Ontogenetic consequences of developmental temperature in amphibians: simultaneous gains in heat tolerance and cumulative costs to stress physiology

Abstract Heat tolerance is critical for ectotherms facing environmental temperature variability, yet how it varies across life stages, and whether trade-offs occur between temperature-induced developmental plasticity and heat tolerance, remain unclear, particularly in organisms undergoing metamorphosis which represent 95% of all animal species. We examined how early-life thermal conditions shape growth, development, survival, acclimation capacity, heat tolerance, and energy allocation across ontogeny in the African clawed frog (Xenopus laevis), reared at six constant temperatures (17–32°C). We tested whether higher developmental temperatures generate trade-offs between accelerated growth and heat tolerance, and the consequences for post-metamorphic resilience to extreme heat. Rearing at 32°C was lethal before metamorphosis. At non-lethal warm temperatures (17–29°C), larvae and juveniles simultaneously accelerated development, maintained growth, and enhanced heat tolerance. However, juveniles reared at 29°C showed reduced survival, elevated corticosterone responses to acute stress, and diminished acclimation capacity, indicating increased energetic demands and constrained metabolic flexibility. These findings show that amphibians can integrate developmental plasticity with plastic adjustments in heat tolerance, but that such strategies incur cumulative physiological costs. By adopting an across-life-stage approach, our study highlights energy-allocation constraints that may limit population persistence under climate warming in species with complex life cycles. Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.