Integrating Virtual Pivot Point and Trunk Dynamics to Understand Human Walking on Slopes: Insights from Experiments and Modeling

Abstract Walking on sloped terrain requires substantial mechanical and control adaptations for effective energy management compared to level ground locomotion. The Virtual Pivot Point (VPP) hypothesis explains sagittal plane angular momentum regulation during level walking, but its validity in slope walking remains unexplored. This study combines human experiments with template-model simulations to investigate how the VPP strategy is modulated during slope walking. Participants walked on an instrumented ramp at various inclinations (0°, ± 7.5°, ± 10°), while a 2D spring-loaded inverted-pendulum model with a trunk segment simulated the task. Experimental results confirmed that the VPP is a robust feature of slope walking (R2 > 0.975). The simulation reproduced the change in hip torque and trunk adaptations by modulating VPP position. Results of this study indicate that VPP position and trunk dynamics could afford stability and energy management on gentle slopes, but to robustly navigate steeper ramps, humans recruit a multi-joint strategy where the knee and ankle joints play a crucial role in managing the energetic demands of sloped terrain. Beyond advancing our understanding of locomotor control, these insights have practical implications for the design of exoskeletons that adapt to uneven terrain. Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.