The Impact of Teacher–Student Rapport on Motivation and Engagement in a Gamified English Learning Environment among Adult EFL Learners at a Higher Education Institution in Kuwait

The Impact of Teacher–Student Rapport on Motivation and Engagement in a Gamified English Learning Environment among Adult EFL Learners at a Higher Education Institution in Kuwait | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article The Impact of Teacher–Student Rapport on Motivation and Engagement in a Gamified English Learning Environment among Adult EFL Learners at a Higher Education Institution in Kuwait Fahad Ameen This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6706206/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study investigated the teacher-student relationship in relation to the engagement and motivation of EFL learners in a higher education institution in Kuwait participating in a gamified learning program. A survey was conducted with 72 participants taking English foundational courses. A questionnaire comprising both structured and open-ended questions was used to collect data on learners’ motivation, engagement, and perceptions of gamified competition. Learners expressed high levels of motivation and engagement following their participation in the gamified competition class activities. The findings also showed a strong, positive, and significant correlation between teacher-student rapport and engagement (r = 0.515, p < 0.01) as well as with motivation levels (r = 0.279, p < 0.05). Highly engaged learners were also found to have high motivation levels (r = 0.316, p < 0.01). Regression analysis showed that motivation, engagement, language proficiency, and end-of-term performance were significant predictors of teacher-student rapport (R² = 0.456, p < 0.01). The learners also expressed positive attitudes towards end-of-semester gamification, while the teachers’ role in encouragement and motivation emerged as a decisive factor. Still, some participants expressed frustration with the competitive model, arguing that it disadvantaged specific learners. The implications of these findings include the need for enhancing teacher-student rapport in gamified learning environments. EFL ESL motivation engagement teacher-student rapport higher education Figures Figure 1 Introduction English is an important language due to its role as the lingua franca in the academia, workplace, and international engagements. Yet, individuals who learn English as a second language face numerous challenges in attaining proficiency language skills (Crompton et al., 2024 ; Latif, 2015 ). Learners of English as a foreign or second language might experience adverse feelings, beliefs, emotions, and behaviors that could impede their cognitive performance and learning outcomes (Chen et al., 2022 ). Educational technologies like gamified learning have gained significant interest in the past few decades as possible routes of helping ESL learners enhance their engagement, motivation, and learning outcomes (Alsswey and Malak, 2024; Buckley and Doyle, 2016 ; Rojabi et al., 2022 ; Yu, 2023 ). In English as a second language (ESL) classrooms, gamified learning may help to create healthy competition and interactive experiences that promote language acquisition (Dindar et al., 2021 ). Chen and Hsu ( 2020 ) attribute three factors to the positive impact of digital gamification on language learning. First, these games create a high level of intrinsic motivation among learners, which in turn promotes a positive learning attitude. Second, the games promote learner engagement by providing rich textual inputs for contextualized learning through tasks and activities. Third, gamified learning may help to reduce learning anxiety that is common in ESL classrooms. Although competitive gamification is instrumental in promoting learning achievement in ESL classrooms, the relationship between teachers and learners cannot be ignored. The interaction between teachers and learners may create either positive or negative influence. In negative teacher-student relationships, undesirable outcomes such as anxiety and stress are not uncommon (Alnuzaili and Uddin, 2020 ). On the other hand, positive relationships create favorable outcomes like enjoyment of learning activities, mutual trust, and respect (Zhou, 2021 ). In English as a foreign language (EFL) digitalized learning, teacher-student rapport has been found to be a critical contributor to learner engagement (Zhang, 2023 ). This means that gamified learning can be enhanced through promotion of teacher-student rapport. In Kuwait, Arabic is the national and official language and, importantly, used as a medium of instruction for more than 70% of learners in public schools (Alazemi, 2020 ). Still, English plays a crucial role as a medium of instruction, particularly in higher education institutions (Wright, 2024 ). Thus, English foundation courses are essential for building lateral language skills deemed necessary for academic achievements. Motivating and engaging adult learners in these courses, however, remains a challenge. The traditional methods of instruction have the risks of being boring and thus fail to engage learners, sometimes resulting in ineffective learning (Aldalur and Perez, 2023 ). Kuwait's distinct English language policy highlights the need for alternate teaching strategies that can effectively address these challenges. This study investigates the combined effects of end-of-term gamified competitions and teacher-student rapport on the motivation and engagement of adult non-English majors in English foundation courses in a higher education institution in Kuwait. The choice of gamified competitions is informed by the recognition of their role in cultivating intrinsic motivation and engagement, whereas teacher-student rapport was selected as the mediating factor that could amplify the effects of gamification in these language learning contexts. Literature Review Theoretical Framework The self-determination theory (SDT) provides a suitable framework for understanding the essence of gamified learning in ESL classrooms. The primary assumption of this theory is that people have a natural propensity or motivation for personal growth and fulfilment (Ryan and Deci, 2000). The theory further proposes that this intrinsic motivation can either be enhanced or derailed by the social environment. Ryan and Deci (2000) proposed that human motivation emanates from autonomy, competence, and relatedness. When applied to learning, the theory implies that students’ motivation for learning can be cultivated and sustained by fulfilling the three psychological needs (Jeon, 2022). Autonomy reflects the learners’ desire for freedom and exercise control of their learning actions while competence is associate with the feeling of being effective. Relatedness is the feeling of a sense of belonging and connection that comes from interacting with others (Ryan and Deci, 2000). So, the STD theory advocates for creation of a supportive environment for optimal motivation and growth. Gamified learning promotes autonomy by allowing learners to make choices through their interactions with the learning environment (Li et al., 2024). It also promotes competence by helping learners feel more effective in mastery of certain skills through feedback, progress tracking, and reward systems (Xi and Hamari, 2019). Gamification may also promote relatedness by proving avenues for learners to communicate, interact and collaborate with others (Fernandez-Rio et al., 2022). Besides gamification, teacher-student rapport may help to promote social relatedness, learner autonomy, and enhanced competence Another relevant theoretical model is the social cognitive theory, which predicts that individuals learn through their own experiences, observing others, and interactions with the environment (Bandura, 1997). A central component of this theory is self-efficacy, which is defined as the belief in oneself on the ability for organizing and executing a course of action for the achievement of a certain goal (Yin et al., 2022). Recent empirical evidence has shown that positive teacher-student relationship may enhance the self-efficacy of students and teachers alike (Su et al., 2024; Yin et al., 2022). Therefore, learner engagement and motivation could be explained by self-efficacy that emanates from positive teacher-student rapport. ESL gamification and learners’ motivation and engagement Gamification, which is defined as the incorporation of game mechanics into non-gaming situations, has been applied in ESL settings to promote learner outcomes like engagement and motivation (Chan and Lo, 2024). In ESL classrooms, gamification boosts learners’ motivation and engagement by introducing competitiveness, provision of immediate feedback, and enabling goal-oriented language learning (Dindar et al., 2021; Zhang and Hasim, 2023). Gamification has also been found to be a useful tool for improving learner by transforming the otherwise boring classrooms into dynamic, enjoyable, and interactive experiences (Hellín et al., 2023). Further, mounting empirical evidence points to a beneficial impact of competitive gamification on learner engagement and motivation. For example, in a Turkish study, (Sadeghi et al., 2022) have reported beneficial outcomes in learner motivation following the implementation of group-based competitive gamification. In a study of ESL learners from Hong Kong, group-based tasks and collaborative gamification were effective in enhancing the engagement and motivation levels (Ho, 2020). In Saudi Arabia, learners who participated in gamified learning using the Duolingo app were found to perform better than those in the non-gamified learning group in terms of general performance and motivation scores (Almufareh, 2021). Liu (2024) have also reported positive learning outcomes from collaborative gamified competition. Learners’ anxiety, engagement, and vocabulary performance have also been found to improve with the use of Kahoot! app (Rojabi et al., 2022). Dindar et al. (2021) compared competitive and collaborative aspects of gamification. Their study results revealed that gamified cooperation produced better results in terms of learners’ social relatedness than gamified competition. Other studies show that gamification, whether competitive or collaborative, contributes to language learning, engagement, and motivation (Ahmed et al., 2022; Hellín et al., 2023; Jeon, 2022; Zhang and Hasim, 2023). However, academic discourse on gamification implementation in ESL classrooms in Kuwait is still largely absent, despite the unique language and cultural background of Kuwaiti adult ESL learners. Teacher-student relationship in building engagement and motivation Learners’ motivation and engagement could also come from positive teacher-student relationships, particularly in ESL and EFL classrooms. In learning environments where these positive relationships exist, learners enjoy classroom activities and experience empathetic motivation (Gabryś-Barker, 2016). Again, positive teacher-student relationship creates trust, eagerness for learning, and engagement (Claessens et al., 2017; Thornberg et al., 2022). Teacher-student relationships have also been linked to the fulfilment of the psychological needs of learners (Froiland et al., 2019). Klassen et al. (2012) have argued that this relationship is not one-way, but is instead beneficial to teachers as well, whereby it helps to meet their psychological needs. Empirical studies have consistently shown that positive teacher-student relationships are beneficial to the engagement and motivation of learners. For example, a survey of more than 200 learners from a Swedish school revealed that student engagement was strongly predicted by the quality of teacher-student relationship (Thornberg et al., 2022). Derakhshan et al. (2022) conducted a quantitative survey and interviews with Iranian and Polish EFL learners where positive teacher-student rapport emerged as critical determinants of student engagement. Interestingly, the authors reported significant differences among Iranian and Polish learners, which were attributed to instructional and cultural contexts. Li (2023) investigated the role of teacher-student relationship in engagement of learners in foreign language learning. After analyzing data from 413 EFL learners from China, Li (2023) established a direct positive relationship between the two variables, an observation that was attributed to foreign language enjoyment. In another study in China, Zhang (2023) examined data from 494 ESL adult learners where a strong correlation was established between teacher-student relationship and student engagement. Teacher-student rapport has also been found to enhance overall psychological well-being, motivation, and academic engagement in EFL settings (Pan et al., 2023; Sadoughi and Hejazi, 2023). While there is growing evidence supporting the positive effects of teacher–student rapport in traditional EFL classrooms (e.g., Derakhshan et al., 2022; Thornberg et al., 2022), its role in gamified ESL environments remains underexplored. Most studies on gamification have focused on outcomes such as motivation, engagement, or vocabulary development (Sadeghi et al., 2022; Dindar et al., 2021), but few have examined how interpersonal dynamics between teachers and students interact with game-based learning mechanics. In particular, very little is known about how teacher–student rapport may influence adult learners in competitive digital classrooms. This gap is especially relevant in Arab ESL contexts like Kuwait, where traditional classroom hierarchies and cultural values may affect how rapport is built and experienced. Therefore, this study aims to examine the role of teacher–student rapport on motivation and engagement in gamified classrooms and to explore students’ perceptions within this specific educational and cultural setting. Methodology Research Design This study used a mixed methods research design whereby both quantitative and qualitative approaches were integrated in the same study (Creswell et al., 2017). For the quantitative component, a structured questionnaire was used to collect data from participants who had participated in a gamified ESL learning program. Open-ended questions were used to obtain the opinions of the learners towards gamification and teacher-student relationships. The study adopted a survey-based mixed methods approach with the questionnaire used to collect both structured and open-ended survey data. Context and Participants This study was conducted at a higher education institution in Kuwait, specifically at the College of Education. The college has been offering educational courses in Kuwait since 1966. The College of Education requires all learners to undertake a preparatory course in English language. The course teaches various skills including reading, writing, speaking, and listening. Participants in this study were adult female students from two foundation-level English classrooms at a public university in Kuwait. All students were enrolled in non-English education majors and ranged in age from 18 to 23 years old. Based on the university placement test, their English proficiency levels ranged from A1 to B2. The two classes were scheduled back-to-back and were taught using identical instructional methods and materials by the same instructor to ensure consistency across groups. All participants (n = 72; 36 students per class) were Arab learners, and full participation was achieved from both classrooms. Procedures This study was implemented in a real classroom setting. Learners had received uniform instruction in a foundational English course. Throughout the term, students engaged in weekly gamified vocabulary and grammar sessions using Quizizz. The sessions were held twice per week. After each session, students earned points based on their performance, which was recorded in the Quizizz report. Toward the end of the course, the three highest-scoring students in each class received “winner cards” as a form of recognition and incentive. The gamification was designed as an individual competition, and all point allocations were determined solely by students’ quiz scores during the sessions. The students participated in the same learning activities. They also interacted with uniform learning materials and schedule. At the end of the course, learners participated in a gamified competition where the top three performers received an award of either gold, silver, or bronze, equivalent to 10, 7, and 5 points, respectively. Winners also received certificates (Figure 1). During the course, the teacher focused on building rapport with learners. This was achieved by using humor, encouraging students, and ensuring regular positive interactions. Ethical approval was obtained from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the University, College of Education, and the study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Participation was voluntary, and all students provided written informed consent before participating in the study. Data Collection and Research Instruments This study did not involve any intervention. Instead, it sought to explore the opinions of students who had participated in a gamified end-of-course competition. So, a questionnaire with both closed and open-ended questions was used to collect data from the participants (Supplementary Table 1 & 2). The survey was completely anonymous and no personal or demographic data were collected. The questionnaire had four main sections that measured the themes of motivation, engagement, teacher-student rapport, and the perceived enjoyment of classroom environment. In the first section, motivation was measured using items adapted from the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) (Gardner, 1985). To measure student engagement, the Foreign Language Classroom Engagement (FLCE) Scale was used to formulate questionnaire items (Fredricks et al., 2004). The instrument measures behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement. With respect to the teacher-student rapport, the six-item Professor-Student Rapport (PSR) scale adapted from (Wilson and Ryan, 2013) was employed in the present study. Lastly, open-ended questions were used to assess the students’ experiences with the gamification system and attitudes towards relationships with the teacher. Data Analysis Data collected from a structured questionnaire were subjected to analyses using descriptive and inferential statistical analyses. Descriptive statistics were used to numerically synthesize the participants’ responses on gamification, teacher–student rapport, engagement, and motivation. To explore the relationships among gamification, teacher–student rapport, and the two outcome variables of motivation and engagement, Pearson’s correlation analysis was conducted. Multiple regression analysis was also used to investigate the extent to which gamification and teacher–student rapport could predict student motivation and engagement. All analyses were done by IBM SPSS (Version 27.0), with the threshold for significance being set at p < 0.05. Content analysis was used to synthesize the open-ended responses by counting the frequencies of code words and summarizing key themes. Results Reliability Analysis of Survey Instruments The reliability of the scales employed in this study was assessed using the Cronbach’s Alpha. The findings show a strong internal consistency for the three measures, namely, motivation, engagement, and teacher-student relationship with Cronbach’s alpha of 0.867, 0.901, and 0.921, respectively (Table 1). The results were indicative of a good reliability of the instruments used to measure the respective variables. The reliability of the instruments used in this study could be attributed to the use of previously validated measuring scales. Table 1: Reliability statistics of the measures used in the study Measure Cronbach’s Alpha Motivation 0.867 Engagement 0.901 Teacher-student rapport 0.921 Descriptive Statistics Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics of the analysis from this study. In total, 72 learners aged between 18 and 23 years participated in the study drawn from two classes of 36 learners each. The learners had a language score of 3.33 with a standard deviation of 0.73, equivalent to the B1 (Intermediate) proficiency. The cumulative end-term score for the learners ranged from 11,590 to 95,990 marks with an average of 56,779.42 and a large deviation of 20,321.50. Generally, the learners felt motivated to learn English with the competitive gamification platform (3.82, SD = 0.56). The level of engagement was much higher than that of motivation with an average score of 4.16 with a standard deviation of 0.51. Learners reported high levels of enjoyment involvement, excitement, and interest in of learning activities. They saw the gamification as fun while also appreciating the reward system. Teacher–Student Rapport survey items reveal a perception of positive teacher–student relationships among the participants (4.43, SD = 0.558). The findings suggest that the EFL classroom examined in this study enjoyed strong teacher–student rapport. Table 2: Demographic information of participants Parameter Mean Standard deviation Age 20.53 1.31 Exam score 56,779.42 20,321.50 Language level 3.33 0.7294 Motivation level 3.8177 0.5619 Engagement level 4.1597 0.5058 Total teacher-student rapport 4.4427 0.5582 Correlation Analysis The results of a correlation analysis revealed significant and positive relationships among the three variables under investigation in this study, namely, motivation, engagement, and teacher-student rapport (Table 3). The findings of the correlation analysis shows that age is not significantly associated with exam scores, language proficiency, motivation, engagement, and perceptions towards teacher-student rapport. However, there was a positive and statistically significant correlation between overall score and language level proficiency (r = 0.459, p = 0.00). Exam score was also strongly correlated with the level of learner motivation (r = 0.369, p = 0.001) and engagement (r = 0.30, p = 0.01). No correlation was established between exam score and the level of teacher-student rapport. Additionally, language proficiency was found to have a significant association with the motivation (r = 0.29, p < 0.005) and engagement levels (r = 0.355, p < 0.01) while having no association with perceptions of rapport. The correlation between engagement levels and teacher-student rapport was strong and statistically significant (r = 0.515, p < 0.01). Similarly, learner engagement was strongly correlated with exam scores, language proficiency, and motivation but with no significant association with age of learners. Motivation levels showed significant correlation with exam scores, pointing to the possibility that motivated learners also achieved higher academic performance. A strong, positive correlation was also established between motivation and learner engagement (r = 0.316, p < 0.01) and teacher-student rapport (r = 0.279, p < 0.05). Overall, the findings suggest that strong teacher-student relationships were beneficial in boosting the motivation and engagement levels of EFL learners in gamified learning environments. Table 3: Correlation analysis between teacher-student rapport, motivation, and engagement Variable Age Score Language Level Motivation Engagement Rapport Age 1 0.083 0.043 0.016 0.188 0.120 Score 0.083 1 0.459** 0.369** 0.300* 0.112 Language Level 0.043 0.459** 1 0.290* 0.355** 0.216 Motivation 0.016 0.369** 0.290* 1 0.316** 0.279* Engagement 0.188 0.300* 0.355** 0.316** 1 0.515** Rapport 0.120 0.112 0.216 0.279* 0.515** 1 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed Regression Analysis Linear regression analysis was used to evaluate the predictors of Teacher–Student Rapport among Kuwaiti adult ESL learners in gamified learning environment (Table 4). The model shows that 53.2% of the variance in teacher-student rapport could be explained by the model parameters like motivation and engagement (R² = 0.456). An examination of the coefficients revealed that only two variables were significant predictors of teacher-student rapport, namely, total engagement and total motivation. The level of engagement significantly predicted total rapport (B = 0.599, t = 4.58, p < 0.001). Similarly, motivation of learners was a significant predictor of the perception towards teacher-student rapport (B = 0.575, t = 4.509, p < 0.001). These findings show the critical role of teacher-student interactions in promoting both engagement and motivation in ESL learning environments. Table 4: Summary of linear regression model for Teacher–Student Rapport Predictor B (Unstandardized Coefficient) T Sig. (p-value) (Constant) 11.712 1.076 0.200 Total Motivation 0.575 4.509 0.000 Total Engagement 0.599 4.580 0.000 Age 0.131 0.331 0.775 Score 0.0000213 0.843 0.499 Language Level 0.635 0.603 0.392 Learners' perceptions towards end-of-semester gamified competition and teacher-student rapport Participants (n = 72) were asked to respond to the following three open-ended questions: The first question put to the student was “What did you enjoy most about this class and the reward system?” For this question, the most recurring themes were interactive and fun activities, supportive teacher, a sense of competition, collaboration, encouragement, and the challenges presented by the games. Most participants seemed to appreciate that the activities were enjoyable and helped maintain their interest. The teacher's supportive and encouraging role was also frequently mentioned while other students enjoyed the competitive aspect of the class. Students also enjoyed working together to solve problems, which fostered a sense of community and positive energy. With respect to the reward system, it was seen as a significant motivator for students. It encouraged them to engage with learning materials and strive for better performance, as they aimed to earn points and rewards. Students found the rewards enjoyable and a key source of motivation, even though the rewards were symbolic as explained by one participant; “ The feeling of competition and challenge was a motivation for me to achieve more, and the rewards were also an incentive even if they were just symbolic ”. Specific activities like "Game Day" were highlighted as particularly beneficial, as they provided a fun way to reinforce learning and improve understanding of the material. In summary, students enjoyed the class primarily due to its interactive nature, supportive teaching style, and the sense of competition fostered by the reward system. Participants were also asked to respond to the question “What did you think about the gold/silver/bronze card competition at the end of the semester?” A thematic analysis revealed that the most common theme was that of learning enjoyment. Participants described their learning experiences using phrase like amazing, encouraging, motivating, enjoyable, fun and exciting. Generally, the students had a positive attitude towards the competitive mode, describing it as “a great idea” or “amazing.” Most learners felt that it created fun, excitement, and enjoyable class activities. Gamified competition was also described as a motivator and a source of encouragement. Yet, other learners had negative perceptions of the competition system. Those who viewed it negatively saw it as creating unhealthy competition and disappointments that came from not winning. One learner captured the sentiments as follows: “In my opinion I wasn’t very excited when I found out that only three people would win while everyone else’s effort would go to waste especially if the class is full of high-achieving students. That can be even more discouraging.” In the third question, “In what ways did your teacher help you feel more motivated; confident; or involved?” the goal was to assess the role of teacher-student interactions. The most frequent themes were those of encouragement, mutual respect, feedback, motivation, and teaching style. Most learners agreed that the teacher encouraged them to learn English, which was instrumental in building learners' motivation. Others felt that the teaching style adopted by the teacher, including the reward system, was effective and enjoyable. The students also felt that the teacher treated them with kindness and respect. Additionally, the provision of constant feedback emerged as a positive role that participants attributed to their teacher. Overall, the teacher helped learners to feel motivated during the EFL class activities. Discussion The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of end-of-term competitive gamification and teacher-student rapport on motivation and engagement of ESL learners at a higher education institution in Kuwait. The findings show that the end-of-term gamification was associated with high levels of learner motivation and engagement. These findings are in line with the predictions of the self-determination theory whereby learners’ participation in end-of-term gamification likely experienced a feeling of autonomy, competence, and social relatedness. (Gao, 2024) indicated that gamification of learning environments helps learners to feel engaged and motivated, which perhaps explains why participants in this study reported high levels of engagement and motivation. Empirical evidence has also linked gamification to student engagement and motivation, including in ESL adult classrooms (e.g. Hellín et al., 2023; Pan et al., 2023; Sadeghi et al., 2022). Therefore, the findings of this study are consistent with those reported in earlier studies. Specifically, the findings align with the perspectives of (Ryan and Deci, 2000) on the role of autonomy and social relatedness. Correlation analysis points to strong positive relationship between teacher-student rapport and motivation (r = 0.279) and engagement (r = 0.515). Regression analysis confirmed that teacher-student rapport was a significant predictor of student engagement and motivation (p < 0.001). According to the predictions of the social cognitive theory, harmonious and effective relationships between teachers and learners are likely to contribute to self-efficacy (Yin et al., 2022). In the present study, this self-efficacy can be viewed in terms of learner engagement and motivation. It is also likely that the positive teacher-student relationship contributes to the social relatedness component of the SDT. So, the findings of this study are consistent with the predictions of the self-determination theory and social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1997; Ryan and Deci, 2000). Our findings are also consistent with those of (Sadoughi and Hejazi, 2023) who reported a positive role of student-teacher relationship on learner engagement. In online EFL classrooms, teacher-student rapport has also been found to be a predictor of learning motivation (Zhang, 2025). Therefore, positive teacher-student relationships are important contributors to beneficial outcomes in gamified learning environments. What makes this study unique is its focus on adult EFL learners in a Kuwaiti higher education classroom using competitive gamification. While other studies have linked rapport to engagement or motivation, most of them have looked at general or traditional classrooms, not gamified ones. In this study, rapport was found to have a meaningful influence within a digital learning setting where competition was part of the classroom experience. This adds a new perspective to the existing literature because it shows how interpersonal support can still matter even in individual, game-based tasks. It also offers insight into how adult learners in Arab classrooms respond to both teacher support and competitive environments together, which is rarely addressed in previous research. Limitations This study helped to address critical knowledge gaps in ESL learning gamification by exploring the role of teacher-student rapport. Still, it has some limitations that are worth noting. First, the study provides a snapshot of participants motivation and engagement at the end-of-semester and therefore lacks longitudinal data. This limits the interpretation of how these variables might fluctuate over time. Second, the findings of this study may be limited by the presence of the ceiling effect, particularly on learner engagement and teacher-student rapport where Likert scale results averaged between 4.0 and 5.0, which may cloud the real variations in these variables. Additionally, the study relied on self-reported data, which may be limited by inherent biases like social desirability. Lastly, the study was conducted within the contextual limitations of a higher education institution in Kuwait, and, therefore, the findings may not be generalizable to other ESL or EFL settings. Thus, future studies should consider experimental, longitudinal studies with the inclusion of diverse participants and expansion of the Likert scale instruments to minimize the ceiling effect. Conclusion This study examined the motivation and engagement levels of students who had participated in an end-of-term gamified competition program. The findings show that learners perceived the program positively, as demonstrated by the high motivation and engagement scores. Correlation analysis also showed a strong, positive relationship between teacher-student rapport on one hand and learner motivation and engagement on the other. An analysis of students’ sentiments revealed that competitive gamification was viewed positively due to factors like enjoyment, fun, and motivation while and teacher’s role in encouragement featured prominently. Thus, the findings suggest that Kuwaiti adult ESL learners feel engaged and motivated by end-of-term competition, with the teacher–student role reinforcing these benefits. This study adds to the existing literature by demonstrating the importance of rapport in gamified language learning, particularly in cultural contexts where traditional authority and classroom dynamics may shape how learners respond to competitive digital tools. Declarations Ethics Approval: This study received ethics approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at Kuwait University, College of Education. No specific approval number was provided. The research was conducted following the ethical guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki. Human Ethics and Consent to Participate: Written informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in this study. Consent to Participate: All participants provided their informed consent prior to their participation in this study. Funding: This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Author Contribution No co-author's contribution. Acknowledgement The author would like to thank Kuwait University for supporting this research, and sincerely acknowledges the participation of the students from both classes who contributed their time and insights to this study. Data Availability The research data supporting the findings of this study are not publicly available due to privacy and ethical restrictions involving human participants. The dataset includes identifiable information from adult ESL learners in a higher education institution in Kuwait. However, anonymized data may be made available upon reasonable request to the corresponding author, in line with institutional ethics approval and participant consent conditions. References Ahmed, A. A. A., Sayed, B. T., Wekke, I. S., et al. (2022). An Empirical Study on the Effects of Using Kahoot as a Game-Based Learning Tool on EFL Learners’ Vocabulary Recall and Retention. Education Research International , 2022 (1), 9739147. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/9739147 Alazemi, A. (2020). The Effect of the Policy of English as Medium of Instruction on Arabic in Kuwait. In: Troudi S (Ed.) Critical Issues in Teaching English and Language Education: International Research Perspectives . 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Review of Educational Research , 74 (1), 59–109. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543074001059 Froiland, J. M., Worrell, F. C., & Oh, H. (2019). Teacher–student relationships, psychological need satisfaction, and happiness among diverse students. Psychology in the Schools , 56 (5), 856–870. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22245 Gabryś-Barker, D. (2016). Caring and Sharing in the Foreign Language Class: On a Positive Classroom Climate. In D. Gabryś-Barker, & D. Gałajda (Eds.), Positive Psychology Perspectives on Foreign Language Learning and Teaching. Second Language Learning and Teaching (pp. 155–174). Springer International Publishing. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-32954-3_9 Gao, F. (2024). Advancing Gamification Research and Practice with Three Underexplored Ideas in Self-Determination Theory. TechTrends 68(4): 661–671. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-024-00968-9 Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social Psychology and Second Language Learning: The Role of Attitudes and Motivation. The social psychology of language 4 . Edward Arnold. Hellín, C. J., Calles-Esteban, F., Valledor, A., et al. (2023). Enhancing Student Motivation and Engagement through a Gamified Learning Environment. Sustainability , 15 (19), 14119. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151914119 Ho, J. (2020). Gamifying the flipped classroom: how to motivate Chinese ESL learners? Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching , 14 (5), 421–435. https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2019.1614185 Jeon, J. (2022). Exploring a self-directed interactive app for informal EFL learning: a self-determination theory perspective. Education and Information Technologies , 27 (4), 5767–5787. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10839-y Klassen, R. M., Perry, N. E., & Frenzel, A. C. (2012). Teachers’ relatedness with students: An underemphasized component of teachers’ basic psychological needs. Journal of Educational Psychology , 104 (1), 150–165. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026253 Latif, N. A. (2015). A Study on English Language Anxiety among Adult Learners in Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM). Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences , 208 , 223–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.11.198 Li, H. (2023). Perceived teacher-student relationship and growth mindset as predictors of student engagement in foreign student engagement in foreign language learning: the mediating role of foreign language enjoyment. Frontiers in Psychology , 14 . https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1177223 Li, L., Hew, K. F., & Du, J. (2024). Gamification enhances student intrinsic motivation, perceptions of autonomy and relatedness, but minimal impact on competency: a meta-analysis and systematic review. Educational technology research and development , 72 (2), 765–796. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-023-10337-7 Liu, I-F. (2024). Gamified mobile learning: effects on English learning in technical college students. Computer Assisted Language Learning , 37 (5–6), 1397–1420. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2022.2080717 Pan, Z., Wang, Y., & Derakhshan, A. (2023). Unpacking Chinese EFL Students’ Academic Engagement and Psychological Well-Being: The Roles of Language Teachers’ Affective Scaffolding. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research , 52 (5), 1799–1819. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-023-09974-z Rojabi, A. R., Setiawan, S., Munir, A., et al. (2022). Kahoot, is it fun or unfun? Gamifying vocabulary learning to boost exam scores, engagement, and motivation. Frontiers in Education , 7 , 939884. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2022.939884 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist , 55 (1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 Sadeghi, K., Sağlık, E., Mede, E., et al. (2022). The effects of implementing gamified instruction on vocabulary gain and motivation among language learners. Heliyon , 8 (11), e11811. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e11811 Sadoughi, M., & Hejazi, S. Y. (2023). The effect of teacher support on academic engagement: The serial mediation of learning experience and motivated learning behavior. Current Psychology , 42 (22), 18858–18869. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03045-7 Su, W., Zhang, Y., Yin, Y., et al. (2024). The influence of teacher-student relationship on innovative behavior of graduate student: The role of proactive personality and creative self-efficacy. Thinking Skills and Creativity , 52 , 101529. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2024.101529 Thornberg, R., Forsberg,Camilla (2022). Hammar Chiriac, Eva,. Teacher–Student Relationship Quality and Student Engagement: A Sequential Explanatory Mixed-Methods Study. Research Papers in Education 37(6): 840–859. https://doi.org/10.1080/02671522.2020.1864772 Wilson, J. H., & Ryan, R. G. (2013). Professor–Student Rapport Scale: Six Items Predict Student Outcomes. Teaching of Psychology , 40 (2), 130–133. https://doi.org/10.1177/0098628312475033 Wright, N. (2024). Re-thinking the future of the English preparatory program in the context of higher education in Kuwait. Social Education Research , 5 (1), 152–164. https://doi.org/10.37256/ser.512024 Xi, N., & Hamari, J. (2019). Does gamification satisfy needs? A study on the relationship between gamification features and intrinsic need satisfaction. International Journal of Information Management , 46 , 210–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2018.12.002 Yin, H., Tam, W. W. Y., & Lau, E. (2022). Examining the relationships between teachers’ affective states, self-efficacy, and teacher-child relationships in kindergartens: An integration of social cognitive theory and positive psychology. Studies in Educational Evaluation , 74 , 101188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2022.101188 Yu, Z. (2023). Learning Outcomes, Motivation, and Satisfaction in Gamified English Vocabulary Learning. SAGE Open , 13 (2), 21582440231158332. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440231158332 Zhang, B. (2023). The Relationship Between Teacher-Student Rapport and EFL Learners’ Engagement in Online Scaffolding Setting. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research , 52 (5), 1685–1705. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-023-09954-3 Zhang, Q. (2025). The role of EFL teacher immediacy and teacher-student rapport in boosting motivation to learn and academic mindsets in online education. Learning and Motivation , 89 , 102092. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2024.102092 Zhang, S., & Hasim, Z. (2023). Gamification in EFL/ESL instruction: A systematic review of empirical research. Frontiers in Psychology , 13 . https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1030790 Zhou, X. (2021). Toward the Positive Consequences of Teacher-Student Rapport for Students’ Academic Engagement in the Practical Instruction Classrooms. Frontiers in Psychology , 12 . https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.759785 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6706206","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":501207136,"identity":"fe357afd-5815-466b-890d-9a10d9100188","order_by":0,"name":"Fahad Ameen","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA6klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBAC9gYeBgYeCJvxYQOIOsDAjFcLzwGEFmZDkrWwSRKnhf3swQ9vGOyi+dl7j1XObGOQ47uRwGzMg08LT16y5ByG5NyZPefSbm5sYzCWBGpJxqfFniHHQJqHgTl3w40cs5sP2xgSNwC1HM7BZwv/G+PfPAz1ufvvvzErBGqpJ6xFIscMaMvh3A0SPGaMQIclGIAchl/LGzPLOQbHc2ecyTGWnHFOwnDmmYfNxn/wOizH+Mabiurc/vYzhh97ymzk+Y4nH5acgUcLBBjAWRJAzNhAUMMoGAWjYBSMAvwAALvBS5SA6FPTAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Kuwait University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fahad","middleName":"","lastName":"Ameen","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-05-20 09:38:27","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6706206/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6706206/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":89376822,"identity":"c0d3ada5-4ffe-4321-9142-aa1c5246bd20","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-19 11:12:58","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":610961,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe reward badges used in the study\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6706206/v1/c21d5d3bc103b7f8ce6774d2.png"},{"id":89377012,"identity":"1a9b550b-3b7b-43c8-b11e-8e12f55bff79","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-19 11:20:59","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1593860,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6706206/v1/1b2ffc17-8a9c-4868-9f16-adbb965b8704.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The Impact of Teacher–Student Rapport on Motivation and Engagement in a Gamified English Learning Environment among Adult EFL Learners at a Higher Education Institution in Kuwait","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eEnglish is an important language due to its role as the lingua franca in the academia, workplace, and international engagements. Yet, individuals who learn English as a second language face numerous challenges in attaining proficiency language skills (Crompton et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Latif, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Learners of English as a foreign or second language might experience adverse feelings, beliefs, emotions, and behaviors that could impede their cognitive performance and learning outcomes (Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Educational technologies like gamified learning have gained significant interest in the past few decades as possible routes of helping ESL learners enhance their engagement, motivation, and learning outcomes (Alsswey and Malak, 2024; Buckley and Doyle, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Rojabi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Yu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In English as a second language (ESL) classrooms, gamified learning may help to create healthy competition and interactive experiences that promote language acquisition (Dindar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Chen and Hsu (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) attribute three factors to the positive impact of digital gamification on language learning. First, these games create a high level of intrinsic motivation among learners, which in turn promotes a positive learning attitude. Second, the games promote learner engagement by providing rich textual inputs for contextualized learning through tasks and activities. Third, gamified learning may help to reduce learning anxiety that is common in ESL classrooms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough competitive gamification is instrumental in promoting learning achievement in ESL classrooms, the relationship between teachers and learners cannot be ignored. The interaction between teachers and learners may create either positive or negative influence. In negative teacher-student relationships, undesirable outcomes such as anxiety and stress are not uncommon (Alnuzaili and Uddin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). On the other hand, positive relationships create favorable outcomes like enjoyment of learning activities, mutual trust, and respect (Zhou, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In English as a foreign language (EFL) digitalized learning, teacher-student rapport has been found to be a critical contributor to learner engagement (Zhang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This means that gamified learning can be enhanced through promotion of teacher-student rapport.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Kuwait, Arabic is the national and official language and, importantly, used as a medium of instruction for more than 70% of learners in public schools (Alazemi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Still, English plays a crucial role as a medium of instruction, particularly in higher education institutions (Wright, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, English foundation courses are essential for building lateral language skills deemed necessary for academic achievements. Motivating and engaging adult learners in these courses, however, remains a challenge. The traditional methods of instruction have the risks of being boring and thus fail to engage learners, sometimes resulting in ineffective learning (Aldalur and Perez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Kuwait's distinct English language policy highlights the need for alternate teaching strategies that can effectively address these challenges. This study investigates the combined effects of end-of-term gamified competitions and teacher-student rapport on the motivation and engagement of adult non-English majors in English foundation courses in a higher education institution in Kuwait. The choice of gamified competitions is informed by the recognition of their role in cultivating intrinsic motivation and engagement, whereas teacher-student rapport was selected as the mediating factor that could amplify the effects of gamification in these language learning contexts.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Literature Review","content":"\u003ch2\u003eTheoretical Framework\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe self-determination theory (SDT) provides a suitable framework for understanding the essence of gamified learning in ESL classrooms. The primary assumption of this theory is that people have a natural propensity or motivation for personal growth and fulfilment (Ryan and Deci, 2000). The theory further proposes that this intrinsic motivation can either be enhanced or derailed by the social environment. Ryan and Deci (2000) proposed that human motivation emanates from autonomy, competence, and relatedness. When applied to learning, the theory implies that students\u0026rsquo; motivation for learning can be cultivated and sustained by fulfilling the three psychological needs (Jeon, 2022). Autonomy reflects the learners\u0026rsquo; desire for freedom and exercise control of their learning actions while competence is associate with the feeling of being effective. Relatedness is the feeling of a sense of belonging and connection that comes from interacting with others (Ryan and Deci, 2000). So, the STD theory advocates for creation of a supportive environment for optimal motivation and growth. Gamified learning promotes autonomy by allowing learners to make choices through their interactions with the learning environment (Li et al., 2024). It also promotes competence by helping learners feel more effective in mastery of certain skills through feedback, progress tracking, and reward systems (Xi and Hamari, 2019). Gamification may also promote relatedness by proving avenues for learners to communicate, interact and collaborate with others (Fernandez-Rio et al., 2022). Besides gamification, teacher-student rapport may help to promote social relatedness, learner autonomy, and enhanced competence\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnother relevant theoretical model is the social cognitive theory, which predicts that individuals learn through their own experiences, observing others, and interactions with the environment (Bandura, 1997). A central component of this theory is self-efficacy, which is defined as the belief in oneself on the ability for organizing and executing a course of action for the achievement of a certain goal (Yin et al., 2022). Recent empirical evidence has shown that positive teacher-student relationship may enhance the self-efficacy of students and teachers alike (Su et al., 2024; Yin et al., 2022). Therefore, learner engagement and motivation could be explained by self-efficacy that emanates from positive teacher-student rapport.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eESL gamification and learners\u0026rsquo; motivation and engagement\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGamification, which is defined as the incorporation of game mechanics into non-gaming situations, has been applied in ESL settings to promote learner outcomes like engagement and motivation (Chan and Lo, 2024). In ESL classrooms, gamification boosts learners\u0026rsquo; motivation and engagement by introducing competitiveness, provision of immediate feedback, and enabling goal-oriented language learning (Dindar et al., 2021; Zhang and Hasim, 2023). Gamification has also been found to be a useful tool for improving learner by transforming the otherwise boring classrooms into dynamic, enjoyable, and interactive experiences (Hell\u0026iacute;n et al., 2023). Further, mounting empirical evidence points to a beneficial impact of competitive gamification on learner engagement and motivation. For example, in a Turkish study, (Sadeghi et al., 2022) have reported beneficial outcomes in learner motivation following the implementation of group-based competitive gamification. In a study of ESL learners from Hong Kong, group-based tasks and collaborative gamification were effective in enhancing the engagement and motivation levels (Ho, 2020). In Saudi Arabia, learners who participated in gamified learning using the Duolingo app were found to perform better than those in the non-gamified learning group in terms of general performance and motivation scores (Almufareh, 2021). Liu (2024) have also reported positive learning outcomes from collaborative gamified competition. Learners\u0026rsquo; anxiety, engagement, and vocabulary performance have also been found to improve with the use of Kahoot! app (Rojabi et al., 2022). Dindar et al. (2021) compared competitive and collaborative aspects of gamification. Their study results revealed that gamified cooperation produced better results in terms of learners\u0026rsquo; social relatedness than gamified competition. Other studies show that gamification, whether competitive or collaborative, contributes to language learning, engagement, and motivation (Ahmed et al., 2022; Hell\u0026iacute;n et al., 2023; Jeon, 2022; Zhang and Hasim, 2023). However, academic discourse on gamification implementation in ESL classrooms in Kuwait is still largely absent, despite the unique language and cultural background of Kuwaiti adult ESL learners.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eTeacher-student relationship in building engagement and motivation\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLearners\u0026rsquo; motivation and engagement could also come from positive teacher-student relationships, particularly in ESL and EFL classrooms. In learning environments where these positive relationships exist, learners enjoy classroom activities and experience empathetic motivation (Gabryś-Barker, 2016). Again, positive teacher-student relationship creates trust, eagerness for learning, and engagement (Claessens et al., 2017; Thornberg et al., 2022). Teacher-student relationships have also been linked to the fulfilment of the psychological needs of learners (Froiland et al., 2019). Klassen et al. (2012) have argued that this relationship is not one-way, but is instead beneficial to teachers as well, whereby it helps to meet their psychological needs. Empirical studies have consistently shown that positive teacher-student relationships are beneficial to the engagement and motivation of learners. For example, a survey of more than 200 learners from a Swedish school revealed that student engagement was strongly predicted by the quality of teacher-student relationship (Thornberg et al., 2022). Derakhshan et al. (2022) conducted a quantitative survey and interviews with Iranian and Polish EFL learners where positive teacher-student rapport emerged as critical determinants of student engagement. Interestingly, the authors reported significant differences among Iranian and Polish learners, which were attributed to instructional and cultural contexts. Li (2023) investigated the role of teacher-student relationship in engagement of learners in foreign language learning. After analyzing data from 413 EFL learners from China, Li (2023) established a direct positive relationship between the two variables, an observation that was attributed to foreign language enjoyment. In another study in China, Zhang (2023) examined data from 494 ESL adult learners where a strong correlation was established between teacher-student relationship and student engagement. Teacher-student rapport has also been found to enhance overall psychological well-being, motivation, and academic engagement in EFL settings (Pan et al., 2023; Sadoughi and Hejazi, 2023). While there is growing evidence supporting the positive effects of teacher\u0026ndash;student rapport in traditional EFL classrooms (e.g., Derakhshan et al., 2022; Thornberg et al., 2022), its role in \u003cstrong\u003egamified\u003c/strong\u003e ESL environments remains underexplored. Most studies on gamification have focused on outcomes such as motivation, engagement, or vocabulary development (Sadeghi et al., 2022; Dindar et al., 2021), but few have examined how interpersonal dynamics between teachers and students interact with game-based learning mechanics. In particular, very little is known about how teacher\u0026ndash;student rapport may influence adult learners in competitive digital classrooms. This gap is especially relevant in Arab ESL contexts like Kuwait, where traditional classroom hierarchies and cultural values may affect how rapport is built and experienced. Therefore, this study aims to examine the role of teacher\u0026ndash;student rapport on motivation and engagement in gamified classrooms and to explore students\u0026rsquo; perceptions within this specific educational and cultural setting.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology","content":"\u003ch2\u003eResearch Design\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study used a mixed methods research design whereby both quantitative and qualitative approaches were integrated in the same study (Creswell et al., 2017). For the quantitative component, a structured questionnaire was used to collect data from participants who had participated in a gamified ESL learning program. Open-ended questions were used to obtain the opinions of the learners towards gamification and teacher-student relationships. The study adopted a survey-based mixed methods approach with the questionnaire used to collect both structured and open-ended survey data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eContext and Participants\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted at\u0026nbsp;a\u0026nbsp;higher education institution in Kuwait, specifically at the College of Education. The college has been offering educational courses in Kuwait since 1966. The College of Education requires all learners to undertake a preparatory course in English language. The course teaches various skills including reading, writing, speaking, and listening. Participants in this study were adult female students from two foundation-level English classrooms at a public university in Kuwait. All students were enrolled in non-English education majors and ranged in age from 18 to 23 years old. Based on the university placement test, their English proficiency levels ranged from A1 to B2. The two classes were scheduled back-to-back and were taught using identical instructional methods and materials by the same instructor to ensure consistency across groups. All participants (n = 72; 36 students per class) were Arab learners, and full participation was achieved from both classrooms.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eProcedures\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was implemented in a real classroom setting. Learners had received uniform instruction in a foundational English course. Throughout the term, students engaged in weekly gamified vocabulary and grammar sessions using Quizizz. The sessions were held twice per week. After each session, students earned points based on their performance, which was recorded in the Quizizz report. Toward the end of the course, the three highest-scoring students in each class received \u0026ldquo;winner cards\u0026rdquo; as a form of recognition and incentive. The gamification was designed as an individual competition, and all point allocations were determined solely by students\u0026rsquo; quiz scores during the sessions. The students participated in the same learning activities. They also interacted with uniform learning materials and schedule. At the end of the course, learners participated in a gamified competition where the top three performers received an award of either gold, silver, or bronze, equivalent to 10, 7, and 5 points, respectively. Winners also received certificates (Figure 1). During the course, the teacher focused on building rapport with learners. This was achieved by using humor, encouraging students, and ensuring regular positive interactions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval was obtained from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the University, College of Education, and the study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Participation was voluntary, and all students provided written informed consent before participating in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eData Collection and Research Instruments\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;This study did not involve any intervention. Instead, it sought to explore the opinions of students who had participated in a gamified end-of-course competition. So, a questionnaire with both closed and open-ended questions was used to collect data from the participants (Supplementary Table 1 \u0026amp; 2). The survey was completely anonymous and no personal or demographic data were collected. The questionnaire had four main sections that measured the themes of motivation, engagement, teacher-student rapport, and the perceived enjoyment of classroom environment. In the first section, motivation was measured using items adapted from the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) (Gardner, 1985). To measure student engagement, the Foreign Language Classroom Engagement (FLCE) Scale was used to formulate questionnaire items (Fredricks et al., 2004). The instrument measures behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement. With respect to the teacher-student rapport, the six-item Professor-Student Rapport (PSR) scale adapted from (Wilson and Ryan, 2013) was employed in the present study. Lastly, open-ended questions were used to assess the students\u0026rsquo; experiences with the gamification system and attitudes towards relationships with the teacher.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData collected from a structured questionnaire were subjected to analyses using descriptive and inferential statistical analyses. Descriptive statistics were used to numerically synthesize the participants\u0026rsquo; responses on gamification, teacher\u0026ndash;student rapport, engagement, and motivation. To explore the relationships among gamification, teacher\u0026ndash;student rapport, and the two outcome variables of motivation and engagement, Pearson\u0026rsquo;s correlation analysis was conducted. Multiple regression analysis was also used to investigate the extent to which gamification and teacher\u0026ndash;student rapport could predict student motivation and engagement. All analyses were done by IBM SPSS (Version 27.0), with the threshold for significance being set at p \u0026lt; 0.05. Content analysis was used to synthesize the open-ended responses by counting the frequencies of code words and summarizing key themes.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003ch2\u003eReliability Analysis of Survey Instruments\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe reliability of the scales employed in this study was assessed using the Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s Alpha. The findings show a strong internal consistency for the three measures, namely, motivation, engagement, and teacher-student relationship with Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha of 0.867, 0.901, and 0.921, respectively (Table 1). The results were indicative of a good reliability of the instruments used to measure the respective variables. The reliability of the instruments used in this study could be attributed to the use of previously validated measuring scales.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1: Reliability statistics of the measures used in the study\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMeasure\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCronbach\u0026rsquo;s Alpha\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMotivation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.867\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEngagement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.901\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTeacher-student rapport\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.921\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eDescriptive Statistics\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2 shows the descriptive statistics of the analysis from this study. In total, 72 learners aged between 18 and 23 years participated in the study drawn from two classes of 36 learners each. The learners had a language score of 3.33 with a standard deviation of 0.73, equivalent to the B1 (Intermediate) proficiency. The cumulative end-term score for the learners ranged from 11,590 to 95,990 marks with an average of 56,779.42 and a large deviation of 20,321.50. Generally, the learners felt motivated to learn English with the competitive gamification platform (3.82, SD = 0.56). The level of engagement was much higher than that of motivation with an average score of 4.16 with a standard deviation of 0.51. Learners reported high levels of enjoyment involvement, excitement, and interest in of learning activities. They saw the gamification as fun while also appreciating the reward system. Teacher\u0026ndash;Student Rapport survey items reveal a perception of positive teacher\u0026ndash;student relationships among the participants (4.43, SD = 0.558). The findings suggest that the EFL classroom examined in this study enjoyed strong teacher\u0026ndash;student rapport.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2: Demographic information of participants\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParameter\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMean\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStandard deviation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExam score\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56,779.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20,321.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLanguage level\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.7294\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMotivation level\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.8177\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.5619\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEngagement level\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.1597\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.5058\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal teacher-student rapport\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.4427\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.5582\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eCorrelation Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results of a correlation analysis revealed significant and positive relationships among the three variables under investigation in this study, namely, motivation, engagement, and teacher-student rapport (Table 3). The findings of the correlation analysis shows that age is not significantly associated with exam scores, language proficiency, motivation, engagement, and perceptions towards teacher-student rapport. However, there was a positive and statistically significant correlation between overall score and language level proficiency (r = 0.459, p = 0.00). Exam score was also strongly correlated with the level of learner motivation (r = 0.369, p = 0.001) and engagement (r = 0.30, p = 0.01). No correlation was established between exam score and the level of teacher-student rapport. Additionally, language proficiency was found to have a significant association with the motivation (r = 0.29, p \u0026lt; 0.005) and engagement levels (r = 0.355, p \u0026lt; 0.01) while having no association with perceptions of rapport. The correlation between engagement levels and teacher-student rapport was strong and statistically significant (r = 0.515, p \u0026lt; 0.01). Similarly, learner engagement was strongly correlated with exam scores, language proficiency, and motivation but with no significant association with age of learners. Motivation levels showed significant correlation with exam scores, pointing to the possibility that motivated learners also achieved higher academic performance. A strong, positive correlation was also established between motivation and learner engagement (r = 0.316, p \u0026lt; 0.01) and teacher-student rapport (r = 0.279, p \u0026lt; 0.05). Overall, the findings suggest that strong teacher-student relationships were beneficial in boosting the motivation and engagement levels of EFL learners in gamified learning environments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3: Correlation analysis between teacher-student rapport, motivation, and engagement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"565\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eScore\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLanguage Level\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMotivation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEngagement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRapport\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.083\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.043\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.016\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.188\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.120\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eScore\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.083\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.459**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.369**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.300*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.112\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLanguage Level\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.043\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.459**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.290*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.355**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.216\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMotivation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.016\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.369**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.290*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.316**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.279*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEngagement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.188\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.300*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.355**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.316**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.515**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRapport\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.120\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.112\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.216\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.279*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.515**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eRegression Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLinear regression analysis was used to evaluate the predictors of Teacher\u0026ndash;Student Rapport among Kuwaiti adult ESL learners in gamified learning environment (Table 4). The model shows that 53.2% of the variance in teacher-student rapport could be explained by the model parameters like motivation and engagement (R\u0026sup2; = 0.456). \u0026nbsp;An examination of the coefficients revealed that only two variables were significant predictors of teacher-student rapport, namely, total engagement and total motivation. The level of engagement significantly predicted total rapport (B = 0.599, t = 4.58, p \u0026lt; 0.001). Similarly, motivation of learners was a significant predictor of the perception towards teacher-student rapport (B = 0.575, t = 4.509, p \u0026lt; 0.001). These findings show the critical role of teacher-student interactions in promoting both engagement and motivation in ESL learning environments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4: Summary of linear regression model for Teacher\u0026ndash;Student Rapport\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePredictor\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB (Unstandardized Coefficient)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eT\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSig. (p-value)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Constant)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.712\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.076\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal Motivation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.575\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.509\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal Engagement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.599\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.580\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.131\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.331\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.775\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eScore\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0000213\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.843\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.499\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLanguage Level\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.635\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.603\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.392\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eLearners\u0026apos; perceptions towards end-of-semester gamified competition and teacher-student rapport\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants (n = 72) were asked to respond to the following three open-ended questions: The first question put to the student was \u0026ldquo;What did you enjoy most about this class and the reward system?\u0026rdquo; \u0026nbsp;For this question, the most recurring themes were interactive and fun activities, supportive teacher, a sense of competition, collaboration, encouragement, and the challenges presented by the games. Most participants seemed to appreciate that the activities were enjoyable and helped maintain their interest. The teacher\u0026apos;s supportive and encouraging role was also frequently mentioned while other students enjoyed the competitive aspect of the class. Students also enjoyed working together to solve problems, which fostered a sense of community and positive energy. With respect to the reward system, it was seen as a significant motivator for students. It encouraged them to engage with learning materials and strive for better performance, as they aimed to earn points and rewards. Students found the rewards enjoyable and a key source of motivation, even though the rewards were symbolic as explained by one participant; \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eThe feeling of competition and challenge was a motivation for me to achieve more, and the rewards were also an incentive even if they were just symbolic\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;. Specific activities like \u0026quot;Game Day\u0026quot; were highlighted as particularly beneficial, as they provided a fun way to reinforce learning and improve understanding of the material. In summary, students enjoyed the class primarily due to its interactive nature, supportive teaching style, and the sense of competition fostered by the reward system.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants were also asked to respond to the question \u0026ldquo;What did you think about the gold/silver/bronze card competition at the end of the semester?\u0026rdquo; A thematic analysis revealed that the most common theme was that of learning enjoyment. \u0026nbsp;Participants described their learning experiences using phrase like amazing, encouraging, motivating, enjoyable, fun and exciting. Generally, the students had a positive attitude towards the competitive mode, describing it as \u0026ldquo;a great idea\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;amazing.\u0026rdquo; Most learners felt that it created fun, excitement, and enjoyable class activities. Gamified competition was also described as a motivator and a source of encouragement. Yet, other learners had negative perceptions of the competition system. Those who viewed it negatively saw it as creating unhealthy competition and disappointments that came from not winning. One learner captured the sentiments as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;In my opinion I wasn\u0026rsquo;t very excited when I found out that only three people would win while everyone else\u0026rsquo;s effort would go to waste especially if the class is full of high-achieving students. That can be even more discouraging.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the third question, \u0026ldquo;In what ways did your teacher help you feel more motivated; confident; or involved?\u0026rdquo; the goal was to assess the role of teacher-student interactions. The most frequent themes were those of encouragement, mutual respect, feedback, motivation, and teaching style. Most learners agreed that the teacher encouraged them to learn English, which was instrumental in building learners\u0026apos; motivation. Others felt that the teaching style adopted by the teacher, including the reward system, was effective and enjoyable. The students also felt that the teacher treated them with kindness and respect. Additionally, the provision of constant feedback emerged as a positive role that participants attributed to their teacher. Overall, the teacher helped learners to feel motivated during the EFL class activities.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe aim of this study was to investigate the impact of end-of-term competitive gamification and teacher-student rapport on motivation and engagement of ESL learners at\u0026nbsp;a\u0026nbsp;higher education institution in Kuwait. The findings show that the end-of-term gamification was associated with high levels of learner motivation and engagement. These findings are in line with the predictions of the self-determination theory whereby learners\u0026rsquo; participation in end-of-term gamification likely experienced a feeling of autonomy, competence, and social relatedness. (Gao, 2024) indicated that gamification of learning environments helps learners to feel engaged and motivated, which perhaps explains why participants in this study reported high levels of engagement and motivation. Empirical evidence has also linked gamification to student engagement and motivation, including in ESL adult classrooms (e.g. Hell\u0026iacute;n et al., 2023; Pan et al., 2023; Sadeghi et al., 2022). Therefore, the findings of this study are consistent with those reported in earlier studies. Specifically, the findings align with the perspectives of (Ryan and Deci, 2000) on the role of autonomy and social relatedness.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCorrelation analysis points to strong positive relationship between teacher-student rapport and motivation (r = 0.279) and engagement (r = 0.515). Regression analysis confirmed that teacher-student rapport was a significant predictor of student engagement and motivation (p \u0026lt; 0.001). According to the predictions of the social cognitive theory, harmonious and effective relationships between teachers and learners are likely to contribute to self-efficacy (Yin et al., 2022). In the present study, this self-efficacy can be viewed in terms of learner engagement and motivation. It is also likely that the positive teacher-student relationship contributes to the social relatedness component of the SDT. So, the findings of this study are consistent with the predictions of the self-determination theory and social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1997; Ryan and Deci, 2000). \u0026nbsp;Our findings are also consistent with those of (Sadoughi and Hejazi, 2023) who reported a positive role of student-teacher relationship on learner engagement. In online EFL classrooms, teacher-student rapport has also been found to be a predictor of learning motivation (Zhang, 2025). Therefore, positive teacher-student relationships are important contributors to beneficial outcomes in gamified learning environments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhat makes this study unique is its focus on adult EFL learners in a Kuwaiti higher education classroom using competitive gamification. While other studies have linked rapport to engagement or motivation, most of them have looked at general or traditional classrooms, not gamified ones. In this study, rapport was found to have a meaningful influence within a digital learning setting where competition was part of the classroom experience. This adds a new perspective to the existing literature because it shows how interpersonal support can still matter even in individual, game-based tasks. It also offers insight into how adult learners in Arab classrooms respond to both teacher support and competitive environments together, which is rarely addressed in previous research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study helped to address critical knowledge gaps in ESL learning gamification by exploring the role of teacher-student rapport. Still, it has some limitations that are worth noting. First, the study provides a snapshot of participants motivation and engagement at the end-of-semester and therefore lacks longitudinal data. This limits the interpretation of how these variables might fluctuate over time. Second, the findings of this study may be limited by the presence of the ceiling effect, particularly on learner engagement and teacher-student rapport where Likert scale results averaged between 4.0 and 5.0, which may cloud the real variations in these variables. Additionally, the study relied on self-reported data, which may be limited by inherent biases like social desirability. Lastly, the study was conducted within the contextual limitations of a higher education institution in Kuwait, and, therefore, the findings may not be generalizable to other ESL or EFL settings. Thus, future studies should consider experimental, longitudinal studies with the inclusion of diverse participants and expansion of the Likert scale instruments to minimize the ceiling effect.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examined the motivation and engagement levels of students who had participated in an end-of-term gamified competition program. The findings show that learners perceived the program positively, as demonstrated by the high motivation and engagement scores. Correlation analysis also showed a strong, positive relationship between teacher-student rapport on one hand and learner motivation and engagement on the other. An analysis of students\u0026rsquo; sentiments revealed that competitive gamification was viewed positively due to factors like enjoyment, fun, and motivation while and teacher\u0026rsquo;s role in encouragement featured prominently. Thus, the findings suggest that Kuwaiti adult ESL learners feel engaged and motivated by end-of-term competition, with the teacher\u0026ndash;student role reinforcing these benefits. This study adds to the existing literature by demonstrating the importance of rapport in gamified language learning, particularly in cultural contexts where traditional authority and classroom dynamics may shape how learners respond to competitive digital tools.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eEthics Approval:\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study received ethics approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at Kuwait University, College of Education. No specific approval number was provided. The research was conducted following the ethical guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eHuman Ethics and Consent to Participate:\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWritten informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eConsent to Participate:\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll participants provided their informed consent prior to their participation in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eFunding:\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo co-author\u0026apos;s contribution.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author would like to thank Kuwait University for supporting this research, and sincerely acknowledges the participation of the students from both classes who contributed their time and insights to this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe research data supporting the findings of this study are not publicly available due to privacy and ethical restrictions involving human participants. The dataset includes identifiable information from adult ESL learners in a higher education institution in Kuwait. However, anonymized data may be made available upon reasonable request to the corresponding author, in line with institutional ethics approval and participant consent conditions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAhmed, A. A. A., Sayed, B. T., Wekke, I. S., et al. (2022). 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Gamification in EFL/ESL instruction: A systematic review of empirical research. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e13\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1030790\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1030790\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZhou, X. (2021). Toward the Positive Consequences of Teacher-Student Rapport for Students\u0026rsquo; Academic Engagement in the Practical Instruction Classrooms. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e12\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.759785\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3389/fpsyg.2021.759785\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"EFL, ESL, motivation, engagement, teacher-student rapport, higher education","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6706206/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6706206/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study investigated the teacher-student relationship in relation to the engagement and motivation of EFL learners in a higher education institution in Kuwait participating in a gamified learning program. A survey was conducted with 72 participants taking English foundational courses. A questionnaire comprising both structured and open-ended questions was used to collect data on learners\u0026rsquo; motivation, engagement, and perceptions of gamified competition. Learners expressed high levels of motivation and engagement following their participation in the gamified competition class activities. The findings also showed a strong, positive, and significant correlation between teacher-student rapport and engagement (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.515, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) as well as with motivation levels (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.279, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Highly engaged learners were also found to have high motivation levels (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.316, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01). Regression analysis showed that motivation, engagement, language proficiency, and end-of-term performance were significant predictors of teacher-student rapport (R\u0026sup2; = 0.456, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01). The learners also expressed positive attitudes towards end-of-semester gamification, while the teachers\u0026rsquo; role in encouragement and motivation emerged as a decisive factor. Still, some participants expressed frustration with the competitive model, arguing that it disadvantaged specific learners. The implications of these findings include the need for enhancing teacher-student rapport in gamified learning environments.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The Impact of Teacher–Student Rapport on Motivation and Engagement in a Gamified English Learning Environment among Adult EFL Learners at a Higher Education Institution in Kuwait","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-19 11:12:54","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6706206/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"85d5f116-1848-40e8-b876-acf755b7fabf","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 19th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-08-26T15:49:49+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-19 11:12:54","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6706206","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6706206","identity":"rs-6706206","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}