Ethnobotanical study of edible wild plants in Ensaro district, Amhara regional state, Ethiopia

Ethnobotanical study of edible wild plants in Ensaro district, Amhara regional state, Ethiopia | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Ethnobotanical study of edible wild plants in Ensaro district, Amhara regional state, Ethiopia Asaye Asfaw Woldemedhin, Ermias Lulekal, Tamrat Bekele, Asfaw Debella, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-418877/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background: Ethiopia is one of the biodiversity-rich countries in Africa. Most rural communities are highly dependent on forest products including edible wild plants. Thus, many plant taxa are under greater threats before they are documented and their nutritional values are evaluated. This study was carried out to document edible wild plants and associated indigenous practices, and the correlations with socio-demographic variables on edible wild plants in Ensaro district, North Shewa Zone, Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia. It also examined the habitats and major threatening factors of edible wild plants. Methods: The study was conducted from September to December 2020 in Ensaro district, Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia. Semi-structured interviews was made with 98 community members regarding edible wild plant species, parts used, harvesting and consumption time, preparation methods, supplementary uses, life forms, habitats and threatening factors. The socioeconomics characteristics of the study participants was also documented. Excel and R-package were employed for statistical analysis. Analysis of Variance (P < 0.05) was used to observe the correlation of socio-demographic and socioeconomic characteristics with indigenous knowledge of respondents on edible wild plants. Results: Forty-three edible wild plants recorded in this study area. Fabaceae and Moraceae families were the most popular edible wild plant species in the study area. Shrubs were the dominant life forms of recorded plants (37%). Ripe fruits (72%) were the most commonly used plant parts. Indigenous knowledge of respondent on edible wild plants positively correlated with socio-demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents. There was no knowledge difference between genders. The number of species, genera and families of edible wild plants were higher in mid-land agro-ecology than in lowland and highland agro-ecologies of the study area. The distribution of edible wild plants found to be less in the highland agroecology. Edible wild plants in the study mainly found in shrub land areas which are highly threatened by fuelwood collection. Conclusion: Forty-three edible wild plants recorded in the study area. The community consumes edible wild plants during normal and famine periods. Edible wild plants such as Snowdenia polystachya ( Muja ), Eleusine coracana ( Degelie or wanga ), Urtica simensis( Sama ) and Medicago polymorpha (Amaqito) are not used during normal period and young people do not know them even how to use them. In addition, edible wild plants are under greater pressure due to farmland expansion in the study area. This has led to the reduction of edible wild plants and associated indigenous knowledge. Plant Physiology and Morphology Plant Molecular Biology and Genetics edible wild plants indigenous knowledge life forms edible parts seasonal availability habitats threatening factors Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 1. Background About 390,900 plant species are estimated to exist on our planet (Royal botanic gardens Kew, 2016 , May 9). however, only around 31,000 plant species are used by humans for different purposes such as food, medicine, fodder, construction materials (Mongabay, 2016 , May 12). This indicates only about 7.9% of land plants are used by human. the remaining are underutilized plants that may help humans to ensure food security and to live through famines (Assefa & Abebe, 2011 ). They may have better nutritional compositions for proper growth and health improvements (Feyssa et al., 2011 ). However, EWPs and associated indigenous knowledge are currently declining due to different environmental factors. A recent investigation by Sujata and Rajasab ( 2015 ) concluded that EWPs are declining due to intense habitat destruction and over-exploitation. Ethiopia due to its different agro-ecologies that favoured high biodiversity and possess 6027 plant taxa (Kelbessa & Demissew, 2014 ). However, nowadays, the biodiversity of the country face many different threats. The leading threats are such as farmland expansion, climate change, the introduction of exotic species and overexploitation (Husen et al., 2012 ; Gebretsadik, 2016 ). Currently, 135 woody plant taxa are threatened and are under the red list (Kelbessa & Demissew, 1998 ). This implies that many plant taxa are under greater threats before they are documented and their nutritional values are evaluated. The livelihood of almost all Ethiopians dependent on agriculture which at the moment is facing different challenges including drought, climate change and land degradation (Hamza & Iyela, 2012 ; Temesgen et al., 2014 ). These factors cause food insecurity in most rural communities (Sabates-Wheeler et al., 2012 ). As the result, most of these communities are dependent on edible wild plants found in their environment (Feyssa et al., 2011 ; Tebkew et al., 2014 ). However, since there many ethnic groups with different cultures the types of edible wild plants and parts consumed are also different (Teklehaymanot & Giday, 2010 ). Hence, knowing this indigenous knowledge variation on edible wild plants and the plant taxa is very important to take appropriate conservation actions. Furthermore, it serves to select potentially valuable edible wild plants and integrate them with crops. Although, numerous studies on ethnobotanical and edible plants have been conducted in various regions of Ethiopia (Regassa et al., 2015 ; Seyoum et al., 2015 ; Tebkew, 2015 ; Ashagre et al., 2016 ; Berihun & Molla, 2017 ; Tebkew et al., 2018 ; Eticha et al., 2019 ; Dejene et al., 2020 ), no ethnobotanical studies have previously been reported from Ensaro district where the present research had been conducted. But, ethnobotanical studies concerning edible wild plants had been conducted in the nearby area by Alemayehu et al. ( 2015 ) in Berehet District. Therefore, the present investigation was designed and carried out in Ensaro district, Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia to identify edible wild plants and associated indigenous knowledge, edible parts, time of harvesting, mode of consumption, habitats and major threatening factors. The general objective of the study was to document edible wild plants and associated indigenous knowledge and to assess its correlation with age, gender, family size and household income. The specific objectives of the study were to: document edible wild plants and associated indigenous practices investigate relationships of indigenous knowledge on edible wild plants with age, gender, family size and household income determine contributions of edible wild plants other than food compare the distribution of edible wild plants species, families and genera among different agro-ecologies describe major factors threatening sustainable utilization of edible wild plants 2. Materials And Methods 2.1 Description of The Study Area The study was conducted in Ensaro district of North Shewa Zone Amhara Regional State (Fig. 1 ). The study site altitude ranges from 1200m-2700m above sea level. The area is highly deforested except for some unsuitable places for agriculture. The climate is wet and dry tropical, with an average annual rainfall of 1174mm (Harris et al., 2020 ). The District shows a unimodal rainfall from late June to September with a peak in August. The mean annual temperature of Ensaro district is 17.7 0 c (Fig. 1 ). The administrative centre of Ensaro is Lemi town found 130km North of Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia. Geographically the district is located between 9º 35ˈ- 9º 55ˈN and 38º 50' − 39º 5ˈE. the estimated total area of the district is about 44,217.6 ha (Fig. 2 ). The elevation of the study area ranges from1200m to 2700m above sea level and the district falls within three major agro-climatic zones, high lands, midlands and lowlands. Diverse geomorphological features characterize the topography of the woreda lands. Unpublished data from the woreda agricultural office indicate that 20% of the land area is mountainous, followed by plain (50%), flat plains (40%), gorge and other topographic features (10%) (Personal communication). The woreda has 1 urban kebele and 13 rural kebele’s. Based on the 2007 national census conducted by the central statistical agency of Ethiopia, the woreda has a total population of 72801, of whom 38838 are men and 33963 are women; 3,164 (5.44%) are urban inhabitants (CSA, 2013 ). Ensaro is bordered in the south and west by the Oromia region, in the north by Jemma River that separates it from Merhabiete woreda, in the northeast by Moretna Jiru, and in the east by Siyadebrina Wayu woreda. The absence of any ethnobotanical study in this district has led this study to begin to gather traditional local knowledge about useful plants, particularly edible ones. 2.2. Sampling Procedure and Sample Size Determination 2.2.1 Sampling Procedure Multistage sampling technique was used for this particular study. In the first stage, Ensaro district was selected purposively for this study. This district is one of the drought-affected districts in North Shewa Zone of Amhara Regional State. As reported by Abirham Cherinet and Zenebe Mekonnen (2019), in the district there is a trend of increasing mean annual temperature and decreasing of mean annual rainfall for the three decades. This has negative impact on the vegetation of the area and initiates this research to check the status of cultural knowledge regarding to edible wild plants and the plant taxa in the district. In the second stage, the study kebeles were stratified into three different strata to cover varying agro-climate due to time shortage and to have a representative sample. In the third stage, the six Kebeles were randomly selected from each agro-climate. In the fourth stage, sample HHs were selected from each Kebeles. To select sample HHs, a systematic sampling method was applied by taking the nth element of the sample frame. To select study HHs, a systematic random sampling method was applied by taking the nth element of the sample frame. There are 6535 households in six selected Kebeles. The list of households was obtained from Woreda agricultural office in the study area. Three thousand (6535) was divided by sample size (98) and it gave 67. So that the nth value is 67. One number was obtained randomly between 1 and 67. The number was three. So that every 67th number was selected to get sampled household. It also assures that the community will be evenly sampled (Johnson et al., 2007 )(Table 1 ). Table 1 Selected kebeles, agro-ecology, distance from town in kilometer, total households and sample households Kebele Agroecology Altitude a.s. l Distance Total HHs Sample HHs Yidno Low land Below 1500m 4 951 15 Beresa Low land Below 1500m 7 608 9 Lamgeno Mid-land 1500m-2000m 2 750 11 Gezawasha dalota Mid-land 1500m-2000m 3 1952 29 Diremu High -land Above 2000m 1 1047 16 Denbina girarge High-land Above 2000m 3 1227 18 Total 6535 98 2.2.2 Sample size determination To decide sample size, a quantitative model suggested by Cochran ( 1963 ) and indicated by Yamane ( 1967 ) was adopted as shown below: Where n is the sample size, N is a total number of households in the selected kebeles [the sample size (n) in each Kebele was picked based on its proportion to N because the number of households in each Kebele is different], e maximum variability or margin of error 10% (0.1), 1 = probability of the event occurring. Based on the above technique, 98 sample households were selected. Therefore, the total sample size was 100. 2.3 Data Collection Ethnobotanical data were collected using the method and protocol proposed by Martin (1995) and Alexiades (1996). Semi-structured interviews, group discussion, free listing and guided field walk with informed consent local informants. Before starting the interviews and plant collection, a meeting was organized with the help of kebele (local) administrators to highlight the objective of the study and its values for the communities. Oral consent was obtained before the interviews. Data collection was carried out from October 2019 to December 2019. Questions about age, gender, income level, family size, list and name of edible wild plants, edible parts, harvesting season and method of preparation were prepared in English but translated into the local language (Amharic) during the interview. Plants listed during the interview were gathered for identification. Plants mentioned during the interview collected and deposited in the national herbarium of Ethiopia at Addis Ababa University. The age ranged from 20 to 80 years, with an average age of 43. Women are mostly housewife in the study district. Some help their husbands in the outside home activities. The main activities of men are farming and livestock. Men perform often most of the activities outside the home. 2.4 Data Analysis Data were entered into Minitab 18 software. Descriptive analysis was carried out for qualitative data such as edible parts, life forms, seasonal availability and habitats where edible wild plants are mainly found. The results were summarized as chart and tables, figures and tables for qualitative and quantitative data, respectively. Direct matrix ranking exercise was used to compare the use diversity of a given plant species using the methods proposed by Martin (1995); Cotton (1996). The multipurpose uses of edible wild plant species were selected out of the total edible wild plants. Twelve Key informants were allowed to list the uses of these species. These key informants were asked to assign use values to each species as follows (5 = best, 4 = very good, 3 = good, 2 = less used, 1 = least used and 0 = not used). The average values (scores) given to each edible wild plant species were summed up and ranked. Moreover, the ten key informants were also involved in a priority ranking exercise that was focusing on perceived threatening factors of the edible wild plant species. 2.5 Study Variables The dependent variable was indigenous knowledge of the community that was measured by the information obtained on the number of edible wild plants while gender, age, household income and family size were considered as independent variables. Ethical considerations Data collection was carried out with special care of cultural views of the study local communities. Participants of this research were also informed about the objectives and roles of the research. Since, indigenous knowledge is the property of the community so any values that can be obtained as the result of this investigation should benefit the community. According to ethnobiology code of ethics indigenous knowledge should be protected and a part of the value generated should be transferred back to the authors of the knowledge. Finally, informants were accepted the idea and came to reach an agreement 3. Result And Discussion 3.1 Taxonomic diversity of edible wild plants Forty-three (43) edible wild plant species distributed to 34 genera and 27 families reported by the study participants as sources of wild foods by this study in Ensaro district (Table 5 ). It was found that the plant family Moraceae was very popular and represented by five species. Fabaceae was the second widely used edible wild plants family represented by four species. Tiliaceae represented by three species; Ebenaceae, Polygonaceae, Boraginaceae, Solanaceae, Myrtaceae and Olacaceae had two species. The remaining families had one species each. Therefore, about 56% of the families represented by more than one species (Table 2 ). Among the identified species, Urtica simensis Hochst. ex A. Rich and Aloe berhana Reynolds are endemic to Ethiopia. Most of the reported edible wild plants used as fuelwood and medicines in the study area. The species identified might have two or more additional uses. For example, Carissa spinarum L used as a fence and medicine, Snowdenia polystachya (Fresen.) Pilg is used as, medicine and fodder. Table 2 Diversity of edible wild plants in each plant family No Families Number of species Percentage 1 Moraceae 5 11.6 2 Fabaceae 4 9.3 3 Tiliaceae 3 7 4 Boraginaceae 2 4.7 5 Ebenaceae 2 4.7 6 Myrtaceae 2 4.7 7 Polygonaceae 2 4.7 8 Olacaceae 2 4.7 9 Solanaceae 2 4.7 10 Others 19 44.2 It also shows a relatively high diversity of edible wild plants, which might be due to the existence of different agro-ecologies. This result indicates that the collection and consumption of edible wild plants in the study area are still alive and it is an important local activity. In most of Ethiopia, edible wild plants are essential components of daily food intakes (Balemie & Kebebew, 2006 ). These plants are important means to get a balanced diet and proper health for poor people who are depending on them for their daily foods (Teketay et al., 2010 ). Some reported species are edible during a food crisis. This study was not aimed to evaluate the contributions of edible wild plants for the livelihood of people. However, about 30% of the respondents were indicated that they are getting some income from the sales of these plants, like Ximenia americana , Ziziphus spina-christi and, tamarindus indica are commonly traded in local markets. In this study it was noted that the local name of three edible wild plant species varies in different kebeles- for example, Tamarindus indica is known by Roema in Yidnoberessa, Doqma in Gezawasha dalota kebeles; Grewia occidentalis in known by chirnchir in Yidnoberessa, Betremusie in Gezawasha dalota, and Eleusine coracana (L.) Wanga in Yidnoberessa, Degelie in Gezawasha dalota. The number of edible wild plants species recorded in this study is comparable with the 46 species reported in the Southern part of Ethiopia (Ashagre et al., 2016 ). however, it is higher than the 22 species reported in the eastern part of Ethiopia (Kebede et al., 2017 ) and 27 species in Uganda (Nyakoojo & Tugume, 2020 ). But it is also lower than 154 edible wild plants species documented in Turkey (Cakir, 2017 ) and 354 species reported in Burkina Faso by Hahn et al. ( 2018 ). This difference in the number of reported edible wild plants might be due to variations in culture, vegetation cover of the area or climatic variation of the location (Bortolotto et al., 2015 ). It also perhaps shows declining of edible wild plants species together with associated indigenous knowledge of the communities. In line with the current the present finding, Fabaceae and Moraceae have also been reported to be major edible wild plant families that frequently used in Ethiopia and elsewhere (Regassa et al., 2015 ; Meragiaw, 2016 ; Kebebew & Mohamed, 2017 ). This probably because most of Ficus species belong to the family Moraceae are edible plants in Ethiopia and elsewhere (Regassa et al., 2015 ; Ojelel et al., 2019 ) and the family Fabaceae is the most diverse in Ethiopia including other African countries (Hahn et al., 2018 ; Tebkew et al., 2018 ; Mutie et al., 2020 ) and hence there is a high chance of getting edible species for these two families. However, some previous studies in Ethiopia (Balemie & Kebebew, 2006 ; Ashagre et al., 2016 ; Berihun & Molla, 2017 ) reported that most of the edible wild plants were found in Anacardiaceae and Tiliaceae families. While others (Seyoum et al., 2015 ) reported that Rosaceae family is a popularly known family in having the highest diversity of edible wild plants in Ethiopia. These differences in the most common uses of edible wild plant families show the intensity and importance of this information. Moreover, the list of species in the present study is aligned with the list of common edible wild plants in the country with a published in a book (Teketay et al., 2010 ) and a comprehensive review by Molla et al. ( 2011 ). The data obtained in this study reveal that not only food but also other varies supplementary uses were also reported, like medicinal values, fuelwood, fence, timber, farm implements and fodder which are also reported by other studies in Ethiopia (Seyoum et al., 2015 ; Berihun & Molla, 2017 ; Tebkew et al., 2018 ). The stem bark of the Ziziphus spina-christi used to treat snakebite. The stem of Grewia occidentalis is to make Mequamiya. Cordia africana used to prepare timber for different purposes. Distributions of Edible Wild Plants along Different Agro-Ecologies The number of species, genera and families of edible wild plants were higher in mid-land agro-ecology than in lowland and highland agro-ecologies of the study area. High land was the least agro-ecology in the distribution of edible wild plants in Ensaro district (see Fig. 3 ). The distribution of different edible wild plants in different agro-ecologies indicates the adaptation of these species in different environmental conditions. This indicates that plants adapted to variable climate are generally drought tolerant. 3.2 Life Forms and Edible Parts of Edible Wild Plants 3.2.1 Life Forms of Edible Wild Plants The edible wild plant species belong to four life forms namely shrubs, trees, herbs and climbers. Shrub contributed 37% while climbers (lianas) contributed only 2% of all identified edible wild plant species (Fig. 4 ). The life forms of edible wild plants in this study were diverse and accordingly the largest number of edible wild plant species found to be shrubs followed by trees, herbs and climbers (Fig. 4 ). The least diverse edible wild plants in terms of life forms were lianas. This result is also seen in a study conducted nearby area by Alemayehu et al. ( 2015 ) and in the western part of Ethiopia by Amente ( 2017 ). However, this result is different from a result reported by Tebkew et al. ( 2018 ) in the Northern part of Ethiopia where trees are dominant life forms of edible wild plants followed by shrubs. This shows the variation of the life forms of edible wild plants from place to place that might be due to variations in type edible wild plant species and culture of the communities. 3.2.2 Edible Parts Eight edible parts of edible wild plants recorded in Ensaro district. These are fruits, seeds, leaves, saps, latex, root, shoot and rhizome (Fig. 5 ). Fruits comprise 72% of edible parts whereas latex, shoot, rhizome, sap and root provided by 2% of each. This means fruits are the major parts consumed followed by seeds and leaves. Sap, root, shoot, rhizome and latex are the least. Most fruits consumed in raw. Regarding edible parts consumed, seven edible parts were documented namely fruits, stem, leaves, sap, seeds, root and rhizome. This indicates the edible parts of reported edible wild plants in Ensaro district is also highly diverse. The most widely consumed parts are fruits (73%) that eaten raw (Fig. 5 ). The preference of fruits to other parts might be low energy investment. Fruits are harvested and consumed in the field or outdoor when they ripe by children while collecting fuelwood or herding cattle. The result of this research is in agreement with current study results (Tebkew et al., 2014 ; Regassa et al., 2015 ; Betti et al., 2020 ; Mutie et al., 2020 ). In other studies, leaves are the main consumable part of edible wild plants in a different part of the world (Ali-Shtayeh et al., 2008 ). This implies the types of edible parts and culture of the communities vary from location to location. 3.3 Harvesting Seasons Many of the reported edible wild plants were abundantly available spring and summer seasons. Few edible wild plants harvested and consumed during the winter season. In Ethiopia, there are four seasons namely, summer, spring, winter and autumn based on the climate of the country. The edible parts of edible wild plants gathered from the wild at different times of the year (Fig. 6 ) and the majority gathered from shrublands. Edible wild plants are available throughout the year in Ensaro district. Particularly, spring and summer were the major seasons in the study area when most of the plants produce flower and fruits. Summer and some part of spring is the period of food shortage in the study area. Thus, the availability of these plants during this period used as substitutes and fill the gap of food shortage that happened until the harvesting season of domesticated crops. Ximenia Americana , Ziziphus spina-christi , Opuntia ficus-indica , and Syzygium guineense consumed in the presence of enough staple foods in the home. 3.4 Correlation of Age Groups, Gender, Family Size, Household Income and Distance from Town with Indigenous Knowledge of People on Edible Wild Plants Indigenous knowledge of respondent on edible wild plants positively correlated with age, gender and family size, and negatively correlated with an annual household income of respondents. Indigenous knowledge of respondents in the study area significantly correlated with age, family size and annual household income (p < 0.05) and it is more strongly correlated with family size and age. There was no knowledge difference between genders (Table 3 ). However, family size and age have a direct proportion with indigenous knowledge of respondents on edible wild plants. This might be people having large family member are more dependent on edible wild plants. On the other hand, the number of edible wild plants listed by youths is smaller than mentioned by older persons that might be by fast westernization and lack of interest for their culture as noted by (Wiryono et al. ( 2017 )) in Central Bengkulu District, Bengkulu Province, Indonesia. Species that were used especially in the past famine periods such as Medicago polymorpha. , Eleusine coracana, Snowdenia polystachya, Embelia schimperi and Urtica simensis are not known by the younger generation particularly their preparation method in the study area. It is necessary to preserve these species as they have also medicinal values. Table 3 Pearson's correlations of gender, age, family size and household income with indigenous knowledge of respondents Sociodemographic and socio-economic characteristics Indigenous knowledge Age P value < 0.001 Gender P value = 0.747 Family size P value < 0.001 Annual household income P value < 0.001 3.5 Habitats and Major Threatening Factors 3.5.1 Habitats Many of the reported edible wild plants were found in shrubland areas (45%) followed by woodland areas. The least number of edible wild plant species reported from grazing land. Deforestation and drought are major threats for reported edible wild plants (Fig. 9). About 73% of the respondents reported that deforestation for several reasons is the major threatening factor followed by persistent drought in the study area. These edible wild plants have several supplementary roles other than food that may pose overexploitation and loss of the species. Most of the reported edible wild plants (76.2%) in two habitats. Shrubland (45.2%) is the main reservoir of edible wild plants followed by woodland (31%) and the rest edge of farms and grazing lands together contributed (29%). This shows the importance of in-situ conserving particularly woodlands and shrublands to conserve and ensure sustainable uses of these edible wild plants together with associated indigenous knowledge of the community. It is also necessary for further study of the quality of their primary and secondary metabolites. The most threatened species found in this research are Grewia tenax and Cordia monoica found in shrubland. 3.5.2 Direct matrix ranking In addition to food values, the local people used the plants for other different purposes such as fuelwood, fence, house construction, medicine, farm implements, and furniture. The result of direct matrix ranking revealed that Cordia Africana, Cordia monoica, Ficus Palmata, Ficus sur, Grewia tenax and Acacia etbaica were ranked first to six, respectively. Similarly, the seven use-values reported on six selected plant species were summed up and ranked and, the result showed that fuelwood collection, food, farm implements, medicine, furniture, house construction, fence were ranked first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh, respectively. Table 4 Direct matrix ranking of six plant species by twelve informants based on seven use criteria (5 = best; 4 = very good; 3 = good; 2 = less used; 1 = least used and 0 = no value) Use diversity Cordia Africana Cordia monoica Ficus palmata Ficus sur Grewia tenax Acacia etbaica Total Rank Food 4 4 3 4 3 3 21 2nd Medicine 4 0 4 3 3 3 17 4th Farm implements 5 4 1 4 0 4 18 3rd Fuelwood 4 4 4 4 4 5 25 1st Construction 5 2 1 4 0 3 15 6th Furniture 5 2 0 5 0 4 16 5th Fence 3 2 1 1 2 5 14 7th Total 30 18 14 25 12 26 Rank 1st 4th 5th 3rd 6th 2nd Limitations of the study This study is limited to the documentation of edible wild plants, their life forms, edible part, a season when they are abundantly available, and their habitats and major threatening factors. It does not include the contributions for household food security and market values of edible wild plants. Table 5 Edible wild plants in Ensaro district, Amhara regional state, Ethiopia. Scientific name Local name Family Habit Edible parts Period of consumption Mode of utilization Other uses Ficus carica L. Abuar Moraceae Tree Fruit and latex At normal time Ripe and uncooked fuelwood Carissa spinarum L. Agam Apocynaceae Shrub Fruit At normal time Ripe and uncooked Medicinal and fence Commiphora boiviniana Engl. Anqa Burseraceae Shrub Fruit At normal time Ripe and uncooked Fuelwood Ficus sycomorus L. Bamba Moraceae Tree Fruit At normal time Ripe and uncooked Fuelwood, making beehives Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del Bedeno Zygophyllaceae Shrub Fruit At normal time Ripe and uncooked Fence, fuelwood Ficus palmata Roxb. Beles Moraceae Shrub Fruit At normal time Ripe and uncooked Medicine and fuelwood Cordia monoica Roxb. Chewanza Boraginaceae Tree Fruit At normal time Ripe and uncooked Fuelwood, fodder Grewia tenax (Forssk.) Fiori Cirnchir Tiliaceae Shrub Fruit At normal time Ripe and uncooked Walking stick Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertner Dedeho Ebenaceae Shrub Fruit At normal time cooked Fuelwood and medicine Pelargonium multibracteatum Hochst. Demek abeba Geraniaceae Herb Sap At normal time Ripe Has no other use Acacia etbaica Schweinf. Derie Fabaceae Tree Fruit At normal time Ripe and uncooked Fence Ferula communis L. Dog Apiaceae Herb Stem At normal time cooked Medicine, fuelwood Syzygium guineense (Wild.) DC. Dokma Myrtaceae Tree Fruit At normal time Ripe and uncooked Fuelwood, medicine Rumex nervosus Vahl Embaucho Polygonaceae Shrub stem shoot At normal time Immature and uncooked Fuelwood, medicine Strychnos innocua Del. Engocha Loganiaceae Shrub Fruit At normal time Ripe and uncooked Fuelwood, medicine Ximenia americana L. Enqoy Olacaceae Tree Fruit At normal time Ripe and uncooked Fuelwood, medicine Ekebergia capensis Sparrm. Ergo(lol) eliaceae Tree Fruit during famine Ripe and uncooked Fuelwood Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf. Geba Rhamnaceae Tree Fruit At normal time Ripe and uncooked Fence, medicine Rubus volkensii Engl. Injory Olacaceae Shrub Fruit during famine Ripe and uncooked Fence Dovyalis abyssinica (A. Rich.) Warb. Koshim Flacourtiaceae Shrub Fruit At normal time Ripe and uncooked Fence Physalis peruviana L. Kutalebash Solanaceae Herb Fruit At normal time Ripe and uncooked Has no other use Grewia ferruginea Hochst. ex A.Rich. Lenquata Fabaceae Shrub Fruit At normal time Ripe and uncooked Fuelwood Rumex abyssinicus Jacq. Meqmeqo Polygonaceae Herb Rhizome At normal time Cooked Medicine Snowdenia polystachya (Fresen.) Pilg. Muja Poaceae Herb Seeds during famine cooked Medicine, fodder Rosa abyssinica Lindley Qega Rosaceae Shrub Fruit At normal time Ripe and uncooked Fence Grewia villosa Willd. Quaquatie Tiliaceae Shrub Fruit At normal time Ripe and uncooked Fuelwood Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Miller Qulqual Cactaceae Shrub Fruit and leaves At normal time Ripe and uncooked Fence, fodder Tamarindus indica L. Roema Fabaceae Tree Fruit At normal time Ripe and uncooked Fuelwood Urtica simensis Hochst. ex A. Rich. Sama Utricaceae Herb Leaves At normal time Cooked Medicine Grewia bicolor Juss. Sefa Tiliaceae Shrub Fruit At normal time Ripe and uncooked Medicine, fuelwood Ficus sur Forssk. Shola Moraceae Tree Fruit At normal time Ripe and uncooked Fuelwood Mimusops kummel Bruce ex A.DC. Shoye Sapotaceae Tree Fruit At normal time Ripe and uncooked Fuelwood Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A.DC. Tikurie Ebenaceae Shrub Fruit At normal time Ripe and uncooked Fuelwood, farm implements Cordia Africana Lam Wanza Boraginaceae Tree Fruit At normal time Ripe and uncooked Furniture, farm implements, medicine Ficus vasta Forssk Warka Moraceae Tree Fruit At normal time Ripe and uncooked Fuelwood, furniture Aloe berhana Reynolds Eret Aloaceae Herb Sap at normal time Ripe Medicine Momordica foetida Schumach. Yamora misa Cucurbitaceae Liana Fruit at normal time Ripe and uncooked Has no other use Hibiscus trionum L. Yeregna selit Malvaceae Herb Seeds at normal time Mature and uncooked Has no other use Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Zemato Myrtaceae Tree Fruit at normal time Ripe and uncooked Fuelwood Solanum villosum Forssk. Tikur Awut Solanaceae Herb Fruit during famine Ripe and uncooked Medicine Medicago polymorpha L. . Amaqito Fabaceae Herb Seeds during famine Mature and cooked Fodder Embelia schimperi Vatke . Meterie Myrsinaceae shrub fruit During Famine Ripe and uncooked Medicine 4. Conclusions The edible wild plants and associated traditional practices were still active in the study district. The study revealed that most of the edible wild plants were shrubs found in shrub-land areas and fruits were the main consumable parts. Furthermore, the age and family size of the respondents positively correlated with the mentioned number of edible wild plants. This study support to preserve indigenous knowledge associated with edible wild plants. However, there is declining in the retrieved information on Snowdenia polystachya, Eleusine coracana, Urtica simensis, Embelia schimperi and Medicago polymorpha, which used as the main food source during the great Ethiopian famine (1888–1892). There is no correlation between gender and indigenous knowledge of respondents on edible wild plants. Apart from the food values, most of the identified edible wild plants in this study are used other supplementary services. The local people harvest and used edible wild plants for fence, fuel, fodder, medicine and furniture. In particular, edible wild plant species such as Ximenia Americana, Cordia monoica and Ziziphus spina-christi have multirole for the people. Hence, this poses a high level of threats to these edible wild plants in the study area. Besides, many of the edible wild plants found in Ensaro district are under high threats due to fuelwood collection by the local community. This has led to the reduction of edible wild plants and associated indigenous knowledge. Declarations Ethics and consent participant The present study is purely based on filled survey. Ethical guidelines of the international society of ethnobiology ( https://www.ethnobiology.net ) were strictly followed. Permissions were verbally obtained by all participants of this study. Consent for publication The people interviewed were informed about the objectives of the research and final publication of the information collected, and they were assured that the informants’ identities would be remain secret. Availability of data and materials The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on the following link DOI https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.dncjsxm03 . Competing interest The authors have not declared any conflicts of interest. Funding This study was supported by the ministry of higher education, Ethiopian public health institute and Debere Berhan University. Author’s information PhD student, Department of Plant Biology and Biodiversity Management, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia. Lecturer at Debre Birhan University, Ethiopia Authors’ contributions Asaye Asfaw conceived the idea of doing this research, conducted the interviews, collected samples, outlined and wrote the manuscript. Ermias Lulekal was involved in the identification of collected plant materials and in searching of fund. Asfaw Debella, Eyob Debebe and Samuel Tessema were participated in planning and preparation of semi-structured questions. Tamrat Bekele was revising it critically for important intellectual content. All authors have made substantial contributions to analysis, interpretation of data and writing of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgement The authors appreciate and express their thanking words officials of Ensaro woreda who facilitated the study and the community members that participated during the interviews. Without their contribution, this study would have been impossible.The first author thanks the scholarship from Debre Berhan University. EPHI (Ethiopian people health institute, period 2019/2021) who gave the financial support is acknowledged. References Abirham Cherinet, & Zenebe Mekonnen. (2019). Comparing Farmers Perception of Climate Change and Variability with Historical Climate Data-the Case of Ensaro District, Ethiopia. International Journal of Environmental Sciences & Natural Resources, 17 (4), 114-120. Alemayehu, G., Asfaw, Z., & Kelbessa, E. (2015). Plant Diversity and Ethnobotany in Berehet District, North Shewa Zone of Amhara Region (Ethiopia) with Emphasis on Wild Edible Plants. Journal of Medicinal Plants Studies, 3 (6), 93-105. Ali-Shtayeh, M. S., Jamous, R. M., Al-Shafie, J. H., Wafa'A, E., Kherfan, F. A., Qarariah, K. H. , et al. (2008). Traditional Knowledge of Wild Edible Plants Used in Palestine (Northern West Bank): A Comparative Study. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 4 (1), 1-13. Amente, D. A. (2017). Ethnobotanical Survey of Wild Edible Plants and Their Contribution for Food Security Used by Gumuz People in Kamash Woreda; Benishangul Gumuz Regional State; Ethiopia. Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences, 5 (6), 217-224. 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Conservation of Wild Food Plants and Their Potential for Combatting Food Insecurity in Kenya as Exemplified by the Drylands of Kitui County. Plants, 9 (8), 1017. Nyakoojo, C., & Tugume, P. (2020). Traditional Use of Wild Edible Plants in the Communities Adjacent Mabira Central Forest Reserve, Uganda. Ethnobotany Research and Applications, 20 , 1-14. Ojelel, S., Mucunguzi, P., Katuura, E., Kakudidi, E. K., Namaganda, M., & Kalema, J. (2019). Wild Edible Plants Used by Communities in and around Selected Forest Reserves of Teso-Karamoja Region, Uganda. Journal of ethnobiology and ethnomedicine, 15 (1), 1-14. Regassa, T., Kelbessa, E., & Asfaw, Z. (2015). Ethnobotany of Wild and Semi-Wild Edible Plants of Chelia District, West-Central Ethiopia. Science, Technology and Arts Research Journal, 3 (4), 122-134. Royal botanic gardens Kew. (2016, May 9). State of the World’s Plants 2016. Kew report makes new tally for number of world's plants. Retrieved from https://stateoftheworldsplants.org/2016/ Sabates-Wheeler, R., Tefera, M., & Bekele, G. (2012). Future-Agricultures, Working Paper 044. Seyoum, Y., Teketay, D., Shumi, G., & Wodafirash, M. (2015). Edible Wild Fruit Trees and Shrubs and Their Socioeconomic Significance in Central Ethiopia. Ethnobotany Research and Applications, 14 , 183-197. Sujata, M., & Rajasab, A. (2015). Documentation of Folk Knowledge on Wild Edible Plants of Bidar District, Karnataka, India. Tebkew, M. (2015). Wild and Semi-Wild Edible Plants in Chilga District, Northwestern Ethiopia: Implication for Food Security and Climate Change Adaptation. Tebkew, M., Asfaw, Z., & Zewudie, S. (2014). Underutilized Wild Edible Plants in the Chilga District, Northwestern Ethiopia: Focus on Wild Woody Plants. Agriculture & Food Security, 3 (1), 12. Tebkew, M., Gebremariam, Y., Mucheye, T., Alemu, A., Abich, A., & Fikir, D. (2018). Uses of Wild Edible Plants in Quara District, Northwest Ethiopia: Implication for Forest Management. Agriculture & Food Security, 7 (1), 12. Teketay, D., Senbeta, F., Maclachlan, M., Bekele, M., & Barklund, P. (2010). Edible Wild Plants in Ethiopia (Vol. 575): Addis Ababa University Press Addis Ababa. Teklehaymanot, T., & Giday, M. (2010). Ethnobotanical Study of Wild Edible Plants of Kara and Kwego Semi-Pastoralist People in Lower Omo River Valley, Debub Omo Zone, Snnpr, Ethiopia. Journal of ethnobiology and ethnomedicine, 6 (1), 23. Temesgen, G., Amare, B., & Silassie, H. (2014). Land Degradation in Ethiopia: Causes, Impacts and Rehabilitation Techniques. Journal of environment and earth science, 4 (9), 98-104. Wiryono, W., Japriyanto, J., & Erniwati, E. (2017). The Diversity of Locally Utilized Plants and Local Botanical Knowledge in Central Bengkulu District, Bengkulu Province, Indonesia. Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity, 18 (4), 1589-1595. Yamane, T. (1967). Statistics: An Introductory Analysis, 2nd Edn, Harper and Row, New York. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-418877","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":21848925,"identity":"feb90e4f-8004-490d-bfcd-6154b58eebb7","order_by":0,"name":"Asaye Asfaw 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the study area from 1989 to 2019.","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-418877/v1/7cdfd404e7ac6f7fc4b297aa.jpg"},{"id":8191243,"identity":"8fa93ac8-09dc-41d5-b81e-4dce0898836a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2021-04-19 21:15:58","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":86862,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"A map the study area, in Amhara region, North Shewa Zone, Ethiopia","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-418877/v1/1bff08dec44abaaa7e2f8b72.jpg"},{"id":8191910,"identity":"4fbe48f3-b42f-41ba-83fb-649325bbe2c3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2021-04-19 21:18:58","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":26384,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"Distributions of edible wild plants in different agro-ecologies in the study area","description":"","filename":"3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-418877/v1/93a501b2ee1489d02bf3033b.jpg"},{"id":8192448,"identity":"d3fc5bdc-80b0-46bc-afbd-dd692a2eef9b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2021-04-19 21:21:58","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":18329,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"Percentage of wild edible plant taxa arranged by life forms","description":"","filename":"4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-418877/v1/ec04a555e36762396bc01ab4.jpg"},{"id":8191249,"identity":"10b5079a-f32f-4692-9420-c5ad83b36251","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2021-04-19 21:15:58","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":18626,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"Edible parts of reported edible wild plants in Ensaro district","description":"","filename":"5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-418877/v1/8fb761ac819bb55e57a01a76.jpg"},{"id":8192449,"identity":"d9852482-81f5-47b7-a509-640c267b6750","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2021-04-19 21:21:58","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":25917,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"The number of wild edible plants consumed and time of gathering within a year, Ensaro district, North Shewa Zone, Amhara Regional State.","description":"","filename":"6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-418877/v1/fc6819206bb3cbbad78efe85.jpg"},{"id":8191246,"identity":"e98847c1-1ae1-4c3a-b6e5-d4f084df3bb4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2021-04-19 21:15:58","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":23107,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"percentage of edible wild plants found in different habitats","description":"","filename":"7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-418877/v1/32ab2c3059eff11ece1e0bdf.jpg"},{"id":13687334,"identity":"79900e6f-1809-4d98-bb48-75cfe1193a7c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2021-09-17 12:19:26","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":705678,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-418877/v1/951c52f8-713f-4317-b682-06da8881ff58.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Ethnobotanical study of edible wild plants in Ensaro district, Amhara regional state, Ethiopia","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eAbout 390,900 plant species are estimated to exist on our planet (Royal botanic gardens Kew, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e, May 9). however, only around 31,000 plant species are used by humans for different purposes such as food, medicine, fodder, construction materials (Mongabay, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e, May 12). This indicates only about 7.9% of land plants are used by human. the remaining are underutilized plants that may help humans to ensure food security and to live through famines (Assefa \u0026amp; Abebe, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). They may have better nutritional compositions for proper growth and health improvements (Feyssa et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). However, EWPs and associated indigenous knowledge are currently declining due to different environmental factors. A recent investigation by Sujata and Rajasab (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) concluded that EWPs are declining due to intense habitat destruction and over-exploitation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthiopia due to its different agro-ecologies that favoured high biodiversity and possess 6027 plant taxa (Kelbessa \u0026amp; Demissew, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). However, nowadays, the biodiversity of the country face many different threats. The leading threats are such as farmland expansion, climate change, the introduction of exotic species and overexploitation (Husen et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Gebretsadik, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Currently, 135 woody plant taxa are threatened and are under the red list (Kelbessa \u0026amp; Demissew, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). This implies that many plant taxa are under greater threats before they are documented and their nutritional values are evaluated.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe livelihood of almost all Ethiopians dependent on agriculture which at the moment is facing different challenges including drought, climate change and land degradation (Hamza \u0026amp; Iyela, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Temesgen et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). These factors cause food insecurity in most rural communities (Sabates-Wheeler et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). As the result, most of these communities are dependent on edible wild plants found in their environment (Feyssa et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Tebkew et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). However, since there many ethnic groups with different cultures the types of edible wild plants and parts consumed are also different (Teklehaymanot \u0026amp; Giday, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Hence, knowing this indigenous knowledge variation on edible wild plants and the plant taxa is very important to take appropriate conservation actions. Furthermore, it serves to select potentially valuable edible wild plants and integrate them with crops.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough, numerous studies on ethnobotanical and edible plants have been conducted in various regions of Ethiopia (Regassa et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Seyoum et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Tebkew, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Ashagre et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Berihun \u0026amp; Molla, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Tebkew et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Eticha et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Dejene et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), no ethnobotanical studies have previously been reported from Ensaro district where the present research had been conducted. But, ethnobotanical studies concerning edible wild plants had been conducted in the nearby area by Alemayehu et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) in Berehet District.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTherefore, the present investigation was designed and carried out in Ensaro district, Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia to identify edible wild plants and associated indigenous knowledge, edible parts, time of harvesting, mode of consumption, habitats and major threatening factors. The general objective of the study was to document edible wild plants and associated indigenous knowledge and to assess its correlation with age, gender, family size and household income. The specific objectives of the study were to:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003edocument edible wild plants and associated indigenous practices\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003einvestigate relationships of indigenous knowledge on edible wild plants with age, gender, family size and household income\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003edetermine contributions of edible wild plants other than food\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ecompare the distribution of edible wild plants species, families and genera among different agro-ecologies\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003edescribe major factors threatening sustainable utilization of edible wild plants\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials And Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.1 Description of The Study Area\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in Ensaro district of North Shewa Zone Amhara Regional State (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The study site altitude ranges from 1200m-2700m above sea level. The area is highly deforested except for some unsuitable places for agriculture. The climate is wet and dry tropical, with an average annual rainfall of 1174mm (Harris et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The District shows a unimodal rainfall from late June to September with a peak in August. The mean annual temperature of Ensaro district is 17.7\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003ec (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe administrative centre of Ensaro is Lemi town found 130km North of Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia. Geographically the district is located between 9\u0026ordm; 35ˈ- 9\u0026ordm; 55ˈN and 38\u0026ordm; 50' \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;39\u0026ordm; 5ˈE. the estimated total area of the district is about 44,217.6 ha (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The elevation of the study area ranges from1200m to 2700m above sea level and the district falls within three major agro-climatic zones, high lands, midlands and lowlands. Diverse geomorphological features characterize the topography of the woreda lands. Unpublished data from the woreda agricultural office indicate that 20% of the land area is mountainous, followed by plain (50%), flat plains (40%), gorge and other topographic features (10%) (Personal communication). The woreda has 1 urban kebele and 13 rural kebele\u0026rsquo;s.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBased on the 2007 national census conducted by the central statistical agency of Ethiopia, the woreda has a total population of 72801, of whom 38838 are men and 33963 are women; 3,164 (5.44%) are urban inhabitants (CSA, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Ensaro is bordered in the south and west by the Oromia region, in the north by Jemma River that separates it from Merhabiete woreda, in the northeast by Moretna Jiru, and in the east by Siyadebrina Wayu woreda. The absence of any ethnobotanical study in this district has led this study to begin to gather traditional local knowledge about useful plants, particularly edible ones.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.2. Sampling Procedure and Sample Size Determination\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.2.1 Sampling Procedure\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMultistage sampling technique was used for this particular study. In the first stage, Ensaro district was selected purposively for this study. This district is one of the drought-affected districts in North Shewa Zone of Amhara Regional State. As reported by Abirham Cherinet and Zenebe Mekonnen (2019), in the district there is a trend of increasing mean annual temperature and decreasing of mean annual rainfall for the three decades. This has negative impact on the vegetation of the area and initiates this research to check the status of cultural knowledge regarding to edible wild plants and the plant taxa in the district.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the second stage, the study kebeles were stratified into three different strata to cover varying agro-climate due to time shortage and to have a representative sample. In the third stage, the six Kebeles were randomly selected from each agro-climate. In the fourth stage, sample HHs were selected from each Kebeles. To select sample HHs, a systematic sampling method was applied by taking the nth element of the sample frame. To select study HHs, a systematic random sampling method was applied by taking the nth element of the sample frame. There are 6535 households in six selected Kebeles. The list of households was obtained from Woreda agricultural office in the study area. Three thousand (6535) was divided by sample size (98) and it gave 67. So that the nth value is 67. One number was obtained randomly between 1 and 67. The number was three. So that every 67th number was selected to get sampled household. It also assures that the community will be evenly sampled (Johnson et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e)(Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSelected kebeles, agro-ecology, distance from town in kilometer, total households and sample households\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKebele\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAgroecology\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAltitude a.s. l\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDistance\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTotal HHs\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSample HHs\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eYidno\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLow land\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBelow 1500m\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e951\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBeresa\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLow land\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBelow 1500m\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e608\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLamgeno\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMid-land\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1500m-2000m\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e750\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGezawasha dalota\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMid-land\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1500m-2000m\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1952\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDiremu\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHigh -land\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAbove 2000m\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1047\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDenbina girarge\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHigh-land\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAbove 2000m\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1227\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6535\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e98\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.2.2 Sample size determination\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo decide sample size, a quantitative model suggested by Cochran (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1963\u003c/span\u003e) and indicated by Yamane (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1967\u003c/span\u003e) was adopted as shown below:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg src=\"https://myfiles.space/user_files/58653_1b1c6aeb34a62c68/58653_custom_files/img1618852451.jpg\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhere n is the sample size, N is a total number of households in the selected kebeles [the sample size (n) in each Kebele was picked based on its proportion to N because the number of households in each Kebele is different], e maximum variability or margin of error 10% (0.1), 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;probability of the event occurring. Based on the above technique, 98 sample households were selected. Therefore, the total sample size was 100.\u003cstrong\u003e2.3 Data Collection\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthnobotanical data were collected using the method and protocol proposed by Martin (1995) and Alexiades (1996). Semi-structured interviews, group discussion, free listing and guided field walk with informed consent local informants. Before starting the interviews and plant collection, a meeting was organized with the help of kebele (local) administrators to highlight the objective of the study and its values for the communities. Oral consent was obtained before the interviews. Data collection was carried out from October 2019 to December 2019.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQuestions about age, gender, income level, family size, list and name of edible wild plants, edible parts, harvesting season and method of preparation were prepared in English but translated into the local language (Amharic) during the interview. Plants listed during the interview were gathered for identification. Plants mentioned during the interview collected and deposited in the national herbarium of Ethiopia at Addis Ababa University.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe age ranged from 20 to 80 years, with an average age of 43. Women are mostly housewife in the study district. Some help their husbands in the outside home activities. The main activities of men are farming and livestock. Men perform often most of the activities outside the home.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.4 Data Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData were entered into Minitab 18 software. Descriptive analysis was carried out for qualitative data such as edible parts, life forms, seasonal availability and habitats where edible wild plants are mainly found. The results were summarized as chart and tables, figures and tables for qualitative and quantitative data, respectively. Direct matrix ranking exercise was used to compare the use diversity of a given plant species using the methods proposed by Martin (1995); Cotton (1996). The multipurpose uses of edible wild plant species were selected out of the total edible wild plants. Twelve Key informants were allowed to list the uses of these species. These key informants were asked to assign use values to each species as follows (5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;best, 4\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;very good, 3\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;good, 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;less used, 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;least used and 0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;not used). The average values (scores) given to each edible wild plant species were summed up and ranked. Moreover, the ten key informants were also involved in a priority ranking exercise that was focusing on perceived threatening factors of the edible wild plant species.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.5 Study Variables\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe dependent variable was indigenous knowledge of the community that was measured by the information obtained on the number of edible wild plants while gender, age, household income and family size were considered as independent variables.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical considerations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData collection was carried out with special care of cultural views of the study local communities. Participants of this research were also informed about the objectives and roles of the research. Since, indigenous knowledge is the property of the community so any values that can be obtained as the result of this investigation should benefit the community. According to ethnobiology code of ethics indigenous knowledge should be protected and a part of the value generated should be transferred back to the authors of the knowledge. Finally, informants were accepted the idea and came to reach an agreement\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Result And Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1 Taxonomic diversity of edible wild plants\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eForty-three (43) edible wild plant species distributed to 34 genera and 27 families reported by the study participants as sources of wild foods by this study in Ensaro district (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). It was found that the plant family Moraceae was very popular and represented by five species. Fabaceae was the second widely used edible wild plants family represented by four species. Tiliaceae represented by three species; Ebenaceae, Polygonaceae, Boraginaceae, Solanaceae, Myrtaceae and Olacaceae had two species. The remaining families had one species each. Therefore, about 56% of the families represented by more than one species (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Among the identified species, \u003cem\u003eUrtica simensis\u003c/em\u003e Hochst. ex A. Rich and \u003cem\u003eAloe berhana\u003c/em\u003e Reynolds are endemic to Ethiopia. Most of the reported edible wild plants used as fuelwood and medicines in the study area. The species identified might have two or more additional uses. For example, \u003cem\u003eCarissa spinarum\u003c/em\u003e L used as a fence and medicine, Snowdenia \u003cem\u003epolystachya\u003c/em\u003e (Fresen.) Pilg is used as, medicine and fodder.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDiversity of edible wild plants in each plant family\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFamilies\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNumber of species\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePercentage\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMoraceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e11.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFabaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTiliaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBoraginaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEbenaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMyrtaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePolygonaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOlacaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSolanaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOthers\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e44.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt also shows a relatively high diversity of edible wild plants, which might be due to the existence of different agro-ecologies. This result indicates that the collection and consumption of edible wild plants in the study area are still alive and it is an important local activity. In most of Ethiopia, edible wild plants are essential components of daily food intakes (Balemie \u0026amp; Kebebew, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). These plants are important means to get a balanced diet and proper health for poor people who are depending on them for their daily foods (Teketay et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Some reported species are edible during a food crisis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was not aimed to evaluate the contributions of edible wild plants for the livelihood of people. However, about 30% of the respondents were indicated that they are getting some income from the sales of these plants, like Ximenia \u003cem\u003eamericana\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eZiziphus spina-christi\u003c/em\u003e and, \u003cem\u003etamarindus indica\u003c/em\u003e are commonly traded in local markets.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this study it was noted that the local name of three edible wild plant species varies in different kebeles- for example, \u003cem\u003eTamarindus indica\u003c/em\u003e is known by Roema in Yidnoberessa, Doqma in Gezawasha dalota kebeles; \u003cem\u003eGrewia occidentalis\u003c/em\u003e in known by chirnchir in Yidnoberessa, Betremusie in Gezawasha dalota, and \u003cem\u003eEleusine coracana (L.)\u003c/em\u003e Wanga in Yidnoberessa, \u003cem\u003eDegelie\u003c/em\u003e in Gezawasha dalota.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe number of edible wild plants species recorded in this study is comparable with the 46 species reported in the Southern part of Ethiopia (Ashagre et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). however, it is higher than the 22 species reported in the eastern part of Ethiopia (Kebede et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) and 27 species in Uganda (Nyakoojo \u0026amp; Tugume, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). But it is also lower than 154 edible wild plants species documented in Turkey (Cakir, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) and 354 species reported in Burkina Faso by Hahn et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). This difference in the number of reported edible wild plants might be due to variations in culture, vegetation cover of the area or climatic variation of the location (Bortolotto et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). It also perhaps shows declining of edible wild plants species together with associated indigenous knowledge of the communities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn line with the current the present finding, Fabaceae and Moraceae have also been reported to be major edible wild plant families that frequently used in Ethiopia and elsewhere (Regassa et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Meragiaw, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Kebebew \u0026amp; Mohamed, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). This probably because most of \u003cem\u003eFicus species\u003c/em\u003e belong to the family Moraceae are edible plants in Ethiopia and elsewhere (Regassa et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Ojelel et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and the family Fabaceae is the most diverse in Ethiopia including other African countries (Hahn et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Tebkew et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Mutie et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) and hence there is a high chance of getting edible species for these two families. However, some previous studies in Ethiopia (Balemie \u0026amp; Kebebew, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Ashagre et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Berihun \u0026amp; Molla, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) reported that most of the edible wild plants were found in Anacardiaceae and Tiliaceae families. While others (Seyoum et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) reported that Rosaceae family is a popularly known family in having the highest diversity of edible wild plants in Ethiopia. These differences in the most common uses of edible wild plant families show the intensity and importance of this information. Moreover, the list of species in the present study is aligned with the list of common edible wild plants in the country with a published in a book (Teketay et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) and a comprehensive review by Molla et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data obtained in this study reveal that not only food but also other varies supplementary uses were also reported, like medicinal values, fuelwood, fence, timber, farm implements and fodder which are also reported by other studies in Ethiopia (Seyoum et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Berihun \u0026amp; Molla, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Tebkew et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The stem bark of the \u003cem\u003eZiziphus spina-christi\u003c/em\u003e used to treat snakebite. The stem of \u003cem\u003eGrewia occidentalis is\u003c/em\u003e to make Mequamiya. \u003cem\u003eCordia africana\u003c/em\u003e used to prepare timber for different purposes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDistributions of Edible Wild Plants along Different Agro-Ecologies\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe number of species, genera and families of edible wild plants were higher in mid-land agro-ecology than in lowland and highland agro-ecologies of the study area. High land was the least agro-ecology in the distribution of edible wild plants in Ensaro district (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The distribution of different edible wild plants in different agro-ecologies indicates the adaptation of these species in different environmental conditions. This indicates that plants adapted to variable climate are generally drought tolerant.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.2 Life Forms and Edible Parts of Edible Wild Plants\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.2.1 Life Forms of Edible Wild Plants\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe edible wild plant species belong to four life forms namely shrubs, trees, herbs and climbers. Shrub contributed 37% while climbers (lianas) contributed only 2% of all identified edible wild plant species (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe life forms of edible wild plants in this study were diverse and accordingly the largest number of edible wild plant species found to be shrubs followed by trees, herbs and climbers (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). The least diverse edible wild plants in terms of life forms were lianas. This result is also seen in a study conducted nearby area by Alemayehu et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) and in the western part of Ethiopia by Amente (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). However, this result is different from a result reported by Tebkew et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) in the Northern part of Ethiopia where trees are dominant life forms of edible wild plants followed by shrubs. This shows the variation of the life forms of edible wild plants from place to place that might be due to variations in type edible wild plant species and culture of the communities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.2.2 Edible Parts\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEight edible parts of edible wild plants recorded in Ensaro district. These are fruits, seeds, leaves, saps, latex, root, shoot and rhizome (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Fruits comprise 72% of edible parts whereas latex, shoot, rhizome, sap and root provided by 2% of each. This means fruits are the major parts consumed followed by seeds and leaves. Sap, root, shoot, rhizome and latex are the least. Most fruits consumed in raw.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegarding edible parts consumed, seven edible parts were documented namely fruits, stem, leaves, sap, seeds, root and rhizome. This indicates the edible parts of reported edible wild plants in Ensaro district is also highly diverse. The most widely consumed parts are fruits (73%) that eaten raw (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). The preference of fruits to other parts might be low energy investment. Fruits are harvested and consumed in the field or outdoor when they ripe by children while collecting fuelwood or herding cattle. The result of this research is in agreement with current study results (Tebkew et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Regassa et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Betti et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Mutie et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In other studies, leaves are the main consumable part of edible wild plants in a different part of the world (Ali-Shtayeh et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). This implies the types of edible parts and culture of the communities vary from location to location.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.3 Harvesting Seasons\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMany of the reported edible wild plants were abundantly available spring and summer seasons. Few edible wild plants harvested and consumed during the winter season. In Ethiopia, there are four seasons namely, summer, spring, winter and autumn based on the climate of the country. The edible parts of edible wild plants gathered from the wild at different times of the year (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e) and the majority gathered from shrublands. Edible wild plants are available throughout the year in Ensaro district. Particularly, spring and summer were the major seasons in the study area when most of the plants produce flower and fruits. Summer and some part of spring is the period of food shortage in the study area. Thus, the availability of these plants during this period used as substitutes and fill the gap of food shortage that happened until the harvesting season of domesticated crops. \u003cem\u003eXimenia Americana\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eZiziphus spina-christi\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eOpuntia ficus-indica\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eSyzygium guineense\u003c/em\u003e consumed in the presence of enough staple foods in the home.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.4 Correlation of Age Groups, Gender, Family Size, Household Income and Distance from Town with Indigenous Knowledge of People on Edible Wild Plants\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIndigenous knowledge of respondent on edible wild plants positively correlated with age, gender and family size, and negatively correlated with an annual household income of respondents. Indigenous knowledge of respondents in the study area significantly correlated with age, family size and annual household income (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) and it is more strongly correlated with family size and age. There was no knowledge difference between genders (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). However, family size and age have a direct proportion with indigenous knowledge of respondents on edible wild plants. This might be people having large family member are more dependent on edible wild plants. On the other hand, the number of edible wild plants listed by youths is smaller than mentioned by older persons that might be by fast westernization and lack of interest for their culture as noted by (Wiryono et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e)) in Central Bengkulu District, Bengkulu Province, Indonesia.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSpecies that were used especially in the past famine periods such as \u003cem\u003eMedicago polymorpha.\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eEleusine coracana, Snowdenia polystachya, Embelia schimperi and Urtica simensis\u003c/em\u003e are not known by the younger generation particularly their preparation method in the study area. It is necessary to preserve these species as they have also medicinal values.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePearson's correlations of gender, age, family size and household income with indigenous knowledge of respondents\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSociodemographic and socio-economic characteristics\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIndigenous knowledge\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eP value\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eP value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.747\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFamily size\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eP value\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnnual household income\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eP value\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.5 Habitats and Major Threatening Factors\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.5.1 Habitats\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMany of the reported edible wild plants were found in shrubland areas (45%) followed by woodland areas. The least number of edible wild plant species reported from grazing land. Deforestation and drought are major threats for reported edible wild plants (Fig.\u0026nbsp;9). About 73% of the respondents reported that deforestation for several reasons is the major threatening factor followed by persistent drought in the study area.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese edible wild plants have several supplementary roles other than food that may pose overexploitation and loss of the species. Most of the reported edible wild plants (76.2%) in two habitats. Shrubland (45.2%) is the main reservoir of edible wild plants followed by woodland (31%) and the rest edge of farms and grazing lands together contributed (29%). This shows the importance of in-situ conserving particularly woodlands and shrublands to conserve and ensure sustainable uses of these edible wild plants together with associated indigenous knowledge of the community. It is also necessary for further study of the quality of their primary and secondary metabolites. The most threatened species found in this research are \u003cem\u003eGrewia tenax\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eCordia monoica\u003c/em\u003e found in shrubland.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.5.2 Direct matrix ranking\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn addition to food values, the local people used the plants for other different purposes such as fuelwood, fence, house construction, medicine, farm implements, and furniture. The result of direct matrix ranking revealed that \u003cem\u003eCordia Africana, Cordia monoica, Ficus Palmata, Ficus sur, Grewia tenax and Acacia etbaica\u003c/em\u003e were ranked first to six, respectively. Similarly, the seven use-values reported on six selected plant species were summed up and ranked and, the result showed that fuelwood collection, food, farm implements, medicine, furniture, house construction, fence were ranked first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDirect matrix ranking of six plant species by twelve informants based on seven use criteria (5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;best; 4\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;very good; 3\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;good; 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;less used; 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;least used and 0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;no value)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUse diversity\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCordia Africana\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCordia monoica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFicus palmata\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFicus sur\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGrewia tenax\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcacia etbaica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRank\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFood\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2nd\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMedicine\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4th\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFarm implements\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3rd\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFuelwood\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1st\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConstruction\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6th\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFurniture\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5th\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFence\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e7th\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRank\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1st\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4th\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5th\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3rd\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6th\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2nd\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLimitations of the study\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study is limited to the documentation of edible wild plants, their life forms, edible part, a season when they are abundantly available, and their habitats and major threatening factors. It does not include the contributions for household food security and market values of edible wild plants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEdible wild plants in Ensaro district, Amhara regional state, Ethiopia.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eScientific name\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLocal name\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFamily\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHabit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEdible parts\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePeriod of consumption\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMode of utilization\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOther uses\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFicus carica\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAbuar\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMoraceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTree\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit and latex\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003efuelwood\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCarissa spinarum\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAgam\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eApocynaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShrub\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMedicinal and fence\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCommiphora boiviniana\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEngl.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnqa\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBurseraceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShrub\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFuelwood\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFicus sycomorus\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBamba\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMoraceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTree\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFuelwood, making beehives\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBalanites aegyptiaca\u003c/em\u003e (L.) Del\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBedeno\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eZygophyllaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShrub\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFence, fuelwood\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFicus palmata\u003c/em\u003e Roxb.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBeles\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMoraceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShrub\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMedicine and fuelwood\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCordia monoica Roxb.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChewanza\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBoraginaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTree\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFuelwood, fodder\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGrewia tenax\u003c/em\u003e (Forssk.) Fiori\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCirnchir\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTiliaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShrub\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWalking stick\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEleusine coracana (L.) Gaertner\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDedeho\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEbenaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShrub\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ecooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFuelwood and medicine\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePelargonium multibracteatum\u003c/em\u003e Hochst.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDemek abeba\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGeraniaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHerb\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSap\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHas no other use\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcacia etbaica\u003c/em\u003e Schweinf.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDerie\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFabaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTree\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFence\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFerula communis\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDog\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eApiaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHerb\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStem\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ecooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMedicine, fuelwood\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSyzygium guineense\u003c/em\u003e (Wild.) DC.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDokma\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMyrtaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTree\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFuelwood, medicine\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRumex nervosus\u003c/em\u003e Vahl\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEmbaucho\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePolygonaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShrub\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003estem shoot\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eImmature and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFuelwood, medicine\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStrychnos innocua\u003c/em\u003e Del.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEngocha\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLoganiaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShrub\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFuelwood, medicine\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eXimenia americana\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEnqoy\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOlacaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTree\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFuelwood, medicine\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEkebergia capensis\u003c/em\u003e Sparrm.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eErgo(lol)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eeliaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTree\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eduring famine\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFuelwood\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eZiziphus spina-christi\u003c/em\u003e (L.) Desf.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGeba\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRhamnaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTree\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFence, medicine\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRubus volkensii\u003c/em\u003e Engl.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInjory\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOlacaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShrub\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eduring famine\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFence\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDovyalis abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e (A. Rich.) Warb.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKoshim\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFlacourtiaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShrub\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFence\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePhysalis peruviana\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKutalebash\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSolanaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHerb\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHas no other use\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGrewia ferruginea\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;Hochst. ex A.Rich.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLenquata\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFabaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShrub\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFuelwood\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRumex abyssinicus\u003c/em\u003e Jacq.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMeqmeqo\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePolygonaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHerb\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRhizome\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMedicine\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSnowdenia polystachya\u003c/em\u003e (Fresen.) Pilg.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMuja\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePoaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHerb\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeeds\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eduring famine\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ecooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMedicine, fodder\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRosa abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e Lindley\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQega\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRosaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShrub\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFence\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGrewia villosa\u003c/em\u003e Willd.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQuaquatie\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTiliaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShrub\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFuelwood\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOpuntia ficus-indica\u003c/em\u003e (L.) Miller\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQulqual\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCactaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShrub\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit and leaves\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFence, fodder\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTamarindus indica\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRoema\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFabaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTree\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFuelwood\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUrtica simensis\u003c/em\u003e Hochst. ex A. Rich.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSama\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUtricaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHerb\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLeaves\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMedicine\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGrewia bicolor\u003c/em\u003e Juss.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSefa\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTiliaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShrub\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMedicine, fuelwood\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFicus sur\u003c/em\u003e Forssk.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShola\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMoraceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTree\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFuelwood\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMimusops kummel\u003c/em\u003e Bruce ex A.DC.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShoye\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSapotaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTree\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFuelwood\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDiospyros mespiliformis\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;Hochst. ex A.DC.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTikurie\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEbenaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShrub\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFuelwood, farm implements\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCordia Africana\u003c/em\u003e Lam\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWanza\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBoraginaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTree\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFurniture, farm implements, medicine\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFicus vasta\u003c/em\u003e Forssk\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWarka\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMoraceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTree\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFuelwood, furniture\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAloe berhana\u003c/em\u003e Reynolds\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEret\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAloaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHerb\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSap\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eat normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMedicine\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMomordica foetida\u003c/em\u003e Schumach.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eYamora misa\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCucurbitaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLiana\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eat normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHas no other use\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHibiscus trionum\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eYeregna selit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMalvaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHerb\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeeds\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eat normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMature and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHas no other use\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSyzygium cumini\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;(L.) Skeels\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eZemato\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMyrtaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTree\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eat normal time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFuelwood\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSolanum villosum\u003c/em\u003e Forssk.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTikur Awut\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSolanaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHerb\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eduring famine\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMedicine\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMedicago polymorpha L.\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAmaqito\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFabaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHerb\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeeds\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eduring famine\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMature and cooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFodder\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEmbelia schimperi Vatke\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMeterie\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMyrsinaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eshrub\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003efruit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring Famine\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRipe and uncooked\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMedicine\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusions","content":" \u003cp\u003eThe edible wild plants and associated traditional practices were still active in the study district. The study revealed that most of the edible wild plants were shrubs found in shrub-land areas and fruits were the main consumable parts. Furthermore, the age and family size of the respondents positively correlated with the mentioned number of edible wild plants. This study support to preserve indigenous knowledge associated with edible wild plants. However, there is declining in the retrieved information on \u003cem\u003eSnowdenia polystachya, Eleusine coracana, Urtica simensis, Embelia schimperi and Medicago polymorpha, which\u003c/em\u003e used as the main food source during the great Ethiopian famine (1888\u0026ndash;1892). There is no correlation between gender and indigenous knowledge of respondents on edible wild plants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eApart from the food values, most of the identified edible wild plants in this study are used other supplementary services. The local people harvest and used edible wild plants for fence, fuel, fodder, medicine and furniture. In particular, edible wild plant species such as \u003cem\u003eXimenia Americana, Cordia monoica\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eZiziphus spina-christi\u003c/em\u003e have multirole for the people. Hence, this poses a high level of threats to these edible wild plants in the study area. Besides, many of the edible wild plants found in Ensaro district are under high threats due to fuelwood collection by the local community. This has led to the reduction of edible wild plants and associated indigenous knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics and consent participant\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe present study is purely based on filled survey. Ethical guidelines of the international society of ethnobiology (\u003ca href=\"https://www.ethnobiology.net\"\u003ehttps://www.ethnobiology.net\u003c/a\u003e) were strictly followed. Permissions were verbally obtained by all participants of this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe people interviewed were informed about the objectives of the research and final publication of the information collected, and they were assured that the informants\u0026rsquo; identities would be remain secret.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on the following link DOI \u003ca href=\"https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.dncjsxm03\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.dncjsxm03\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have not declared any conflicts of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was supported by the ministry of higher education, Ethiopian public health institute and Debere Berhan University.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor\u0026rsquo;s information\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePhD student, Department of Plant Biology and Biodiversity Management, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia. Lecturer at Debre Birhan University, Ethiopia\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAsaye Asfaw conceived the idea of doing this research, conducted the interviews, collected samples, outlined and wrote the manuscript. Ermias Lulekal was involved in the identification of collected plant materials and in searching of fund. Asfaw Debella, Eyob Debebe and Samuel Tessema were participated in planning and preparation of semi-structured questions. Tamrat Bekele was revising it critically for important intellectual content. All authors have made substantial contributions to analysis, interpretation of data and writing of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors appreciate and express their thanking words officials of Ensaro woreda who facilitated the study and the community members that participated during the interviews. Without their contribution, this study would have been impossible.The first author thanks the scholarship from Debre Berhan University. EPHI (Ethiopian people health institute, period 2019/2021) who gave the financial support is acknowledged.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\n\u003cp\u003eAbirham Cherinet, \u0026amp; Zenebe Mekonnen. (2019). 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Statistics: An Introductory Analysis, 2nd Edn, Harper and Row, New York.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"edible wild plants, indigenous knowledge, life forms, edible parts, seasonal availability, habitats, threatening factors ","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-418877/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-418877/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground: \u003c/strong\u003eEthiopia is one of the biodiversity-rich countries in Africa. Most rural communities are highly dependent on forest products including edible wild plants. Thus, many plant taxa are under greater threats before they are documented and their nutritional values are evaluated. This study was carried out to document edible wild plants and associated indigenous practices, and the correlations with socio-demographic variables on edible wild plants in Ensaro district, North Shewa Zone, Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia. It also examined the habitats and major threatening factors of edible wild plants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods: \u003c/strong\u003eThe study was conducted from September to December 2020 in Ensaro district, Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia. Semi-structured interviews was made with 98 community members regarding edible wild plant species, parts used, harvesting and consumption time, preparation methods, supplementary uses, life forms, habitats and threatening factors. The socioeconomics characteristics of the study participants was also documented. Excel and R-package were employed for statistical analysis. Analysis of Variance (P \u0026lt; 0.05) was used to observe the correlation of socio-demographic and socioeconomic characteristics with indigenous knowledge of respondents on edible wild plants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults: \u003c/strong\u003eForty-three edible wild plants recorded in this study area. Fabaceae and Moraceae families were the most popular edible wild plant species in the study area. Shrubs were the dominant life forms of recorded plants (37%). Ripe fruits (72%) were the most commonly used plant parts. Indigenous knowledge of respondent on edible wild plants positively correlated with socio-demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents. There was no knowledge difference between genders. The number of species, genera and families of edible wild plants were higher in mid-land agro-ecology than in lowland and highland agro-ecologies of the study area. The distribution of edible wild plants found to be less in the highland agroecology. Edible wild plants in the study mainly found in shrub land areas which are highly threatened by fuelwood collection.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusion: \u003c/strong\u003eForty-three edible wild plants recorded in the study area. The community consumes edible wild plants during normal and famine periods. Edible wild plants such as \u003cem\u003eSnowdenia polystachya (\u003c/em\u003eMuja\u003cem\u003e), Eleusine coracana (\u003c/em\u003eDegelie or wanga\u003cem\u003e), Urtica simensis(\u003c/em\u003eSama\u003cem\u003e) \u003c/em\u003eand\u003cem\u003e Medicago polymorpha \u003c/em\u003e(Amaqito)\u003cem\u003e are\u003c/em\u003e not used during normal period and young people do not know them even how to use them. In addition, edible wild plants are under greater pressure due to farmland expansion in the study area. This has led to the reduction of edible wild plants and associated indigenous knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Ethnobotanical study of edible wild plants in Ensaro district, Amhara regional state, Ethiopia","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2021-04-19 21:15:56","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-418877/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"0089c8a4-8c0e-4894-b64e-5e7948f81ddc","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 19th, 2021","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":3751762,"name":"Plant Physiology and Morphology"},{"id":3751763,"name":"Plant Molecular Biology and Genetics"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2021-05-21T10:08:41+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2021-04-19 21:15:56","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-418877","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-418877","identity":"rs-418877","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"FbvkV6FR0MCFSLy54lSbu","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}