Arbuscular mycorrhizal responsiveness of a Canary Island endemic (Artemisia thuscula Cav.): implications for nursery propagation and restoration

Arbuscular mycorrhizal responsiveness of a Canary Island endemic (Artemisia thuscula Cav.): implications for nursery propagation and restoration | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Short Report Arbuscular mycorrhizal responsiveness of a Canary Island endemic (Artemisia thuscula Cav.): implications for nursery propagation and restoration Marta Selma Garzón-Molina, María C. Jaizme-Vega, Mónica González-González This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8056121/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) influence plant establishment and nutrient balance, yet their role in insular endemics remains poorly understood. In this work, it was assessed field AM colonization and edaphic-foliar context in three Artemisia taxa from the Canary Islands ( A. thuscula Cav. and A. ramosa C. Sm. Ex Link. (endemic), and A. reptans C. Sm. (native, Vulnerable), and tested early mycorrhizal responsiveness of A. thuscula Cav. in nursery conditions after inoculation with Funneliformis mosseae (T.H. Nicolson & Gerd.), using A. annua L. as a reference. Field colonization varied strongly among sites: A. thuscula Cav. on the southern slope of Tenerife island showed the highest colonization (44%), linked to sandy, organic-rich soils, whereas northern and coastal populations had low values in finer, saline substrates. Foliar nutrients mirrored these contrasts, particularly for potassium, sodium and iron. In the nursery, AM inoculation enhanced seedling biomass (+ 93%) and foliar nitrogen and potassium, even though root colonization at lifting was low (3%), indicating strong responsiveness but weak dependence. These results identify A. thuscula Cav. as a facultatively mycotrophic endemic with high early responsiveness to AMF, supporting its integration into propagation and restoration of Macaronesian flora. Arbuscular mycorrhiza Endemic and vulnerable plants Nursery performance Restoration Estimation-first Macaronesia Figures Figure 1 Introduction Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) form symbiotic associations with most terrestrial plants, shaping their nutrition, stress tolerance, and community dynamics across ecosystems (Smith and Read 2008 ; van der Heijden et al. 2015 ). Although the majority of vascular plants are mycorrhizal (Brundrett 2009 ), the degree of colonization and dependence varies widely among taxa and environments (Hart and Reader 2002 ; Brundrett and Tedersoo 2018 ). Global syntheses confirm consistent positive effects on plant biomass and nutrient status but also highlight strong variability driven by abiotic factors and experimental design (Hoeksema et al. 2010 ; Wu et al. 2024 ). Such variability underscores the importance of studying AMF in underrepresented systems, notably insular environments where endemism and environmental heterogeneity are high (Fernández-Palacios et al. 2016 ). Island systems add another layer to this variability: plant colonization and diversification may be constrained by the diversity and composition of local symbiont pools (Florencio et al. 2021 ). In oceanic archipelagos, mycorrhizal type and partner availability can influence establishment rates and endemism, making AM symbioses potential filters of island biogeography (Delavaux et al. 2021 ). Macaronesia, particularly the Canary Islands, harbors exceptional biodiversity, high plant endemism, and pronounced environmental heterogeneity. However, direct field evidence of AM associations in island endemics is still scarce, despite their likely relevance for establishment and restoration (Pérez-Redondo et al 2025 ). Within Asteraceae , the genus Artemisia exhibits broad variation in AMF colonization and growth response, consistent with adaptation to contrasting soils and climates. At global scales, AM colonization intensity is shaped by climate and soil chemistry (Soudzilovskaia et al. 2015 ). In Artemisia , field surveys across China reported that AM and dark septate endophyte colonization track regional climatic gradients, reinforcing the environmental modulation of these symbioses (Huo et al. 2021 ). Experimental work with North American congeners further shows that drought and competition can depress AM colonization and modify growth benefits (Prado-Tarango et al. 2022 ), while AMF modulate photosynthetic and drought responses in A. tridentata (Nutt.) W.A.Weber seedlings (Geisler et al. 2023 ). Together, these patterns suggest that Artemisia species express context-dependent mycorrhizal functioning shaped by edaphic and climatic filters. The genus Artemisia includes several Macaronesian taxa, where insular isolation and edaphic contrasts have promoted diversification. In the Canary Islands, A. thuscula Cav. and A. ramosa C. Sm. ex Link are endemics, while A. reptans C. Sm. is native but not endemic (BIOCAN 2025); the latter is listed as Vulnerable (VU) in the Spanish Red List of Threatened Flora (Bañares et al. 2010 ) and is protected under the Canarian Catalogue of Protected Species (Ley 4/2010). These three species are the only Artemisia taxa in the archipelago considered endemic or of conservation concern. Yet, their mycorrhizal ecology remains virtually unknown, and exploring it may reveal how symbiotic dependence supports adaptation to volcanic island soils of Macaronesia. This study (i) provides the first field assessment of AM colonization and edaphic/foliar context for these Artemisia species across contrasting sites, and (ii) tests whether a single nursery inoculation with Funneliformis mosseae (T.H. Nicolson & Gerd.) enhances early growth of A. thuscula Cav., using A. annua L. as a comparative control. Determining early responsiveness of A. thuscula Cav. is relevant to both basic ecology and restoration practice. We asked whether site-level variation in field colonization aligns with soil texture and chemistry, as predicted by theory on context-dependent AM function, and whether significant growth gains can occur even when root colonization at lifting remains low. A key conceptual distinction framing this work is that between responsiveness and dependence (Janos 2007 ): responsiveness describes the performance increment of mycorrhizal over non-mycorrhizal plants under given resource levels, whereas dependence refers to the degree to which a plant requires AMF to reach its potential under limiting conditions. Quantifying early responsiveness under controlled conditions, interpreted through estimation-based statistics and linked to field edaphic data, provides insights useful for both propagation and restoration planning. Materials and Methods Field sampling and soil/foliar analyses Sampling was conducted in 2021, in Tenerife (Canary Islands), across four sites encompassing the main Artemisia taxa and contrasting environmental conditions. A. thuscula Cav. (hereafter referred to as A. thuscula ), was collected from southern (Las Vegas - Granadilla de Abona, 28°07′33N, 16°34′54W, 770 m a.s.l.) and northern (Tegueste - Tegueste, 28°32′35N, 16°20′47W, 423 m a.s.l.) slopes of Tenerife; A. ramosa C. Sm. ex Link. (hereafter referred to as A. ramosa ) and A. reptans C. Sm. (hereafter referred to as A. reptans ) were sampled from southern coastal localities; Malpais de Rasca - Arona, 28°00′44N, 16°40′40W, 30 m a.s.l.; and Montaña Roja - Granadilla, 28°02′42N, 16°32′20W, 15 m a.s.l., respectively. Each site included three composite samples per species, comprising foliar and rhizospheric soil. Soil pH (H₂O and KCl), electrical conductivity (EC), organic carbon (SOC), total N, available P (Olsen), and exchangeable cations (K, Ca, Mg, Na) were determined following standard procedures for volcanic soils. Foliar N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Na, Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu were quantified after acid digestion by Flame Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy. AM colonization Roots were cleared with 10% KOH, stained in acidic glycerol with 0.05% trypan blue (Koske and Gemma 1989 ), and colonization estimated using the gridline intersect method (Brundrett et al. 1985 ) under Differential Interference Contrast microscopy. Colonization was expressed as percentage of intersections containing AMF structures. Nursery experiment Seedlings of A. thuscula were raised in sterilized volcanic substrate (peat:basalt:soil, 2:2:1, v/v/v). After emergence, half of the pots received a single inoculation of Funneliformis mosseae (T.H. Nicolson & Gerd.) (5 g, mainly from Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias culture collections; Jaizme-Vega et al. 1997 , 1998 ). The same number of plants without AM inoculation were used as control; each treatment comprised 60 biological replicates, which were distributed across four blocks within the greenhouse. Plants were grown for 16 weeks under greenhouse conditions (24 ± 4°C; 60 ± 10% RH) with irrigation adjusted to field capacity. At harvest, biometric traits (shoot/root biomass, shoot height, stem diameter) and root colonization were measured in 12 plants per treatment. Foliar and soil were analyzed as above from three composite samples per treatment (four plants each). Parallel trials with A. annua L. were used to confirm inoculum viability (data as Supplementary Figure S1 and in Zenodo). Data treatment and estimation statistics Field and nursery data were summarized using mean (95% CI) from n = 3 composite replicates per site or treatment. Morphological differences between control and AM plants were evaluated using Gardner–Altman estimation plots and mean difference (Δ) ± 95% CI rather than null-hypothesis tests (Ho et al. 2019 ). Relative differences were expressed as %Δ for comparability. Statistical computation and graphics were performed in R 4.3 (R Core Team 2024 ) using the dabestr and ggplot2 packages. All raw data are available in Zenodo. Results AM field colonization and edaphic/foliar context AM colonization varied markedly among species and sites. A. thuscula from the southern slope of Tenerife showed the highest colonization (44.2 ± 40.1%), associated with sandy-loam soils rich in coarse material (> 2 mm) and moderate conductivity (Table 1 ). In contrast, conspecific plants from the northern slope exhibited very low colonization (11.8 ± 9.3%) in finer, more acidic soils with lower EC (Table 1 ). Soils under A. thuscula contained more organic matter and available P. A. ramosa displayed limited colonization (10.2 ± 9.0%) in loamy soils, whereas A. reptans showed intermediate levels (29.2 ± 22.0%) in sandy substrates. The habitats of A. ramosa and A. reptans had the highest pH (8.7–9.4) and EC, with elevated exchangeable Na, reflecting coastal, saline environments (Table 1 ). Foliar nutrient concentrations also differed among species and slopes (Supplementary Table S1 ). A. thuscula (south) exhibited the highest K (23.6 g kg⁻¹) and P (2.3 g kg⁻¹) contents, consistent with higher SOC and P in its soils. Coastal A. reptans and A. ramosa had higher foliar Na (8.05–17.4 g kg⁻¹) and Mg (2.73–5.47 g kg⁻¹), reflecting substrate salinity. Micronutrient patterns were site-specific: Fe was exceptionally high in A. thuscula from the northern slope (≈ 1,300 mg kg⁻¹), while Cu, Mn and Zn showed moderate variation without clear species trends. Nursery growth response and mycorrhizal effects The nursery substrate of A. thuscula showed no significant physicochemical differences between control and AM treatments (Table S2 ), confirming homogeneous growth conditions. AM inoculation significantly increased seedling height and total biomass (Fig. 1 ), with shoot length rising by 6.28 cm (95% CI 4.83–7.67; +46%) and total dry mass nearly doubling (Δ = 1.90 g; 95% CI 1.57–2.23; +93%) compared with controls. Root colonization at harvest remained low (< 10%), indicating that functional benefits occurred despite limited intraradical development. This pattern suggests that A. thuscula benefits from early AM functional activation even under weak colonization. Foliar nutrient profiles differed between treatments (Table S3 ). AM-inoculated plants showed higher K, Na and Zn, while P, Ca, Mg, Fe and Cu remained unchanged within uncertainty ranges. These patterns indicate selective AM-mediated enhancement uptake under otherwise similar substrate conditions. Table 1 Physicochemical soil properties of field arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization of Artemisia species of the Canary Islands. Parameter A. thuscula Cav. A. thuscula Cav. A. ramosa C. Sm. ex Link A. reptans C. Sm. Island slope southern northern southern southern Altitude (m a.s.l.) 770 423 30 15 pH (H₂O) 6.85 (5.85–7.85) 6.06 (5.98–6.15) 8.71 (8.26–9.15) 9.37 (8.80–9.94) pH (KCl) 5.96 (4.54–7.38) 4.25 (3.79–4.71) 7.49 (7.25–7.73) 8.19 (7.92–8.47) Electrical conductivity (dS m⁻¹) · 10 3 199 (113–285) 119 (95–142) 234 (177–291) 399 (108–690) SOC (%) 4.45 (0.51–8.40) 3.58 (1.18–5.97) 0.58 (-0.06-1.21) 0.26 (-0.04-0.55) Total nitrogen (%) 0.32 (-0.05-0.70) 0.31 (0.04–0.59) 0.09 (0.00-0.18) 0.02 (0.00-0.04) Available phosphorous (mg kg⁻¹) 60 (-1.91-122) 53 (4.05–102) 35.2 (2.62-68) 1.20 (-3.96-6.36) Exchangeable potassium (mEq kg⁻¹) 78 (57–98) 27.4 (22.4–32.4) 176 (-305-657) 111 (10.2–212) Exchangeable calcium (mEq kg⁻¹) 166 (6.79–325) 110 (46.1–174) 220 (195–245) 157 (120–193) Exchangeable magnesium (mEq kg⁻¹) 57 (12.5–101) 96 (80–112) 93 (73–113) 37.7 (20.1–55) Exchangeable sodium (mEq kg⁻¹) 12.5 (9.39–15.7) 19.8 (6.04–33.5) 55 (2.46–105) 147 (98–195) USDA texture Sandy loam Silty clay loam Loam Sand Coarse soil > 2 mm (%) 35.8 (28.8–42.8) 37.4 (16.6–58) 26.3 (8.00-44.7) 8.00 (-8.15-24.2) Values, mean (95% confidence interval, IC95%), n = 3 per site. USDA texture from composite sample. SOC, soil organic carbon; USDA, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Discussion AM field colonization and edaphic/foliar context A. thuscula showed a clear positive growth response to AM inoculation despite low root colonization at harvest. In both field and nursery contexts, nutrient availability consistently modulated the strength of AM responsiveness in A. thuscula . This supports the view that mycorrhizal benefits depend more on local nutrient context than on colonization intensity. Field data showed sharp variation in AM colonization among the three Artemisia taxa, from dense colonization in A. thuscula (south) to very low levels in A. ramosa and A. thuscula (north). This pattern aligns with context-dependent mycorrhizal functioning, where abiotic filters strongly shape fungal activity (Hoeksema et al. 2010 ; Soudzilovskaia et al. 2015 ; Huo et al. 2021 ). In island volcanic soils, steep gradients in salinity and texture can shift mycorrhizal potential over short distances. The high colonization of A. thuscula in coarse, organic-rich southern soils supports the idea that AMF enhance nutrient capture where fertility and aeration coincide. Conversely, colonization dropped in finer, lower-pH northern soils, where fungal activity may be limited by acidity and moisture. The low colonization but intermediate nutrient status of A. ramosa and A. reptans in coastal alkaline substrates likely reflects osmotic stress limiting fungal spread despite abundant cations. Overall, soil chemistry appears more decisive than host identity in determining AM occurrence. Foliar composition mirrored these contrasts indicating that AM colonization and plant nutrient status co-vary mainly with local edaphic context. In A. thuscula , the association between colonization and higher foliar P and K supports an active symbiotic contribution. Mycorrhizal responsiveness of A. thuscula A single inoculation with Funneliformis mosseae (T.H. Nicolson & Gerd.) increased A. thuscula biomass by ≈ 93% under nursery conditions. The effect appeared even with sparse colonization, implying that early AMF signaling can enhance nutrient uptake before full root colonization. Consistent gains in root length and stem diameter suggest improved resource acquisition and transport efficiency. That these gains emerged despite low root colonization at lifting suggests rapid functional onset of the symbiosis prior to harvest and/or transient colonization dynamics during the short hardening window. In Janos’ framework, A. thuscula is not strictly dependent on AMF for survival or growth under benign nursery conditions, but shows clear responsiveness when symbiosis is enabled at sowing. Similar decoupling between benefit and colonization occurs in other facultatively mycotrophic species (Janos 2007 ), supporting a fast physiological rather than structural response. AM inoculation also enhanced foliar K, Zn, and marginally N, elements often improved by AM symbiosis under limited nutrient mobility. This pattern aligns with broader syntheses showing stronger AMF effects on uptake of K and micronutrients. Ecological and applied implications The marked responsiveness but low dependence characterizes A. thuscula as facultatively mycotrophic—an adaptive strategy for heterogeneous volcanic soils, enabling benefits when AMF are active but tolerance when scarce. This response highlights the intrinsic mycorrhizal affinity of A. thuscula , consistent with the widespread occurrence and ecological significance of AM symbioses within the Asteraceae (Soudzilovskaia et al. 2015 ). Occupying semi-arid volcanic slopes, A. thuscula likely evolved this trait as an adaptation to nutrient-poor habitats where AM symbiosis confers advantage. These early functional effects of AM colonization are particularly relevant for restoration of endemics (Hoeksema et al. 2010 ) and ex situ propagation, where root establishment and nutrient uptake are major bottlenecks. Parallel tests with A. annua L. confirmed that responses were driven by AM inoculation rather than species-specific artefacts. Taken together, these results suggest that mycorrhizal dependence in insular Artemisia is modulated by both intrinsic (taxonomic) and extrinsic (edaphic) factors. As proposed by Kiers et al. ( 2011 ), mutualistic balance in AM symbiosis is context-dependent, with benefits varying with soil fertility and host strategy. For A. thuscula , mycorrhizal inoculation supports early establishment and nutrient uptake, potentially enhancing resilience to disturbance and climate variability in its native habitats. These functional insights underscore the ecological importance of AMF for persistence and restoration of island endemics. Practically, a single inoculation at sowing appears sufficient to boost early growth, supporting inclusion of AMF inocula in nursery protocols to improve establishment and reduce transplant stress. Lengthening the hardening period or staggering harvests would likely increase measured colonization at lifting and amplify growth and nutrient gains. Matching substrate texture and pH to field-analog conditions could further promote functional mycorrhiza before outplanting. Because island systems constrain symbiont pools, using inocula compatible with local AMF (or co-cultures that enhance rhizosphere function) may improve field persistence. Emerging work shows that inoculum provenance and co-inoculation can reshape rhizosphere function and host growth (Becerra et al. 2024 ; Koziol et al. 2025 ; Zeng et al. 2025 ), deserving targeted testing with Canary endemics. Future work should extend to (i) longer cultivation cycles to align colonization with functional gains, (ii) molecular identification of AMF partners, and (iii) multi-site trials capturing edaphic variability. Incorporating responsiveness-dependence analyses (Janos 2007 ) will clarify nutrient thresholds controlling mycorrhizal benefits. Conclusions Early inoculation with Funneliformis mosseae (T.H. Nicolson & Gerd.) increased A. thuscula Cav. biomass and foliar nutrient concentrations even under low root colonization. The species shows high mycorrhizal responsiveness but low dependence, reflecting rapid early functional benefits rather than structural saturation of roots. This facultative mycotrophy underscores the adaptive value of AM symbiosis for A. thuscula Cav. in nutrient-poor volcanic soils Incorporating AMF inoculation into nursery protocols can strengthen propagation and restoration of Canary Island endemics. Declarations Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material. Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests. Funding Open Access funding provided by Gobierno de Canarias. Author Contribution MSGM Fieldwork and lab work. MCJV Conceptualization, Writing - review & editing. MGG Study design, Data curation, Formal analysis, Visualization, Supervision, Writing - original draft, review & editing. Acknowledgement This work has been made possible thanks to the authorization granted by the Área de Gestión del Medio Natural y Seguridad of the Cabildo de Tenerife for the prospecting of vascular flora. Data Availability All summarized data supporting the findings of this study (soil and foliar properties, mycorrhizal colonization, and nursery growth responses) are openly available in Zenodo at [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17549346], under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC-BY 4.0). The repository includes Tables 1 and S1–S3, Figures 1 and 1S, and a README file describing dataset structure and variable definitions. Additional information is provided in the Supporting Information section. References Bañares Á, Blanca G, Güemes J, Moreno JC, Ortiz S (2010) Atlas y libro rojo de la flora vascular amenazada de España: adenda 2010. MARM-SEBiCoP, Madrid https://www.miteco.gob.es/content/dam/miteco/es/biodiversidad/temas/inventarios-nacionales/listarojaactualizada2010_baja_tcm30-99749.pdf . 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BMC Plant Biol 24:960. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-024-05638-9 Zeng W, Xiang D, Li X, Gao Q, Chen Y, Wang K, Qian Y, Wang L, Li J et al (2025) Effects of combined inoculation of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and plant growth-promoting rhizosphere bacteria on seedling growth and rhizosphere microecology. Front Microbiol 15:1475485. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2024.1475485 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files MycorrhizaArtemisiaCanaryIslandsFigureS1.pdf Supplementary Fig. S1 Gardner–Altman estimation plots showing nursery growth responses (shoot, root and total dry biomass, shoot and root length, stem diameter) of Artemisia annua L. to arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) inoculation. The left panel shows the distributions of control and AM-inoculated plants (boxes = interquartile range, dots = individual values, open circles = mean). The right panels show the mean differences (Δ ± 95% CI) between AM-inoculated and control groups (dashed line = zero effect). MycorrhizaArtemisiaCanaryIslandsTableS1.docx MycorrhizaArtemisiaCanaryIslandsTableS2.docx MycorrhizaArtemisiaCanaryIslandsTableS3.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8056121","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Short Report","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":544170499,"identity":"78b03ceb-e4f7-4895-a99a-faad26207267","order_by":0,"name":"Marta Selma Garzón-Molina","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias (ICIA)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Marta","middleName":"Selma","lastName":"Garzón-Molina","suffix":""},{"id":544170500,"identity":"638bb977-5051-4f66-86f7-8c75ced0b2e5","order_by":1,"name":"María C. Jaizme-Vega","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias (ICIA)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"María","middleName":"C.","lastName":"Jaizme-Vega","suffix":""},{"id":544170501,"identity":"31551d7c-fc67-43b5-a1a6-eb4ff2534760","order_by":2,"name":"Mónica González-González","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAwklEQVRIiWNgGAWjYPACCwYG9sYGhgQStEgwMPAcJFmLBLHqdfsXH3v4o0ZCTn7m48YPD2oY5OQbCGgxu/Es3UDimIQx4+zEZomEYwzGBgcIajljJmHAJpHYLJ3YxpDAxpC4gZDDwFoS/knUt0keBGr5x1A/n6DDzveYSRxsk0jgkWBsYwBZxEDYYWxpko19EoYzeIB+SQQyNhDUcv7wMckf32zk5duPP/wIZhByGHp0SBBSDwT8hNwxCkbBKBgFowAAjIA+K4JNzN0AAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias (ICIA)","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mónica","middleName":"","lastName":"González-González","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-11-07 10:38:26","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8056121/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8056121/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":95828259,"identity":"716deb27-fb70-4a20-9289-68014d35ce63","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-13 11:44:31","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":327435,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"MycorrhizaEarlymycorrhizaldependenceArtemisiaCanaryIslands.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8056121/v1/a57738b570bc65912126b636.docx"},{"id":96239721,"identity":"98000a35-f584-4cf1-8790-0ecdd79e1c59","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-19 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11:44:31","extension":"html","order_by":10,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":88784,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8056121/v1/cdc096282901bc95792bcc61.html"},{"id":95828251,"identity":"17b10c34-1f6c-4d77-bdc5-9d6933a5f180","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-13 11:44:30","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":581511,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGardner–Altman estimation plots showing nursery growth responses (shoot, root and total dry biomass, shoot and root length, stem diameter) of \u003cem\u003eArtemisia thuscula\u003c/em\u003e Cav. to arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) inoculation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe left panel shows the distributions of control and AM-inoculated plants (boxes = interquartile range, dots = individual values, open circles = mean). The right panels show the mean differences (Δ ± 95% CI) between AM-inoculated and control groups (dashed line = zero effect).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8056121/v1/f12175b18df7a25aa113be28.jpeg"},{"id":96362716,"identity":"1750bd3d-3fce-46bd-8a69-ab3f5dcc1fd1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-20 09:46:16","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1233971,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8056121/v1/ca974439-5d30-439e-8abf-c7403bcdbcc9.pdf"},{"id":96239735,"identity":"abc1bc37-53d3-4bb3-b332-76437cdf83bb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-19 07:07:29","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":207128,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSupplementary Fig. S1\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eGardner–Altman estimation plots showing nursery growth responses (shoot, root and total dry biomass, shoot and root length, stem diameter) of \u003cem\u003eArtemisia annua\u003c/em\u003e L. to arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) inoculation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe left panel shows the distributions of control and AM-inoculated plants (boxes = interquartile range, dots = individual values, open circles = mean). The right panels show the mean differences (Δ ± 95% CI) between AM-inoculated and control groups (dashed line = zero effect).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"MycorrhizaArtemisiaCanaryIslandsFigureS1.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8056121/v1/a5db55c02d287081c64f1d36.pdf"},{"id":95828256,"identity":"59f07306-88f2-450c-a23e-dbde328e7d71","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-13 11:44:31","extension":"docx","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":19526,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"MycorrhizaArtemisiaCanaryIslandsTableS1.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8056121/v1/8c0c759b7dbe09edc4b4a05a.docx"},{"id":95828253,"identity":"9e87abf5-9131-4e18-83e3-c6e7d5691e55","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-13 11:44:31","extension":"docx","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":19345,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"MycorrhizaArtemisiaCanaryIslandsTableS2.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8056121/v1/3b9ea601ca944687af4a2010.docx"},{"id":96239000,"identity":"59aaa385-0728-418d-acdf-653546f45569","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-19 07:00:22","extension":"docx","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":19441,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"MycorrhizaArtemisiaCanaryIslandsTableS3.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8056121/v1/643282a8db500dc2441b71d5.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Arbuscular mycorrhizal responsiveness of a Canary Island endemic (Artemisia thuscula Cav.): implications for nursery propagation and restoration","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eArbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) form symbiotic associations with most terrestrial plants, shaping their nutrition, stress tolerance, and community dynamics across ecosystems (Smith and Read \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; van der Heijden et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Although the majority of vascular plants are mycorrhizal (Brundrett \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), the degree of colonization and dependence varies widely among taxa and environments (Hart and Reader \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Brundrett and Tedersoo \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Global syntheses confirm consistent positive effects on plant biomass and nutrient status but also highlight strong variability driven by abiotic factors and experimental design (Hoeksema et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Wu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Such variability underscores the importance of studying AMF in underrepresented systems, notably insular environments where endemism and environmental heterogeneity are high (Fern\u0026aacute;ndez-Palacios et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIsland systems add another layer to this variability: plant colonization and diversification may be constrained by the diversity and composition of local symbiont pools (Florencio et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In oceanic archipelagos, mycorrhizal type and partner availability can influence establishment rates and endemism, making AM symbioses potential filters of island biogeography (Delavaux et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Macaronesia, particularly the Canary Islands, harbors exceptional biodiversity, high plant endemism, and pronounced environmental heterogeneity. However, direct field evidence of AM associations in island endemics is still scarce, despite their likely relevance for establishment and restoration (P\u0026eacute;rez-Redondo et al \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWithin \u003cem\u003eAsteraceae\u003c/em\u003e, the genus \u003cem\u003eArtemisia\u003c/em\u003e exhibits broad variation in AMF colonization and growth response, consistent with adaptation to contrasting soils and climates. At global scales, AM colonization intensity is shaped by climate and soil chemistry (Soudzilovskaia et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). In \u003cem\u003eArtemisia\u003c/em\u003e, field surveys across China reported that AM and dark septate endophyte colonization track regional climatic gradients, reinforcing the environmental modulation of these symbioses (Huo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Experimental work with North American congeners further shows that drought and competition can depress AM colonization and modify growth benefits (Prado-Tarango et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), while AMF modulate photosynthetic and drought responses in \u003cem\u003eA. tridentata\u003c/em\u003e (Nutt.) W.A.Weber seedlings (Geisler et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Together, these patterns suggest that \u003cem\u003eArtemisia\u003c/em\u003e species express context-dependent mycorrhizal functioning shaped by edaphic and climatic filters.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe genus \u003cem\u003eArtemisia\u003c/em\u003e includes several Macaronesian taxa, where insular isolation and edaphic contrasts have promoted diversification. In the Canary Islands, \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e Cav. and \u003cem\u003eA. ramosa\u003c/em\u003e C. Sm. ex Link are endemics, while \u003cem\u003eA. reptans\u003c/em\u003e C. Sm. is native but not endemic (BIOCAN 2025); the latter is listed as Vulnerable (VU) in the Spanish Red List of Threatened Flora (Ba\u0026ntilde;ares et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) and is protected under the Canarian Catalogue of Protected Species (Ley 4/2010). These three species are the only \u003cem\u003eArtemisia\u003c/em\u003e taxa in the archipelago considered endemic or of conservation concern. Yet, their mycorrhizal ecology remains virtually unknown, and exploring it may reveal how symbiotic dependence supports adaptation to volcanic island soils of Macaronesia.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study (i) provides the first field assessment of AM colonization and edaphic/foliar context for these \u003cem\u003eArtemisia\u003c/em\u003e species across contrasting sites, and (ii) tests whether a single nursery inoculation with \u003cem\u003eFunneliformis mosseae\u003c/em\u003e (T.H. Nicolson \u0026amp; Gerd.) enhances early growth of \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e Cav., using \u003cem\u003eA. annua\u003c/em\u003e L. as a comparative control. Determining early responsiveness of \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e Cav. is relevant to both basic ecology and restoration practice. We asked whether site-level variation in field colonization aligns with soil texture and chemistry, as predicted by theory on context-dependent AM function, and whether significant growth gains can occur even when root colonization at lifting remains low.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA key conceptual distinction framing this work is that between responsiveness and dependence (Janos \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e): responsiveness describes the performance increment of mycorrhizal over non-mycorrhizal plants under given resource levels, whereas dependence refers to the degree to which a plant requires AMF to reach its potential under limiting conditions. Quantifying early responsiveness under controlled conditions, interpreted through estimation-based statistics and linked to field edaphic data, provides insights useful for both propagation and restoration planning.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eField sampling and soil/foliar analyses\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling was conducted in 2021, in Tenerife (Canary Islands), across four sites encompassing the main \u003cem\u003eArtemisia\u003c/em\u003e taxa and contrasting environmental conditions. \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e Cav. (hereafter referred to as \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e), was collected from southern (Las Vegas - Granadilla de Abona, 28\u0026deg;07\u0026prime;33N, 16\u0026deg;34\u0026prime;54W, 770 m a.s.l.) and northern (Tegueste - Tegueste, 28\u0026deg;32\u0026prime;35N, 16\u0026deg;20\u0026prime;47W, 423 m a.s.l.) slopes of Tenerife; \u003cem\u003eA. ramosa\u003c/em\u003e C. Sm. ex Link. (hereafter referred to as \u003cem\u003eA. ramosa\u003c/em\u003e) and \u003cem\u003eA. reptans\u003c/em\u003e C. Sm. (hereafter referred to as \u003cem\u003eA. reptans\u003c/em\u003e) were sampled from southern coastal localities; Malpais de Rasca - Arona, 28\u0026deg;00\u0026prime;44N, 16\u0026deg;40\u0026prime;40W, 30 m a.s.l.; and Monta\u0026ntilde;a Roja - Granadilla, 28\u0026deg;02\u0026prime;42N, 16\u0026deg;32\u0026prime;20W, 15 m a.s.l., respectively. Each site included three composite samples per species, comprising foliar and rhizospheric soil.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSoil pH (H₂O and KCl), electrical conductivity (EC), organic carbon (SOC), total N, available P (Olsen), and exchangeable cations (K, Ca, Mg, Na) were determined following standard procedures for volcanic soils. Foliar N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Na, Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu were quantified after acid digestion by Flame Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAM colonization\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRoots were cleared with 10% KOH, stained in acidic glycerol with 0.05% trypan blue (Koske and Gemma \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e), and colonization estimated using the gridline intersect method (Brundrett et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e) under Differential Interference Contrast microscopy. Colonization was expressed as percentage of intersections containing AMF structures.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eNursery experiment\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeedlings of \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e were raised in sterilized volcanic substrate (peat:basalt:soil, 2:2:1, v/v/v). After emergence, half of the pots received a single inoculation of \u003cem\u003eFunneliformis mosseae\u003c/em\u003e (T.H. Nicolson \u0026amp; Gerd.) (5 g, mainly from Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias culture collections; Jaizme-Vega et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). The same number of plants without AM inoculation were used as control; each treatment comprised 60 biological replicates, which were distributed across four blocks within the greenhouse. Plants were grown for 16 weeks under greenhouse conditions (24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4\u0026deg;C; 60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10% RH) with irrigation adjusted to field capacity. At harvest, biometric traits (shoot/root biomass, shoot height, stem diameter) and root colonization were measured in 12 plants per treatment. Foliar and soil were analyzed as above from three composite samples per treatment (four plants each). Parallel trials with \u003cem\u003eA. annua\u003c/em\u003e L. were used to confirm inoculum viability (data as Supplementary Figure \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e and in Zenodo).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData treatment and estimation statistics\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eField and nursery data were summarized using mean (95% CI) from n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3 composite replicates per site or treatment. Morphological differences between control and AM plants were evaluated using Gardner\u0026ndash;Altman estimation plots and mean difference (Δ)\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;95% CI rather than null-hypothesis tests (Ho et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Relative differences were expressed as %Δ for comparability. Statistical computation and graphics were performed in R 4.3 (R Core Team \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) using the \u003cem\u003edabestr\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eggplot2\u003c/em\u003e packages. All raw data are available in Zenodo.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAM field colonization and edaphic/foliar context\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAM colonization varied markedly among species and sites. \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e from the southern slope of Tenerife showed the highest colonization (44.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;40.1%), associated with sandy-loam soils rich in coarse material (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;2 mm) and moderate conductivity (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, conspecific plants from the northern slope exhibited very low colonization (11.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.3%) in finer, more acidic soils with lower EC (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Soils under \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e contained more organic matter and available P. \u003cem\u003eA. ramosa\u003c/em\u003e displayed limited colonization (10.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.0%) in loamy soils, whereas \u003cem\u003eA. reptans\u003c/em\u003e showed intermediate levels (29.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;22.0%) in sandy substrates. The habitats of \u003cem\u003eA. ramosa\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eA. reptans\u003c/em\u003e had the highest pH (8.7\u0026ndash;9.4) and EC, with elevated exchangeable Na, reflecting coastal, saline environments (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFoliar nutrient concentrations also differed among species and slopes (Supplementary Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e). \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e (south) exhibited the highest K (23.6 g kg⁻\u0026sup1;) and P (2.3 g kg⁻\u0026sup1;) contents, consistent with higher SOC and P in its soils. Coastal \u003cem\u003eA. reptans\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eA. ramosa\u003c/em\u003e had higher foliar Na (8.05\u0026ndash;17.4 g kg⁻\u0026sup1;) and Mg (2.73\u0026ndash;5.47 g kg⁻\u0026sup1;), reflecting substrate salinity. Micronutrient patterns were site-specific: Fe was exceptionally high in \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e from the northern slope (\u0026asymp;\u0026thinsp;1,300 mg kg⁻\u0026sup1;), while Cu, Mn and Zn showed moderate variation without clear species trends.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eNursery growth response and mycorrhizal effects\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe nursery substrate of \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e showed no significant physicochemical differences between control and AM treatments (Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS2\u003c/span\u003e), confirming homogeneous growth conditions. AM inoculation significantly increased seedling height and total biomass (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), with shoot length rising by 6.28 cm (95% CI 4.83\u0026ndash;7.67; +46%) and total dry mass nearly doubling (Δ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.90 g; 95% CI 1.57\u0026ndash;2.23; +93%) compared with controls. Root colonization at harvest remained low (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;10%), indicating that functional benefits occurred despite limited intraradical development. This pattern suggests that \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e benefits from early AM functional activation even under weak colonization.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFoliar nutrient profiles differed between treatments (Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS3\u003c/span\u003e). AM-inoculated plants showed higher K, Na and Zn, while P, Ca, Mg, Fe and Cu remained unchanged within uncertainty ranges. These patterns indicate selective AM-mediated enhancement uptake under otherwise similar substrate conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhysicochemical soil properties of field arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization of \u003cem\u003eArtemisia\u003c/em\u003e species of the Canary Islands.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParameter\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e Cav.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e Cav.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA. ramosa\u003c/em\u003e C. Sm. ex Link\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA. reptans\u003c/em\u003e C. Sm.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIsland slope\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003esouthern\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003enorthern\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003esouthern\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003esouthern\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAltitude (m a.s.l.)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e770\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e423\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003epH (H₂O)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.85 (5.85\u0026ndash;7.85)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.06 (5.98\u0026ndash;6.15)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.71 (8.26\u0026ndash;9.15)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.37 (8.80\u0026ndash;9.94)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003epH (KCl)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.96 (4.54\u0026ndash;7.38)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.25 (3.79\u0026ndash;4.71)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.49 (7.25\u0026ndash;7.73)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.19 (7.92\u0026ndash;8.47)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eElectrical conductivity (dS m⁻\u0026sup1;) \u0026middot; 10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e199 (113\u0026ndash;285)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e119 (95\u0026ndash;142)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e234 (177\u0026ndash;291)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e399 (108\u0026ndash;690)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSOC (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.45 (0.51\u0026ndash;8.40)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.58 (1.18\u0026ndash;5.97)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.58 (-0.06-1.21)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.26 (-0.04-0.55)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal nitrogen (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.32 (-0.05-0.70)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.31 (0.04\u0026ndash;0.59)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.09 (0.00-0.18)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.02 (0.00-0.04)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAvailable phosphorous (mg kg⁻\u0026sup1;)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60 (-1.91-122)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53 (4.05\u0026ndash;102)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35.2 (2.62-68)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.20 (-3.96-6.36)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExchangeable potassium (mEq kg⁻\u0026sup1;)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e78 (57\u0026ndash;98)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.4 (22.4\u0026ndash;32.4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e176 (-305-657)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e111 (10.2\u0026ndash;212)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExchangeable calcium (mEq kg⁻\u0026sup1;)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e166 (6.79\u0026ndash;325)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e110 (46.1\u0026ndash;174)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e220 (195\u0026ndash;245)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e157 (120\u0026ndash;193)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExchangeable magnesium (mEq kg⁻\u0026sup1;)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57 (12.5\u0026ndash;101)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e96 (80\u0026ndash;112)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e93 (73\u0026ndash;113)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37.7 (20.1\u0026ndash;55)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExchangeable sodium (mEq kg⁻\u0026sup1;)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.5 (9.39\u0026ndash;15.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.8 (6.04\u0026ndash;33.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55 (2.46\u0026ndash;105)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e147 (98\u0026ndash;195)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUSDA texture\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSandy loam\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSilty clay loam\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoam\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSand\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCoarse soil\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;2 mm (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35.8 (28.8\u0026ndash;42.8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37.4 (16.6\u0026ndash;58)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.3 (8.00-44.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.00 (-8.15-24.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eValues, mean (95% confidence interval, IC95%), n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3 per site. USDA texture from composite sample. SOC, soil organic carbon; USDA, U.S. Department of Agriculture.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAM field colonization and edaphic/foliar context\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e showed a clear positive growth response to AM inoculation despite low root colonization at harvest. In both field and nursery contexts, nutrient availability consistently modulated the strength of AM responsiveness in \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e. This supports the view that mycorrhizal benefits depend more on local nutrient context than on colonization intensity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eField data showed sharp variation in AM colonization among the three \u003cem\u003eArtemisia\u003c/em\u003e taxa, from dense colonization in \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e (south) to very low levels in \u003cem\u003eA. ramosa\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e (north). This pattern aligns with context-dependent mycorrhizal functioning, where abiotic filters strongly shape fungal activity (Hoeksema et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Soudzilovskaia et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Huo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In island volcanic soils, steep gradients in salinity and texture can shift mycorrhizal potential over short distances.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe high colonization of \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e in coarse, organic-rich southern soils supports the idea that AMF enhance nutrient capture where fertility and aeration coincide. Conversely, colonization dropped in finer, lower-pH northern soils, where fungal activity may be limited by acidity and moisture. The low colonization but intermediate nutrient status of \u003cem\u003eA. ramosa\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eA. reptans\u003c/em\u003e in coastal alkaline substrates likely reflects osmotic stress limiting fungal spread despite abundant cations. Overall, soil chemistry appears more decisive than host identity in determining AM occurrence.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFoliar composition mirrored these contrasts indicating that AM colonization and plant nutrient status co-vary mainly with local edaphic context. In \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e, the association between colonization and higher foliar P and K supports an active symbiotic contribution.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMycorrhizal responsiveness of\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA single inoculation with \u003cem\u003eFunneliformis mosseae\u003c/em\u003e (T.H. Nicolson \u0026amp; Gerd.) increased \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e biomass by \u0026asymp;\u0026thinsp;93% under nursery conditions. The effect appeared even with sparse colonization, implying that early AMF signaling can enhance nutrient uptake before full root colonization. Consistent gains in root length and stem diameter suggest improved resource acquisition and transport efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThat these gains emerged despite low root colonization at lifting suggests rapid functional onset of the symbiosis prior to harvest and/or transient colonization dynamics during the short hardening window. In Janos\u0026rsquo; framework, \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e is not strictly dependent on AMF for survival or growth under benign nursery conditions, but shows clear responsiveness when symbiosis is enabled at sowing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimilar decoupling between benefit and colonization occurs in other facultatively mycotrophic species (Janos \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), supporting a fast physiological rather than structural response. AM inoculation also enhanced foliar K, Zn, and marginally N, elements often improved by AM symbiosis under limited nutrient mobility. This pattern aligns with broader syntheses showing stronger AMF effects on uptake of K and micronutrients.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eEcological and applied implications\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe marked responsiveness but low dependence characterizes \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e as facultatively mycotrophic\u0026mdash;an adaptive strategy for heterogeneous volcanic soils, enabling benefits when AMF are active but tolerance when scarce. This response highlights the intrinsic mycorrhizal affinity of \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e, consistent with the widespread occurrence and ecological significance of AM symbioses within the \u003cem\u003eAsteraceae\u003c/em\u003e (Soudzilovskaia et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Occupying semi-arid volcanic slopes, \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e likely evolved this trait as an adaptation to nutrient-poor habitats where AM symbiosis confers advantage. These early functional effects of AM colonization are particularly relevant for restoration of endemics (Hoeksema et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) and ex situ propagation, where root establishment and nutrient uptake are major bottlenecks. Parallel tests with \u003cem\u003eA. annua\u003c/em\u003e L. confirmed that responses were driven by AM inoculation rather than species-specific artefacts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTaken together, these results suggest that mycorrhizal dependence in insular \u003cem\u003eArtemisia\u003c/em\u003e is modulated by both intrinsic (taxonomic) and extrinsic (edaphic) factors. As proposed by Kiers et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), mutualistic balance in AM symbiosis is context-dependent, with benefits varying with soil fertility and host strategy. For \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e, mycorrhizal inoculation supports early establishment and nutrient uptake, potentially enhancing resilience to disturbance and climate variability in its native habitats. These functional insights underscore the ecological importance of AMF for persistence and restoration of island endemics.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePractically, a single inoculation at sowing appears sufficient to boost early growth, supporting inclusion of AMF inocula in nursery protocols to improve establishment and reduce transplant stress. Lengthening the hardening period or staggering harvests would likely increase measured colonization at lifting and amplify growth and nutrient gains. Matching substrate texture and pH to field-analog conditions could further promote functional mycorrhiza before outplanting. Because island systems constrain symbiont pools, using inocula compatible with local AMF (or co-cultures that enhance rhizosphere function) may improve field persistence.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEmerging work shows that inoculum provenance and co-inoculation can reshape rhizosphere function and host growth (Becerra et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Koziol et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Zeng et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), deserving targeted testing with Canary endemics. Future work should extend to (i) longer cultivation cycles to align colonization with functional gains, (ii) molecular identification of AMF partners, and (iii) multi-site trials capturing edaphic variability. Incorporating responsiveness-dependence analyses (Janos \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e) will clarify nutrient thresholds controlling mycorrhizal benefits.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eEarly inoculation with \u003cem\u003eFunneliformis mosseae\u003c/em\u003e (T.H. Nicolson \u0026amp; Gerd.) increased \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e Cav. biomass and foliar nutrient concentrations even under low root colonization. The species shows high mycorrhizal responsiveness but low dependence, reflecting rapid early functional benefits rather than structural saturation of roots. This facultative mycotrophy underscores the adaptive value of AM symbiosis for \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e Cav. in nutrient-poor volcanic soils Incorporating AMF inoculation into nursery protocols can strengthen propagation and restoration of Canary Island endemics.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eSupplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eOpen Access funding provided by Gobierno de Canarias.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eMSGM Fieldwork and lab work. MCJV Conceptualization, Writing - review \u0026amp; editing. MGG Study design, Data curation, Formal analysis, Visualization, Supervision, Writing - original draft, review \u0026amp; editing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis work has been made possible thanks to the authorization granted by the \u0026Aacute;rea de Gesti\u0026oacute;n del Medio Natural y Seguridad of the Cabildo de Tenerife for the prospecting of vascular flora.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll summarized data supporting the findings of this study (soil and foliar properties, mycorrhizal colonization, and nursery growth responses) are openly available in Zenodo at [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17549346], under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC-BY 4.0). The repository includes Tables 1 and S1\u0026ndash;S3, Figures 1 and 1S, and a README file describing dataset structure and variable definitions. 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Front Microbiol 15:1475485. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2024.1475485\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3389/fmicb.2024.1475485\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Arbuscular mycorrhiza, Endemic and vulnerable plants, Nursery performance, Restoration, Estimation-first, Macaronesia","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8056121/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8056121/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eArbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) influence plant establishment and nutrient balance, yet their role in insular endemics remains poorly understood. In this work, it was assessed field AM colonization and edaphic-foliar context in three \u003cem\u003eArtemisia\u003c/em\u003e taxa from the Canary Islands (\u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e Cav. and \u003cem\u003eA. ramosa\u003c/em\u003e C. Sm. Ex Link. (endemic), and \u003cem\u003eA. reptans\u003c/em\u003e C. Sm. (native, Vulnerable), and tested early mycorrhizal responsiveness of \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e Cav. in nursery conditions after inoculation with \u003cem\u003eFunneliformis mosseae\u003c/em\u003e (T.H. Nicolson \u0026amp; Gerd.), using \u003cem\u003eA. annua\u003c/em\u003e L. as a reference. Field colonization varied strongly among sites: \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e Cav. on the southern slope of Tenerife island showed the highest colonization (44%), linked to sandy, organic-rich soils, whereas northern and coastal populations had low values in finer, saline substrates. Foliar nutrients mirrored these contrasts, particularly for potassium, sodium and iron. In the nursery, AM inoculation enhanced seedling biomass (+\u0026thinsp;93%) and foliar nitrogen and potassium, even though root colonization at lifting was low (3%), indicating strong responsiveness but weak dependence. These results identify \u003cem\u003eA. thuscula\u003c/em\u003e Cav. as a facultatively mycotrophic endemic with high early responsiveness to AMF, supporting its integration into propagation and restoration of Macaronesian flora.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Arbuscular mycorrhizal responsiveness of a Canary Island endemic (Artemisia thuscula Cav.): implications for nursery propagation and restoration","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-13 11:44:26","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8056121/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"625cfb3b-1ee5-475c-b34b-243d3676ba49","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 13th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-13T11:44:28+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-13 11:44:26","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8056121","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8056121","identity":"rs-8056121","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}