robust chronological interpretation. It is our current hypothesis that experimentation with long-range weapons became feasible (physically, cognitively, and technologically) since MIS 6, but that it was the variable climatic conditions of MIS 5 that pushed it into a mainstream Afrotropic hunting behaviour. Being thus prepared, the challenges of the MIS 4 glacial then stimulated the development of bimanual, mechanically projected weapons that are effective at distances of \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;30 m. Once this stage was reached, Afrotropic hunters had the capacity to invent, reinvent, produce, and use the full stone-tipped weapon arsenal across all hunting ranges according to their respective socio-ecological contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3. Spatiotemporal variability in hunting ranges during the Afrotropic Middle Stone Age\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the section above we provided a simplified temporal scheme, but our \u003cspan refid=\"Sec3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eresults\u003c/span\u003e section demonstrated intra- and inter-assemblage variability in Middle Stone Age hunting ranges. Some of this variation may reflect specific ecological, demographic and/or social settings. We cannot explore each of the 66 assemblages in detail here \u0026ndash; some of that is planned for future research \u0026ndash; and we acknowledge the lack of data for large portions of the Afrotropics. Instead, we use the K\u0026rsquo;one (Ethiopia) and Sibudu Cave (South Africa) MIS 4 assemblages to illustrate how certain aspects may contribute to inter-assemblage variability in stone-tipped weaponry and hunting ranges.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the Ethiopian Rift Valley, ~\u0026thinsp;12 km west of Lake Besaka, gully erosion exposed horizontal beds of alluvium, volcanic ash, and fossil soils (Clark and Williams 1978; Williams 2023), one of which contained the small assemblage of obsidian points included in our study (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The open-air site at ~\u0026thinsp;1600 m.a.s.l. in a geologically active landscape\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;400 km away from the nearest coastline, is currently located in a savanna (open-canopied) woodland, nestled between montane forests. During the MIS 4 glacial the vegetation was probably scrubland, with access to pockets of savanna woodland (Basell 2008). Although undated, Kurashina (1978) and Clark and Williams (1978) placed the assemblage in the loam of the arid upper Pleistocene at ~\u0026thinsp;70\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;60 ka (Brandt 1986).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eK\u0026rsquo;one was probably an obsidian knapping station, where Kurashina (1978) recognized three high-density patches of flaked stone artifacts, indicating prolonged or intense stone knapping activity, perhaps by several knappers. Only rejected or lost pieces would remain on the workshop floor, but these (at least partly) represent artefacts manufactured at the site (Kurashina 1978) to be transported and used elsewhere. The K\u0026rsquo;one obsidian source is temporally and geographically the most widely represented source in MIS 6 to MIS 3 assemblages across the Afar and Main Ethiopian Rift (Negash et al. 2011). Depending on how long their obsidian collecting and knapping sessions lasted, the knappers may have hunted near the site. Our results suggest that tips best suited for contact hunting was the preferred and only tips in habitual use at K\u0026rsquo;one during MIS 4.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eToday, Ethiopian hunters use weapons with such tips to strike at cornered, large and dangerous prey (Sahle et al. 2023). The narrow corridor\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;3 km northeast of K\u0026rsquo;one cutting through the caldera plateau (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) would provide the opportunity to trap passing herds. The landscape is also conducive of driving hunts with medium/long-range javelins, sending animals to plummet over the plateau edge onto the scrubland where they could be killed from up close. Habitual long-range hunting, or maximum-range bow hunting may not have provided adequate adaptive advantages on this cold and arid landscape or may have been too costly and/or cumbersome to maintain for the people who visited the site for short stays to collect raw-material for knapping. For example, bow staves and strings operate under tension and are weather sensitive, so that they may snap in extreme cold and arid conditions, increasing risk of wear and failure and costing much in maintenance (Howard 2004; Pettigrew 2021). As an open-air site, K'one has poor organic preservation so that there is not much fauna to assess these hypotheses, but if it was very cold or frozen during MIS 4 bow-hunting may have been difficult on this landscape.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Top left: A satellite image of the immediate K\u0026rsquo;one landscape today with the caldera plateau to the east and a land bridge separating the larger and smaller calderas northeast of the site (red pin) that may have functioned as a natural game funnel. Top right: The steep-walled caldera rim. Bottom left: The Middle Stone Age excavation on the flank of the K\u0026rsquo;one volcanic edifice (Site photos by Williams, 1975). Bottom right: Points from the K\u0026rsquo;one MIS 4 context.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBy contrast, Sibudu is a large rock shelter, with a deep occupational sequence and excellent organic preservation\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;15 km inland of the Indian Ocean at ~\u0026thinsp;100 m.a.s.l. (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3). The riverine habitat below the site was likely relatively persistent throughout the Middle Stone Age, and the mosaic of surrounding habitats could support a wide range of fauna (Wadley 2010). MIS 4 botanical remains imply elevated levels of water availability and humidity in a closed forested environment with a woodland/savanna landscape in the vicinity (Allott 2006; Hall and Woodborne 2010). According to Clark (2017) Sibudu provides the largest MIS 4 faunal sample for South Africa, representing a diverse prey range (indicated as HP in SOM 1).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe most common species-level identifications are the blue duiker and bushpig, both of which prefer forested habitats, and taphonomic data confirm humans as the primary contributors (Clark 2017). Blue duiker (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3) may have been captured using nets or remote capture technology such as traps or snares (e.g., Wadley 2010), but some Mbuti hunters hunt duikers \u0026ndash; an important species in their dietary ecology \u0026ndash; with unpoisoned arrows. Individual bow hunting is their habitual pattern, but they often also hunt in groups with their bows and arrows. Terashima (1983) sees such group hunting as an archery activity with socio-economic implications wherein at least five or six hunters are needed to be effective, most Mbuti archer bands therefore consist of five to twelve families. The same hunters also use spears and/or javelins for hunting large animals such as elephant and buffalo, the yield of which is great if successful. Hunting large game with spears/javelins, however, involves such great risk that the Mbuti only do it occasionally and in a group (Harako 1976).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur TCSA results indicate that hunting at maximum range was probably the preferred and habitual strategy practiced at Sibudu during MIS 4. Bow hunting could be effective for a variety of animal sizes, including the small blue duiker, and is supported for the MIS 4 at Sibudu by use-trace and residue analysis, as well as experimental work (e.g., Lombard 2011; de la Pe\u0026ntilde;a et al. 2013). This flexible strategy \u0026ndash; in terms of range, prey type, ecology and group size (Lombard 2016, 2022) \u0026ndash; seems to have been a mainstream behaviour amongst the Sibudu MIS 4 hunters. Similar to the Mbuti forest hunters, regular bow hunting in the forests around Sibudu may have afforded them certain adaptive advantages \u0026ndash; more so than hunting from other ranges or with other stone-tipped weapons. Resembling current San hunters from southern Africa who always carry leather bags containing a bow-and-arrows and a spear/javelin so that they are prepared for any type of hunting (e.g., Tanaka 1979), our TCSA results suggest that the Sibudu hunters too may have had their long-range javelins at the ready.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBy MIS 4, all Afrotropic populations were modern \u003cem\u003eHomo sapiens\u003c/em\u003e. We may therefore assume that both groups had well-developed throwing arms/shoulders (e.g., Roach et al. 2013), the neuro-cranial morphology for visuospatial integration over a distance (e.g., Bruner et al. 2017), and the neuro-genetic adaptations to pay attention in complex ways (e.g., Lombard 2024). We therefore used these two assemblages with very different TCSA results to highlight how other factors may have contributed to such concurrent variability in hunting ranges and weaponry. These factors may include, amongst other things: a) Whether assemblages come from open-air or sheltered deposits; b) site function; c) ecological conditions; d) geography (topography, elevation, distance from a coastline); e) organic preservation; and e) group size.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.4. Adaptive advantages of the different hunting ranges\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEach of the hunting ranges increases the space between hunter and prey animal by ~\u0026thinsp;10 m, which may have had broad spatiotemporal as well as specific contextual adaptive advantages. For example, bimanual thrusting spears (with or without stone tips) used for contact hunting currently represent the oldest recognizable, purpose-made hunting weapons. They were used by the Neanderthals in Eurasia, and both \u003cem\u003eHomo heidelbergensis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHomo sapiens\u003c/em\u003e in the Afrotropics. Their sharpened tips (wood or stone) would allow for wounding and weakening prey animals more effectively, compared to attacking prey with un-modified objects. Hunters can apply their full bodily force to these robust weapons, doing maximum damage up close. Afrotropic thrusting spears are ~\u0026thinsp;2 m long, so that used as a contact weapon there is still more than an arm\u0026rsquo;s length between hunter and prey. Any kind of spear hunting, especially contact and short-range hunting, is ineffective and very dangerous for the lone hunter. Early spear hunting therefore required group hunting, and for many types of large game, return rates increase meaningfully when hunting occurs in a group (Alvard 2001). Group hunting demands the development of some social cooperation, a key feature in human evolution (e.g., Apicella and Silk 2019). Our TCSA analysis highlights contexts wherein contact hunting in group may have played occasional, habitual, or obligatory roles through time and across the Afrotropic.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eShort-range hunting weapons, resembling the heavier southern African assegais or Ethiopian heavyweight hunting javelins, are dual-purpose. They are sturdy enough to stab directly into an animal without losing the weapon, but could also be thrown effectively up to ~\u0026thinsp;10 m. What is more, because their shaft diameters are small enough to allow effective single-handed use, hunters can carry a second weapon or shield as backup or protection. Having a single weapon that can both stab and be thrown would further stimulate strategic planning and cooperation within a hunting party. The communal success of such dual-purpose, social weapon-use strategies may explain why stone points resembling heavyweight assegais are so prevalent and spatiotemporally well represented in the Middle Stone Age Afrotropics \u0026ndash; and why they remained a preferred hunting and warfare weapon until recent times (Sahle et al. 2023; Lombard et al. 2024). During MIS 3 it may have become obligatory to conduct short-range hunting with such weapons at sites such as Gorgora in Ethiopia and Holley Shelter in South Africa, indicating that similar hunting success was difficult for these hunters to obtain with other stone-tipped hunting strategies. Alternatively, their socio-cultural contexts may have caused them to suffer serious adverse consequences, such as difficulty in finding mates for pair bonding or lack of social status, if they were not successful in the social, short-range hunting forays.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium-range hunting, with weapons such as the Ethiopian long-narrow-tipped hunting javelins and smaller assegais from South Africa, is especially useful for wounding animals during ambush hunting from distances of up to 19 m. They bring with them a meaningful increase in the distance between hunter and prey with less risk of danger/injury. Their relatively small shaft diameters, also means that hunters can now carry up to three backup javelins in their non-throwing hands. Such hunting still relies on group hunting with its socio-cultural implications. In many instances throughout the Afrotropic Middle Stone Age our TCSA results indicate habitual combinations of short-range and medium-range hunting. For such groups it may imply an increased specialization in structured group hunting, wherein different hunters carried different weapons for their respective roles during the hunt (e.g., Sahle et al. 2023; Lombard et al. 2024), stimulating collective strategizing and risk management.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur work with current javelin hunters shows that true long-range hunting, at distances that reach that of American dart hunting, can be achieved with hunting javelins. Such hunting further increases the effective hunting distance but does not necessarily require the invention of a mechanical propelling technology. Yet, by being able to hunt from distances similar to those reached by American spearthrowers, Churchill and Rhodes (2009) predicted that Middle Stone Age hunters were able to broaden their prey range and change their prey-choice economics. For example, long-range hunting is more effective on open landscapes, allowing hunters to exploit new hunting grounds and prey types, widening their subsistence economics and diet breadth (Churchill and Rhodes 2009). The relative safety associated with long-range hunting of up to ~\u0026thinsp;30 m, also allows for smaller hunting parties, compared to other spear/javelin hunters. Hunting-group sizes can thus become flexible, able to wax and wane with changes in ecological carrying capacity and social-organization patterns.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe adaptive advantages of bow hunting were recently summarized (Lombard 2022 and references therein). First, it allows for maximum-range hunting in open and/or desert landscapes but can also be used over shorter distances in closed forested ecologies. Whilst spear/javelin/dart hunting is most effective for disadvantage and ambush hunting, bow hunting is effective for disadvantage, ambush, approach, pursuit and encounter hunting. Many arrows can be carried in a quiver during a hunting foray, allowing for more shots per trip, longer search times, and distance running. Bows can be re-loaded and fired multiple times in quick succession, from a concealed position, increasing the success rate for small groups and individual hunters. Bow hunting has a relatively high success rate, so that large sharing groups are unnecessary. Cumulatively the adaptive advantages of bow hunting allow for complete flexibility in group size, prey type, landscape and movement across most ecological boundaries.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe suggest that these hypotheses about the adaptive advantages of the different hunting ranges are all testable from different angles for most of the assemblages presented in this study. Such work may include contextual use-trace studies, the alignment of hunting ranges with faunal assemblages, the assessment of landscapes and ecologies in terms of best-fit hunting ranges, and the estimation of group sizes and mobility \u0026ndash; to name but a few.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLastly, hunting with stone-tipped weaponry, although important during the Middle Stone Age, was not necessarily an obligatory behaviour. Animal proteins can be gained through foraging (e.g., eggs, insects, reptiles), fishing and seafood gathering, or scavenging. Our results, however, show that it was a flexible, habitual practice throughout the Afrotropic Middle Stone Age wherein hunters could adapt their hunting ranges and weapons to reap the best fitness rewards within their specific biocultural and socio-ecological settings. This would be similar to Shea\u0026rsquo;s (2017: 209) example of cooking as a habitual behavior amongst living humans, wherein: \u0026ldquo;Cooking is something people do more or less constantly with variable periodicity and intensity. One can microwave, roast, fry, or boil pretty much any foodstuff or eat it raw, but the costs of using one or another such method and the calories one obtains by doing so vary situationally\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith this contribution we demonstrated that it is not necessary to invoke American-like spearthrower-and-dart hunting to discuss the evolution of long-range hunting in Africa. Instead, in the most comprehensive study of its kind to date, we used knowledge gained from current/recent Afrotropic hunters and the data of their weapon tips as a more appropriate middle-range proxy for hypothesising about Middle Stone Age point assemblages from the same biogeographic realm. We confirmed that the range of some African hunting javelins can match the approximate effective distances of spearthrower-darts in real-life hunting contexts \u0026ndash; representing true long-range hunting. However, we also showed that not all \u0026lsquo;javelins\u0026rsquo; are equal, and that some may have served dual stabbing-throwing purposes or represent medium-range hunting. The new hunting-range TCSA approach provides a statistically robust scheme to distinguish between stone tips best suited for each hunting range ballistically. No hunters from the Afrotropics are known to use a single weapon or hunting range only. We therefore used an approach that facilitates thinking about proportional use of different weapon tips and their associated best-fit hunting ranges within each assemblage. Considering these proportions in occasional-habitual-obligatory terms highlighted probable adaptive advantages associated with the weapon sets used in each context that can now be tested with future research.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhilst many factors had to come together for humans to be able to practice long-range hunting with stone-tipped weapons effectively, the summary of our results show that: a) long-range hunting with stone-tipped weapons was probably not practiced in the Afrotropics before or during MIS 8 that ended by ~\u0026thinsp;243 ka; b) experimentation with long-range javelins \u0026ndash; similar to those used by current Ethiopian hunters \u0026ndash; may have started during MIS 6 after ~\u0026thinsp;191 ka; and c) such hunting probably became part of the everyday Afrotropic hunting arsenal by the end of MIS 5 at ~\u0026thinsp;85 ka. Lastly, it is important to consider that each hunting range and weapon-delivery system comes with its own adaptive advantages. Thus, the human ability to hunt over long- or maximum-range distances with stone-tipped weapons did not necessarily always replace hunting over shorter distances. Instead, since MIS 4, it provided Afrotropic hunters with the full spectrum of hunting ranges and stone-tipped weaponry to hunt effectively in all socio-ecological settings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eConflicts of Interest:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no conflicts of interest.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis work is based on the research supported by National Research Foundation of South Africa (Grant Number :150524) to YS.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contributions:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eConceptualization, Y.S. and M.L.; methodology, M.L.; validation, Y.S. and M.L.; formal analysis, Y.S. and M.L.; investigation, Y.S. and M.L.; resources, Y.S. and M.L.; data curation, Y.S. and M.L.; writing\u0026mdash;original draft preparation, Y.S. and M.L.; visualization, Y.S. and M.L.; project administration, Y.S.; funding acquisition, Y.S. Both authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgments:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe thank several museums and colleagues across South Africa, Kenya, and Ethiopia for access to collections. We also thank the Landscape Archaeology of the Kalahari project, David Pleaurdeau, Nicholas Conard, Knut Bretzke, Alice Leplongeon, Martin Williams, and many other colleagues for sharing artifact metric data, images, and details on the chronostratigraphic contexts of some of the assemblages included in the study. All remaining errors are our own.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability Statement:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll relevant data will be published with the paper.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003eAllott, L. F. (2006). 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The Archaeology of Aduma Middle Stone Age Sites in the Awash Valley, Ethiopia. \u003cem\u003ePaleoAnthropology\u003c/em\u003e, 25-100.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"points, hunting javelins, bow-and-arrow, spearthrower-and-dart, adaptive advantages","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4990711/v2","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4990711/v2","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIn the Afrotropic biogeographic realm, with its diverse and high-density mammal population, early humans may have been hunting with stone-tipped weapons since ~\u0026thinsp;500 000 years ago. Being able to hunt effectively from a distance has several important adaptive advantages. Yet, until now, African long-range javelin hunting remained unexplored as intermediate between short/medium-range, hand-delivered and long-range, mechanically projected weapons. Insights gained from a new Afrotropic comparative dataset with 950 weapon tips of known use \u0026ndash; including several javelin types \u0026ndash; provide a contextually appropriate middle-range tool for assessing the probable effective hunting ranges of Middle Stone Age points. We use a novel application of the ballistically relevant tip cross-sectional area (TCSA) statistic to define contact, short-, medium-, long- and maximum-range hunting and discuss the adaptive advantages for each. The approach is applied to suggest developments and variations in the best-fit hunting ranges of 5597 stone points from 62 Middle Stone Age Afrotropic assemblages. By aligning our results with the Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) record we hypothesize that long-range hunting with stone-tipped weapons at ~\u0026thinsp;20\u0026ndash;30 m was probably not practiced by \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;MIS 8, and that experimentation with long-range javelins \u0026ndash; similar to those used by contemporary Ethiopian hunters \u0026ndash; over this distance may have started during MIS 6, becoming part of the everyday Afrotropic hunting arsenal by the end of MIS 5.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The evolution of long-range hunting with stone-tipped weapons during the Afrotropic Middle Stone Age: A testable framework based on tip cross-sectional area","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":2,"date":"2024-09-16 17:45:12","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4990711/v2","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}},{"code":1,"date":"2024-08-29 06:06:49","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4990711/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"468ff340-a050-4c24-8afb-b5199ce236a6","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 16th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[{"id":37716297,"name":"Archaeology"},{"id":37716298,"name":"Anthropology"},{"id":37716299,"name":"Paleoecology"},{"id":37716300,"name":"Evolutionary Biology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-11-20T19:11:41+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-4990711","link":"https://doi.org/10.3390/quat7040050","journal":{"identity":"quaternary","isVorOnly":true,"title":"Quaternary"},"publishedOn":"2024-11-18 00:00:00","publishedOnDateReadable":"November 18th, 2024"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-09-16 17:45:12","video":"","vorDoi":"10.3390/quat7040050","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/quat7040050","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v2","identity":"rs-4990711","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4990711","identity":"rs-4990711","version":["v2"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}