The Effects of Functional Training on Muscle Strength in Athletes: A Meta-Analysis

The Effects of Functional Training on Muscle Strength in Athletes: A Meta-Analysis | bioRxiv /* */ /* */ <!-- <!-- /*! * yepnope1.5.4 * (c) WTFPL, GPLv2 */ (function(a,b,c){function d(a){return"[object Function]"==o.call(a)}function e(a){return"string"==typeof a}function f(){}function g(a){return!a||"loaded"==a||"complete"==a||"uninitialized"==a}function h(){var a=p.shift();q=1,a?a.t?m(function(){("c"==a.t?B.injectCss:B.injectJs)(a.s,0,a.a,a.x,a.e,1)},0):(a(),h()):q=0}function i(a,c,d,e,f,i,j){function k(b){if(!o&&g(l.readyState)&&(u.r=o=1,!q&&h(),l.onload=l.onreadystatechange=null,b)){"img"!=a&&m(function(){t.removeChild(l)},50);for(var d in y[c])y[c].hasOwnProperty(d)&&y[c][d].onload()}}var j=j||B.errorTimeout,l=b.createElement(a),o=0,r=0,u={t:d,s:c,e:f,a:i,x:j};1===y[c]&&(r=1,y[c]=[]),"object"==a?l.data=c:(l.src=c,l.type=a),l.width=l.height="0",l.onerror=l.onload=l.onreadystatechange=function(){k.call(this,r)},p.splice(e,0,u),"img"!=a&&(r||2===y[c]?(t.insertBefore(l,s?null:n),m(k,j)):y[c].push(l))}function j(a,b,c,d,f){return q=0,b=b||"j",e(a)?i("c"==b?v:u,a,b,this.i++,c,d,f):(p.splice(this.i++,0,a),1==p.length&&h()),this}function k(){var a=B;return a.loader={load:j,i:0},a}var l=b.documentElement,m=a.setTimeout,n=b.getElementsByTagName("script")[0],o={}.toString,p=[],q=0,r="MozAppearance"in l.style,s=r&&!!b.createRange().compareNode,t=s?l:n.parentNode,l=a.opera&&"[object Opera]"==o.call(a.opera),l=!!b.attachEvent&&!l,u=r?"object":l?"script":"img",v=l?"script":u,w=Array.isArray||function(a){return"[object Array]"==o.call(a)},x=[],y={},z={timeout:function(a,b){return b.length&&(a.timeout=b[0]),a}},A,B;B=function(a){function b(a){var a=a.split("!"),b=x.length,c=a.pop(),d=a.length,c={url:c,origUrl:c,prefixes:a},e,f,g;for(f=0;f<d;f++)g=a[f].split("="),(e=z[g.shift()])&&(c=e(c,g));for(f=0;f<b;f++)c=x[f](c);return c}function g(a,e,f,g,h){var i=b(a),j=i.autoCallback;i.url.split(".").pop().split("?").shift(),i.bypass||(e&&(e=d(e)?e:e[a]||e[g]||e[a.split("/").pop().split("?")[0]]),i.instead?i.instead(a,e,f,g,h):(y[i.url]?i.noexec=!0:y[i.url]=1,f.load(i.url,i.forceCSS||!i.forceJS&&"css"==i.url.split(".").pop().split("?").shift()?"c":c,i.noexec,i.attrs,i.timeout),(d(e)||d(j))&&f.load(function(){k(),e&&e(i.origUrl,h,g),j&&j(i.origUrl,h,g),y[i.url]=2})))}function h(a,b){function c(a,c){if(a){if(e(a))c||(j=function(){var a=[].slice.call(arguments);k.apply(this,a),l()}),g(a,j,b,0,h);else if(Object(a)===a)for(n in m=function(){var b=0,c;for(c in a)a.hasOwnProperty(c)&&b++;return b}(),a)a.hasOwnProperty(n)&&(!c&&!--m&&(d(j)?j=function(){var a=[].slice.call(arguments);k.apply(this,a),l()}:j[n]=function(a){return function(){var b=[].slice.call(arguments);a&&a.apply(this,b),l()}}(k[n])),g(a[n],j,b,n,h))}else!c&&l()}var h=!!a.test,i=a.load||a.both,j=a.callback||f,k=j,l=a.complete||f,m,n;c(h?a.yep:a.nope,!!i),i&&c(i)}var i,j,l=this.yepnope.loader;if(e(a))g(a,0,l,0);else if(w(a))for(i=0;i (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0];var j=d.createElement(s);var dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.src='//www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;j.type='text/javascript';j.async=true;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-M677548'); Skip to main content Home About Submit ALERTS / RSS Search for this keyword Advanced Search New Results The Effects of Functional Training on Muscle Strength in Athletes: A Meta-Analysis Junyan Liu , Lei Shang , Hongjun Yu doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2024.06.01.596934 Junyan Liu 1 Department of Sport, Tsinghua University , Beijing, China Find this author on Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Search for this author on this site Lei Shang 2 Department of Sport, Tsinghua University , Beijing, China Find this author on Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Search for this author on this site Hongjun Yu 3 Department of Sport, Tsinghua University , Beijing, China Find this author on Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Search for this author on this site For correspondence: yuhj12{at}mail.tsinghua.edu.cn Abstract Full Text Info/History Metrics Preview PDF Abstract The study aimed to analyze the effects of functional training (FT) on athletes muscle strength compared to traditional resistance training (TRT). A systematic search was conducted in 6 databases from inception to January 2024. Baseline and outcome measures from randomized controlled trials (RCT) were assessed for the impact of FT on athlete muscle strength, across sex, age, and sports levels. Hedge’s g effect sizes were calculated using a random-effects model, and subgroup and single training factor analyses were performed to address potential sources of heterogeneity, along with a meta-regression analysis. The inclusion of 67 studies involving 1718 athletes revealed significant moderate to large effects of FT on maximum strength (k=11; ES=2.68; p≤ 0.001), power (k=12; ES=0.68; p<0.001), as well as muscle endurance(k=12; ES=4.13; p<0.001).In conclusion, FT appears to offer potential benefits for enhancing muscle strength in athletes, with considerations for individual differences in sex, age, and training programs. Findings suggest that longer training sessions may be associated with improvements in maximum strength and muscle endurance, whereas shorter sessions might be more conducive to power development. Additionally, preliminary evidence hints that younger athletes may experience more pronounced training benefits, though this observation requires further investigation to establish a more definitive correlation. Introduction Athletic performance is shaped by a multitude of factors, including genetics, mental and physical health, and the training regimens employed[ 48 , 69 , 88 , 101 ].While genetics play a significant role, the potential for enhancement through focused training efforts is equally important[ 91 ]. Technical skill is a critical component, yet it is just one of many elements that contribute to optimal performance[ 33 , 45 ]. Strengthening athletic abilities is essential for sports excellence, impacting a range of physical attributes necessary for success[ 115 ]. Notably, muscle strength is a pivotal factor that not only elevates performance but also mitigates injury risk[ 32 , 58 , 67 , 73 , 79 , 120 ]. Elite athletes often exhibit superior muscle strength, a key attribute for their sport-specific proficiency[ 34 ]. Muscle strength, defined as the capacity to exert force, is influenced by a combination of physical and neurological factors[ 104 , 113 ], as well as an individual’s fitness level and training type[ 10 , 25 ]. Among the various training methodologies, functional training (FT) aims to enhance overall movement efficiency and power through diverse, multi-directional exercises with an emphasis on injury prevention. FT has demonstrated positive impacts on strength [ 2 , 5 , 23 , 26 , 29 , 31 , 37 , 42 , 47 , 51 , 59 , 70 , 81 , 87 , 96 , 106 , 107 , 121 , 127 , 130 ], power[ 5 , 57 , 59 , 119 , 121 , 122 , 133 ], physical abilities[ 41 , 131 , 132 ], and injury prevention [ 20 , 43 , 93 , 94 , 98 ] making it a staple in comprehensive athletic training approaches. Gambetta’s research underscores the value of FT in improving coordination across multiple joints and refining proprioception[ 44 ]. Boyle advocates for a training approach that emphasizes balance and proprioception, favoring dynamic bodyweight exercises over stationary equipment[ 24 ]. Silva-Grigoletto proposes that FT integrates various skills to enhance the effectiveness and safety of performance in specific sports through balanced training[ 105 ]. For example, the Bulgarian split squat—a common FT exercise—demands stability and body awareness to engage multiple joints and move in different planes, unlike the seated leg curl, which is a basic traditional resistance training (TRT) exercise targeting a single muscle group without the need for balance[ 44 , 105 ]. Despite the extensive research highlighting the benefits of FT, there remains a lack of comprehensive studies directly comparing the effects of TRT and FT on muscle strength. This study seeks to address this gap by evaluating the impact of these two training modalities on muscle strength, an area that, while not entirely uncharted, has not been exhaustively explored in comparative terms. Additionally, this research will explore how variables such as training frequency, timing, and personal attributes like age and fitness level might influence the effectiveness of FT. Through a thorough meta-analysis, the objective is to offer practical insights for crafting training programs that effectively enhance muscle strength in athletes. While there are many studies on the effects of both TRT and FT individually, few meta-analyses have directly compared the two. By conducting this analysis, we aim to provide a more nuanced understanding of how these training approaches can be optimized for athletic performance. 2. Methods The study adhered to the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines for literature search, data extraction, and analysis[ 76 ]. It was also pre-registered on the PROSPERO (International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews) website under registration number CRD42024509103. Search Strategy We systematically searched 6 databases (Web of Science, Google Scholar, Baidu Scholar, EBSCOhost SPORTDiscus with Full Text, Pubmed, Wanfang Data Knowledge Service Platform, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI)), from their inception until January 2024. The search terms used in Pubmed included (((functional training[Title] OR functional exercise*[Title] OR core training[Title] OR neuromuscular training[Title] OR plyometric training[Title] OR balance training[Title]) OR swiss ball[Title] OR suspension Training[Title] OR proprioceptive training[Title] OR TRX[Title]) AND (athlete*[Title/Abstract] OR player*[Title/Abstract] OR sport*[Title/Abstract] OR runner*[Title/Abstract] OR rower*[Title/Abstract] OR boxer*[Title/Abstract] OR swimmer*[Title/Abstract] OR jumper*[Title/Abstract] OR shooter*[Title/Abstract] OR throw[Title/Abstract] OR cyclist*[Title/Abstract] OR trained[Title/Abstract] OR archer*[Title/Abstract] OR diver*[Title/Abstract] OR skater*[Title/Abstract] OR gymnast*[Title/Abstract] OR climber*[Title/Abstract] OR athletic[Title/Abstract] OR fence*[Title/Abstract] OR surfer*[Title/Abstract] OR sprinter*[Title/Abstract] OR kayaker*[Title/Abstract] OR triathlete*[Title/Abstract] OR wrestler*[Title/Abstract] OR skater*[Title/Abstract])) AND (effect*[Title/Abstract] OR impact*[Title/Abstract] OR influence[Title/Abstract] OR affect[Title/Abstract])) NOT (patient*[Title] OR old*[Title] OR aged*[Title] OR elderly[Title] OR review[Title] OR meta[Title]). The remaining databases used a combination of the same search terms. The search terms in Chinese were “functional training” and “athletes”, located in the article title. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria Inclusion criteria encompassed RCT with the control group receiving TRT or other routine training, distinct training plan, intervention duration-4 weeks, and study participants being healthy athletes engaged in regular training.The exclusion criteria include: non-RCTs, lack of training (encompassing TRT or routine training integrating TRT elements) in the control group, intervention duration <4 weeks, subjects not regular athletes, belonging to patient/recovery categories, and missing data. Data Extraction Key data were extracted from the studies by the researchers, encompassing information such as the first author’s name and the publication year, details about the participants including their sex, athletic level, and age, as well as the sample size. Additionally, intervention specifics were recorded, including the duration of the intervention, training frequency, training program and the study’s outcomes. The outcomes measured spanned across various indicators of strength and power, including the one-repetition maximum (1RM) for deep and half squat (DP/SP), grip strength (GS), and bench press (BP) for maximal strength[ 124 ]. Power was assessed through tests like the standing long jump (SLJ)[ 3 , 27 ], countermovement jump (CMJ) [ 9 , 71 , 100 ] and medicine ball throw(TMBP)[ 112 ]. Muscular endurance was evaluated by the number of 1-minute sit-ups (SU)[ 17 , 38 ], number of push-ups (PSU)[ 13 , 50 ], and number of pull-ups (PLU)[ 12 ]. Quality Assessment Two researchers independently assessed the quality of the included studies using the Revised Cochrane risk-of-bias tool for randomized trials (RoB 2)[ 111 ]. The risk of bias was scrutinized across six domains and seven specific evaluation criteria. Each criterion was categorized as presenting a “low risk,” “unclear,” or “high risk” of bias, determined by the context provided by the literature. To investigate the potential for publication bias among the studies, a funnel plot was employed. Any asymmetry observed in the funnel plot might suggest the influence of publication bias[ 110 ]. 3. Statistical Analyses We performed a meta-analysis to evaluate the comparative impact of FT versus TRT on outcomes related to muscle strength. The systematic data analysis was facilitated by RevMan software (version 5; Cochrane Collaboration, Oxford, UK)[ 103 ] and Stata (version 15; StataCorp, LP, College Station, TX)[ 109 ]. In instances where data was not readily available, efforts were made to contact the authors for the required information; studies that did not respond were excluded from the analysis. The random-effects model[ 21 ] was applied to compute and synthesize the effect sizes (either mean difference [MD] or standardized mean difference [SMD]) between the experimental and control groups[ 8 ]. The significance level was set at p < 0.05, with a 95% confidence interval. Effect sizes were interpreted as very small (MD/SMD 0.8[ 102 ]. Heterogeneity among the studies was assessed using the I 2 statistic, with thresholds of 25%, 50%, and 75% representing low, moderate, and high levels of heterogeneity, respectively[ 54 ]. To evaluate the stability of significant findings against publication bias, a fail-safety N analysis was conducted, where higher values suggest greater robustness[ 83 ]. This analysis, in conjunction with a sensitivity analysis plot, offers a thorough assessment of the reliability and robustness of the study outcomes. Additionally, meta-regression and subgroup analyses were employed to pinpoint the primary sources of heterogeneity[ 97 , 118 ]. Publication bias was investigated using Egger’s test, with p<0.05 considered indicative of significant bias[ 84 ]. 4. Results After implementing the search strategy, we initially identified 15,050 articles from English databases and 3,126 from Chinese databases. After removing duplicates, 7,551 articles were left for further consideration. Screening of titles and abstracts narrowed down the pool to 670 relevant articles. Upon further evaluation, 595 articles were excluded due to factors such as the nature of the intervention, the health status of participants, and incomplete data. This process culminated in 75 articles fulfilling the inclusion criteria for quantitative analysis ( Figure 1 ). The meta-analysis encompassed 67 articles with a total of 1,708 subjects, with 862 engaging in FT and 846 in TRT. The participants included 1,376 male and 332 female athletes. Additional details regarding the subjects and interventions are provided in Table 1 . Download figure Open in new tab Fig. 1. The PRISMA flow diagram shows the article selection process.. View this table: View inline View popup Table 1 Characteristics of subjects included in the included studies. Quality Assessment The PEDro Scale evaluates the methodological quality of RCT in sports science research[ 111 ]. Figure 2 indicates that the reviewed literature generally presents a moderate risk level. In the randomization process, 8 articles were considered low risk, representing 11.9% of the total[ 6 , 55 , 81 , 121 , 127 , 137 , 138 , 143 ]. All articles maintained low risk in areas such as participant identification, intervention adherence, and handling of missing outcome data. For outcome measurement, 19.4% articles was also deemed low risk[ 6 , 26 , 132 , 135 , 148 , 149 , 151 – 154 , 156 , 157 , 165 ]. In terms of result selection, 4.5% articles were classified as low risk[ 26 , 59 , 130 ]. 77.6% articles employed random allocation methods, with only 2 articles use double-blind methods (2.9%), and 9 are single-blind (13.4%). All studies applied appropriate analysis methods to assess their findings. The attrition rate for all literature is ≤15%, with only 2 articles reported adverse events such as athlete infection with the novel coronavirus[ 59 ] and sports injuries[ 131 ]. Download figure Open in new tab Fig. 2. Literature quality evaluation form Meta-analysis The influence of FT on athletes’ strength is detailed in Table 3 , complemented by forest plots for each indicator in the supplementary figures. FT significantly enhanced maximal strength in the upper and arm limbs (p<0.05) and had a nearly significant impact on the lower limbs’ maximal strength (p=0.07). The effect sizes for these improvements were large(ES=2.01-3.12; Supplementary Figures 1 - 3 ). A notable increase in power was observed with FT (p≤0.001), with effect sizes varying from very small to moderate (ES=0.07-0.68; Supplementary Figures 4 - 6 ). Additionally, FT positively affected muscle endurance, as evidenced by significant improvements in the 1-minute SU and PSU (p<0.05), with a nearly significant change in the PLU (p=0.07) and effect sizes ranging from moderate to large (ES=0.74-4.13; Supplementary Figures 7 - 9 ). To evaluate publication bias, Egger’s test was employed ( Supplementary Figures 10 - 18 ), with 8 out of 9 tests indicating no bias. However, for the CMJ analysis, a significant publication bias was identified and addressed using the trim and fill method. View this table: View inline View popup Table 3 Summary of the effects of FT Vs. TT on muscle strength in athletes Sensitivity Analysis Sensitivity analysis targeted studies with p=50% to assess the stability of the findings ( Supplementary Figures 19 - 27 ). Exclusion of individual studies did not alter the significant differences, and effect sizes stayed within the 95% confidence interval, demonstrating the robustness of the overall results. Subgroup Analysis Subgroup analyses, each comprising more than 3 studies, were conducted to assess the impact of FT on muscle strength, with sports categorized based on significant heterogeneity levels (I 2 > 50% and p < 0.1). Ball sport athletes in our study include individuals participating in sports such as soccer, basketball, tennis, baseball, and volleyball. Each of these sports, while involving a ball, demands different physical skills and movements. For example, soccer primarily involves kicking and running, basketball includes jumping and rapid directional changes, and baseball focuses on throwing and batting. These differences highlight the need for tailored training regimens. Our subgroup analysis revealed that ball sport athletes experienced notably greater improvements in muscle strength due to FT compared to athletes from other events( Supplementary Figures 28 - 34 ). Specifically, ball sport athletes showed significant advantages in maximal strength (ES=1.94, p≤0.001) over combat sport athletes (p > 0.05). In the domain of power, ball sport athletes (ES=0.09, p 0.05) and combat sport athletes (p > 0.05). For muscle endurance, ball sport athletes exhibited more pronounced improvements (ES=0.28, p 0.05). Further analysis ( Supplementary Figures 35 ) highlighted that tennis, soccer, and basketball players saw more substantial enhancements in power following FT compared to athletes in badminton, baseball, and table tennis. The respective effect sizes and p-values were: tennis(ES=0.14, p < 0.05), soccer (ES=0.06, p < 0.05), basketball (ES=0.1, p 0.05). By defining ball sport athletes and providing examples, we acknowledge the substantial differences in the tasks and physical demands of each sport. This specificity allows for a more accurate interpretation of the impact of FT across diverse athletic activities. Single (Training) Factor Analysis The analysis of training factors ( Supplementary Figures 36 - 60 ) indicates that FT tends to be more effective in younger athletes than in their older counterparts. Our data revealed that extended training sessions, defined as those lasting more than 60 minutes per session, are associated with more significant improvements in maximal strength and muscular endurance. Conversely, shorter sessions, typically under 60 minutes, are more beneficial for power enhancement. The duration of training periods in our study ranged 4-24 weeks. The mean duration across all studies was 12 weeks. Training frequencies varied between 2-5 sessions per week, with the mean frequency being 3 sessions per week. Each session lasted between 30-120 minutes, with a mean session duration of 60 minutes. 4.5.3 Meta-regression results Regression analysis was conducted on 8 performance indicators ( Table 4 ; Supplementary Figure 61-68). The results revealed that the duration of training sessions had a partial influence on athletes’ power development (p<0.1), with a negative effect size (Z =−1.9). This implies that as the duration of each training session increased, the improvement in power performance was less pronounced. View this table: View inline View popup Table 4 Meta-regression results, A multivariate random-effects meta-regression analysis was conducted to predict the impact of FT on athletes’ muscle strength. 5 Discussion Prior reviews highlight the efficacy of FT and TRT on muscle strength, physical functioning, and daily activities. FT improves movement skills, balance, agility, and neuromuscular efficiency, making it valuable for athletic training. Optimal FT involves at least 8 weeks of sessions over 60 minutes, 3 times per week. These findings support FT as a complement to TRT for enhancing muscle strength and athletic performance. Maximal Strength Integrating FT into sports programs has gained attention for its potential to boost athletic performance. Evidence shows FT can lead to significant improvements, especially when well-structured. For example, a study with 31 elite male high school soccer players found that a 16-week FT program significantly enhanced lower limb strength and balance through varied exercises (e.g., squat variations, unilateral deadlifts, core exercises)[ 107 ]. Conversely, an 8-week FT intervention with table tennis players reported less pronounced effects, possibly due to fewer and less intense exercises per session[ 165 ]. This indicates that FT’s effectiveness depends on exercise diversity and volume. Compared to TRT, FT significantly enhances upper limb and grip maximum strength (ES = 1.02-2.68; p ≤ 0.001) and nearly significantly improves lower limb strength (ES = 3.12, p = 0.07). A study with young male soccer players found FT significantly influences peak force, with TRT showing slower effects in training adaptation[ 134 ]. FT addresses issues like young athletes’ common lack of trunk balance and strength by incorporating unstable environments and multi-joint exercises, enhancing core muscle engagement and overall strength training efficacy[ 53 ]. Another study with skilled basketball athletes showed that the FT group had superior improvements in maximal strength, musculoskeletal health, and basketball performance (WMD = 4.5)[ 63 ]. Despite positive outcomes, FT’s role in exercise science is debated due to its lower muscle load compared to TRT[ 63 , 125 ].Critics argue FT may not enhance muscle strength as effectively as TRT[ 11 , 105 ]. For instance, a study with 12 professional baseball athletes found grip strength increased 85% less after 12 weeks of FT compared to TRT(WMD = −3.82)[ 148 ]. However, many studies confirm FT can effectively increase muscle strength, comparable to TRT[ 11 , 28 , 35 , 52 ]. For example, in older women, FT significantly improved upper limb strength and balance/agility compared to stretching exercises, though no significant changes in body composition were observed[ 121 ]. While TRT is more effective for large muscle groups, FT stimulates both large and small muscle groups, enhancing overall strength, functional strength, and neuromuscular proficiency[ 64 , 108 ]. The combined approach of FT followed by TRT (FT->TRT) or vice versa (TRT->FT) demonstrated significant improvements in balance, agility, and upper limb strength, suggesting FT may provide faster and greater magnitude adaptations[ 66 ]. Our analysis confirms FT significantly enhances muscle strength, especially in older adults[ 31 , 68 ]. For optimal results, longer durations (>60 minutes), higher frequencies (≥3 times/week), increased practice variations (≥5/session), and extended total weeks and sessions are recommended. This aligns with the muscle development overload principle, suggesting more intense stimulation leads to faster muscle growth[ 114 ]. Power FT significantly enhances power in athletes, with effect sizes ranging from small to large (ES = 0.07-0.68) and consistent statistical significance (p < 0.001) compared to control groups. For instance, a 12-week FT program for 57 amateur soccer players significantly increased power[ 92 ]. FT improves muscle strength by enhancing neuromuscular coordination and efficiency, aligning with research on high-velocity power muscle contractions for high power output [ 14 , 15 , 81 , 99 ]. In contrast, TRT, focusing on slow and high-repetition muscle hypertrophy, has not shown the same ability to improve power[ 16 ]. FT often includes bodyweight exercises and rapid eccentric-concentric transitions, leveraging the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) to enhance force production and power performance[ 12 , 18 , 45 , 62 , 70 , 72 , 116 , 128 ]. Studies have shown significant improvements in countermovement jump (CMJ) performance after FT, highlighting the benefits of integrating high-speed and explosive movements in training. However, some studies note less progress in specific metrics like the standing long jump (SLJ) when FT is not combined with heavy resistance training[ 63 , 148 ]. FT’s advantage over TRT lies in coordinating the entire kinetic chain, improving neural activation, and precise muscle control, enhancing movement efficiency[ 19 ]. While FT significantly improves power, training programs should be carefully tailored to avoid overtraining and maximize benefits[ 39 , 44 , 61 , 81 ]. Additionally, research has demonstrated that FT can enhance sprinting, jumping, and functional movement skills, particularly in young athletes engaged in team sports. The systematic review found that FT improved athletes’ performance in 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30-meter sprints, as well as in functional movement skills tests[ 89 , 117 , 129 ]. Muscle Endurance FT effectively enhances muscle endurance, showing moderate to large effect sizes. FT significantly increased 1-minute sit-ups (ES=4.13), PSU (ES=3.3), with near-significant gains in pull-ups (p=0.07) compared to TRT[ 30 ]. An 8-week FT program with dynamic and static core exercises (e.g., seated cable pulldowns, leg raises) significantly improved 1-minute sit-ups versus a control group. Despite smaller gains in pull-ups compared to TRT, FT’s focus on multi-joint movements enhances overall muscle endurance (WMD=-2.75)[ 66 , 164 ]. Another randomized controlled trial (RCT) found significant improvements in baseball performance-related physical factors in both FT and TRT groups, suggesting complementary effects[ 136 , 138 ]. FT’s emphasis on core stability through multi-plane and unstable environment exercises enhances proprioception, optimizes movement patterns, and strengthens neuromuscular connections, crucial for endurance[ 82 ]. While FT includes diverse core exercises, TRT employs fewer[ 74 ]. For older adults, FT has shown to improve muscle endurance, balance, and overall physical fitness, making it a suitable approach to combat age-related decline in physical abilities[ 45 , 70 , 121 ]. In conclusion, FT effectively enhances muscle endurance through core stability, proprioception, and neuromuscular connections. For rapid muscle endurance improvements, particularly in athletes with high initial strength, TRT may provide more immediate results. Various Sports The sports analyzed in this paper fall into four main categories: ball sports, water sports, combat sports, and artistic sports. Ball Sports The enhancements in power for tennis, soccer, and basketball players following FT are more significant than those for baseball, badminton, and table tennis athletes. This is due to the higher volume of running and jumping in the former sports. Soccer players perform 150-250 high-intensity actions per match, basketball players cover several kilometers with numerous high-speed maneuvers and about 50 power jumps per quarter, and tennis involves repetitive, brief sprints[ 77 , 78 , 96 ]. In contrast, baseball, badminton, and table tennis require more agility and reaction speed. FT compensates for these differences by boosting power, improving overall performance.[ 63 , 85 ]. Water Sports FT significantly enhances physical attributes and performance in water-based sports like swimming, dragon boating, and windsurfing. FT improves swimmers’ shoulder flexibility, upper body coordination, and overall aquatic movement, reducing injury risk[ 160 ]. In dragon boating, FT boosts functional movement, core strength, muscle endurance, and rowing speed, aiding consistent and powerful race rhythms[ 130 ]. Windsurfers benefit from FT’s emphasis on muscle strength, crucial for sail control and balance. These improvements have been attributed to FT’s focus on core stability, multi-joint movements, and neuromuscular coordination[ 70 , 176 ]. Comat Sports Research on combat sports like wrestling, taekwondo, boxing, and sanda shows FT enhances agility, lower limb power, and core strength, while TRT quickly builds muscle strength and size[ 155 , 157 ]. Combining FT and TRT is recommended for optimal results, as TRT is essential for stimulating large muscle groups required in combat sports[ 156 ].FT’s ability to improve agility and core strength complements TRT’s muscle-building effects, providing a balanced approach to training in combat sports[ 63 ]. Artistic Sports FT benefits male gymnasts by improving landing stability, movement functionality, balance control, core strength, muscle endurance, and stability[ 123 ].These enhancements translate to better landing movements and may improve power and jumping performance over time[ 146 , 158 ]. FT is an important training modality for artistic sports, though conclusions should be cautiously evaluated due to limited research[ 26 , 75 ]. In artistic sports, FT’s emphasis on balance and core stability can enhance performance by improving movement efficiency and reducing injury risk[ 70 ]. This meta-analysis consolidates the understanding that while both FT and TRT have unique advantages, their combination may offer the most comprehensive benefits for athletes across various sports. FT’s focus on functional movement, core stability, and neuromuscular coordination complements TRT’s emphasis on muscle hypertrophy and strength, leading to well-rounded athletic development. The combined approach of FT followed by TRT (FT->TRT) or vice versa (TRT->FT) demonstrated significant improvements in various performance metrics. Future research should continue to explore the optimal integration of FT and TRT to maximize athletic performance across different sports disciplines. Limitations and Perspectives This meta-analysis faces certain limitations, such as incomplete athlete data and unclear reporting of training specifics, which could influence the analysis. Further investigation is needed to understand how age affects the efficacy of FT. Diverse training criteria and inconsistent reporting may lead to biases, undermining the meta-analysis’s reliability. Future studies should aim to standardize assessment techniques to reduce potential errors. Practical Applications FT may improve an athlete’s strength, and it seems that younger athletes might benefit more from it. For coaches, it is recommended that when designing FT sessions to boost power, these should be kept relatively brief. Conversely, sessions that aim to develop maximal strength and endurance can be longer. It is crucial to incorporate a variety of training methods that are both diverse and targeted, while also ensuring that the training load is sufficient. Moreover, more frequent training sessions and a longer overall training period can lead to improved outcomes. Supplementary Figure Download figure Open in new tab Figure 1. Forest plot - 1RM H/DS Download figure Open in new tab Figure 2. Forest plot - 1RM BP Download figure Open in new tab Figure 3. Forest plot 1RM GS. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 4. Forest plot - SLJ. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 5. Forest plot - CMJ. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 6. Forest plot - TMBP. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 7. Forest plot - 1min SU. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 8. Forest plot - PSU. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 9. Forest plot - PLU. Download figure Open in new tab Download figure Open in new tab Figure 10: Egger’s test - 1RM H/DS Download figure Open in new tab Figure 11: Egger’s test - 1RM BP Download figure Open in new tab Figure 12: Egger’s test - 1RM GS Download figure Open in new tab Figure 13: Egger’s test - SLJ Download figure Open in new tab Figure 14: Egger’s test - CMJ Download figure Open in new tab Figure 15: Egger’s test - TMBP Download figure Open in new tab Figure 16: Egger’s test - 1min SU Download figure Open in new tab Figure 17: Egger’s test - PLU Download figure Open in new tab Figure 18: Egger’s test - PSU Download figure Open in new tab Figure 19: Sensitivity analysis - 1RM H/DS. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 20: Sensitivity analysis - 1RM BP. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 21: Sensitivity analysis - 1RM GS. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 22: Sensitivity analysis - SLJ. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 23: Sensitivity analysis - CMJ. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 24: Sensitivity analysis 5 - TMBP. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 25: Sensitivity analysis 5 - 1min SU. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 26: Sensitivity analysis - PLU. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 27: Sensitivity analysis - PSU. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 28: Subgroup Analysis - 1RM D/HS) Download figure Open in new tab Figure 29: Subgroup Analysis - 1RM GS Download figure Open in new tab Figure 30: Subgroup Analysis - SLJ Download figure Open in new tab Figure 31: Subgroup Analysis - CMJ Download figure Open in new tab Figure 32: Subgroup Analysis - 1 min SU Download figure Open in new tab Figure 33: Subgroup Analysis - PSU Download figure Open in new tab Figure 34: Subgroup Analysis - PLU Download figure Open in new tab Figure 35: Subgroup Analysis - Impact of FT vs. TRT on Power (SLJ) in Ball Sport Athletes Download figure Open in new tab Figure 36: Single factor analysis on 1RM D/HS - Each session duration. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 37: Single factor analysis on 1RM D/HS - Total weeks Download figure Open in new tab Figure 38: Single factor analysis on 1RM D/HS -Frequency Download figure Open in new tab Figure 39: Single factor analysis on 1RM D/HS - Total sessions Download figure Open in new tab Figure 40: Single factor analysis on 1RM D/HS - Age. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 41: Single factor analysis on 1RM GS - Each session duration. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 42: Single factor analysis on 1RM GS - Total weeks Download figure Open in new tab Figure 43: Single factor analysis on 1RM GS - Frequency Download figure Open in new tab Figure 44: Single factor analysis on 1RM GS - Total sessions Download figure Open in new tab Figure 45: Single factor analysis on 1RM GS - Age Download figure Open in new tab Figure 46: Single factor analysis on SLJ - Each session duration. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 47: Single factor analysis on SLJ - Total weeks. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 48: Single factor analysis on SLJ - Frequency Download figure Open in new tab Figure 49: Single factor analysis on SLJ - Total sessions Download figure Open in new tab Figure 50: Single factor analysis on SLJ - Age. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 51: Single factor analysis on CMJ - Each session duration. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 52: Single factor analysis on CMJ - Age. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 53: Single factor analysis on 1min SU - Each session duration. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 54: Single factor analysis on 1min SU - Total weeks Download figure Open in new tab Figure 55: Single factor analysis on 1min SU - Frequency. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 56: Single factor analysis on 1min SU - Total sessions. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 57: Single factor analysis on 1min SU - Age. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 58: Single factor analysis on PLU - Each session duration. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 59: Single factor analysis on PSU - Total weeks. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 60: Single factor analysis on PSU - age. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 61: Meta Regression - 1RM HS/DS. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 62: Meta Regression - 1RM BP. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 63: Meta Regression - 1RM GS. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 64: Meta Regression - SLJ. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 65: Meta Regression - CMJ. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 66: Meta Regression - TMBP. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 67: Meta Regression - 1min SU. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 68: Meta Regression - PSU. Supplementary Figure Download figure Open in new tab Figure 1. Forest plot 2 The effects of FT vs. TRT on lower limb maximal strength (1RM squat/half squat). Download figure Open in new tab Figure 2. Forest plot 2 The effects of FT vs. TRT on upper limb maximal strength (1RM bench press). Download figure Open in new tab Figure 3. Forest plot 3 The effects of FT vs. TRT on grip maximal strength (1RM grip strength). Download figure Open in new tab Figure 4. Forest plot 4 The effects of FT vs. TRT on power (standing long jump). Download figure Open in new tab Figure 5. Forest plot5 The effects of FT vs. TRT on power (countermovement jump). Download figure Open in new tab Figure 6. Forest plot 6 The effects of FT vs. TRT on power (throw medicine ball in place). Download figure Open in new tab Figure 7. Forest plot 7 The effects of FT vs. TRT on muscle endurance (limit-ups). Download figure Open in new tab Figure 8. Forest plot 8 The effects of FT vs. TRT on muscle endurance (push-ups). Download figure Open in new tab Figure 9. Forest plot 9 The effects of FT vs. TRT on muscle endurance (pull-ups). Download figure Open in new tab Figure 10: Sensitivity analysis 1 The effects of FT vs. TRT on lower limb maximal strength (1RM squat/half squat). Download figure Open in new tab Figure 11: Sensitivity analysis 2 The effects of FT vs. TRT on grip strength (1RM grip strength). Download figure Open in new tab Figure 12: Sensitivity analysis 3 The effects of FT vs. TRT on power (standing long jump). Download figure Open in new tab Figure 13: Sensitivity analysis 4 The effects of FT vs. TRT on power (countermovement jump). Download figure Open in new tab Figure 14: Sensitivity analysis 5 The effects of FT vs. TRT on muscle endurance (lmin sit-ups). Download figure Open in new tab Figure 15: Sensitivity analysis 6 The effects of FT vs. TRT on muscle endurance (pull-ups). Download figure Open in new tab Figure 16: Sensitivity analysis 7 The effects of FT vs. TRT on muscle endurance (push-ups). Download figure Open in new tab Figure 17: Subgroup Analysis-FT vs. TRT on Lower Limb Maximum Strength (DS/HS) Download figure Open in new tab Figure 18: Subgroup Analysis-FT vs. TRT on Grip Strength (GS) Download figure Open in new tab Figure 19: Subgroup Analysis-FT vs. TRT on Power (SLJ) Download figure Open in new tab Figure 20: Subgroup Analysis-FT vs. TRT on Power (CMJ) Download figure Open in new tab Figure 21: Subgroup Analysis-FT vs. TRT on Muscle Endurance (1 min SU) Download figure Open in new tab Figure 22: Subgroup Analysis-FT vs. TRT on Muscle Endurance (PSU) Download figure Open in new tab Figure 23: Subgroup Analysis-FT vs. TRT on Muscle Endurance (PLU) Download figure Open in new tab Figure 24: Subgroup Analysis-Impact of FT vs. TRT on Power (SLJ) in Ball Sport Athletes Download figure Open in new tab Figure 25: The effects of FT vs. TRT on lower limb maximal strength (DS/HS)-Each session duration. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 26: The effects of FT vs. TRT on lower limb maximal strength (DS/HS)-Tolal weeks Download figure Open in new tab Figure 27: The effects of FT vs. TRT on lower limb maximal strength (DS/HS)-Frequency Download figure Open in new tab Figure 28: The effects of FT vs. TRT on lower limb maximal strength (DSZHS)­Total sessions Download figure Open in new tab Figure 29: The effects of FT vs. TRT on grip strength (GS)­Each session duration. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 30: The effects of FT vs. TRT on grip strength (GS) - Total weeks Download figure Open in new tab Figure 31: The effects of FT vs. TRT on grip strength (GS) - Frequency Download figure Open in new tab Figure 32: The effects of FT vs. TRT on grip strength (GS) - Total sessions Download figure Open in new tab Figure 33: The effects of FT vs. TRT on power (SLJ) - Each session duration. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 34: The effects of FT vs. TRT on power (SLJ) - Total weeks. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 35: The effects of FT vs. TRT on power (SLJ) - Frequency Download figure Open in new tab Figure 36: The effects of FT vs. TRT on power (SLJ) - Total sessions Download figure Open in new tab Figure 37: The effects of FT vs. TRT on power (CMJ) - Each session duration. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 38: The effects of FT vs. TRT on muscle endurance (1 min SU) - Each session duration. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 39: The effects of FT vs. TRT on muscle endurance (1 min SU) - Total weeks Download figure Open in new tab Figure 40: The effects of FT vs. TRT on muscle endurance (1 min SU) - Frequency. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 41: The effects of FT vs. TRT on muscle endurance (1 min SU) - Total sessions. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 42: The effects of FT vs. TRT on muscle endurance (PLU) - Each session duration. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 43: The effects of FT vs. TRT on muscle endurance (PSU) - Total weeks. Acknowledgments Conceptualization and design: Junyan Liu and Lei Shang Literature search: Junyan Liu and Lei Shang. Analysis: Junyan Liu and Lei Shang. Manuscript writing, first draft: Junyan Liu Manuscript writing, revision: Junyan Liu. Supervision: Shang Lei and Hongjun Yu. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Availability of data: Full data coded of the included studies can be shared upon reasonable request from the corresponding author. The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose. The results of this study do not constitute endorsement of the product by the authors or the National Strength and Conditioning Association. Footnotes ↵ #a Department of Sport, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China References 1. Ahmed TAE . Improving musculoskeletal fitness and the performance enhancement of basketball skills through neuromuscular training program . 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Share The Effects of Functional Training on Muscle Strength in Athletes: A Meta-Analysis Junyan Liu , Lei Shang , Hongjun Yu bioRxiv 2024.06.01.596934; doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2024.06.01.596934 Share This Article: Copy Citation Tools The Effects of Functional Training on Muscle Strength in Athletes: A Meta-Analysis Junyan Liu , Lei Shang , Hongjun Yu bioRxiv 2024.06.01.596934; doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2024.06.01.596934 Citation Manager Formats BibTeX Bookends EasyBib EndNote (tagged) EndNote 8 (xml) Medlars Mendeley Papers RefWorks Tagged Ref Manager RIS Zotero Tweet Widget Facebook Like Google Plus One Subject Area Physiology Subject Areas All Articles Animal Behavior and Cognition (7643) Biochemistry (17717) Bioengineering (13910) Bioinformatics (42016) Biophysics (21477) Cancer Biology (18628) Cell Biology (25536) Clinical Trials (138) Developmental Biology (13392) Ecology (19935) Epidemiology (2067) Evolutionary Biology (24356) Genetics (15617) Genomics (22530) Immunology (17755) Microbiology (40437) Molecular Biology (17200) Neuroscience (88704) Paleontology (667) Pathology (2840) Pharmacology and Toxicology (4832) Physiology (7657) Plant Biology (15171) Scientific Communication and Education (2046) Synthetic Biology (4304) Systems Biology (9828) Zoology (2272)