Teaching Reading Skills to a First-Grade Student with Mild Intellectual Disability: A Single-Subject Intervention Study

Teaching Reading Skills to a First-Grade Student with Mild Intellectual Disability: A Single-Subject Intervention Study | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Teaching Reading Skills to a First-Grade Student with Mild Intellectual Disability: A Single-Subject Intervention Study MEHMET KAYA This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8845136/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Reading is a fundamental skill that supports independence in daily life activities such as communication, access to information, and social participation, rather than just academic success. For students with intellectual disabilities, acquiring reading skills at an early age is of critical importance for subsequent learning and functional literacy development. Basic skills such as letter–sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and simple text reading form the basis of fluent and meaningful reading and are considered necessary for participation in educational and daily life contexts. The aim of this research is to examine the effectiveness of an individualized reading instruction program on the early reading skills of a student with mild intellectual disability. The participant of the research is a 6-year-old first-grade student diagnosed with mild intellectual disability. A multiple-probe design across skills (multiple baseline design), which is one of the single-subject research designs, was used in the study. The dependent variables are letter–sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and short text reading skills ; the independent variable is an individualized reading instruction program structured based on evidence-based teaching strategies. Research results showed that the student successfully acquired all targeted early reading skills after the application. Observing performance increases after starting instruction for each skill revealed that experimental control was established. Permanence data collected in monitoring sessions show that the acquired skills were largely maintained. Generalization data, on the other hand, revealed that the student could display the skills learned in different environments and with different teachers. Tau-U effect size analyses supported the visual analysis findings and showed that the intervention had a strong effect. Social validity findings show that both the teacher and the family evaluated the instruction program as functional, applicable, and meaningful for the student. Overall, the findings reveal that individualized early reading instruction is an effective, sustainable, and socially acceptable approach to developing early literacy skills of students with mild intellectual disabilities. mild intellectual disability early reading skills individualized instruction single-subject research Tau-U social validity Figures Figure 1 INTRODUCTION Reading skill is accepted as a competency area that enables the acquisition of basic life and social skills that support not only the individual's academic performance but also independent functionality in daily life (Yazıcıoğlu & Altındağ Kumaş, 2024). Literacy skills play a decisive role in the individual's acquisition of academic and social competencies in a functional way. Current research shows that reading skills acquired in the early period affect not only language development but also problem-solving, critical thinking, and attitudes towards learning in a positive way. PISA 2022 evaluations conducted by the OECD show that reading proficiency is strongly related to students' success in other academic areas such as mathematics and science, and that literacy is one of the basic components of lifelong learning (OECD, 2023 ). An effective and successful reading process includes the stages of correctly decoding words, making sense of the decoded words by relating them to the individual's vocabulary and experiences, then evaluating these words syntactically within the sentence and grasping the conveyed message (Güldenoğlu et al., 2015 ). Difficulties experienced in this multi-dimensional process negatively affect both the individual's academic performance and the level of independent movement in daily life. Indeed, it is seen that individuals who have problems in the processes of reading comprehension and meaning-making have difficulty in performing academic tasks and their level of independence in daily life remains limited (Akbey, 2016 ). This general framework gains a more distinct importance in terms of individuals with special needs. Limitations in the cognitive and symbolic thinking skills of individuals with mild intellectual disability (MID) make it difficult to acquire phonological awareness, phoneme knowledge, fluency, word recognition, and comprehension processes, which are the basic components of reading (Şengül, 2008 ). For this reason, gaining early reading skills for students with MID forms the basis of subsequent learning and supports functional literacy development. Basic skills such as letter–sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and reading short texts are among the building blocks of fluent and meaningful reading. Systematic presentation of reading instruction at early ages plays a critical role in preventing academic difficulties that students may encounter in later education stages. Snow and Matthews ( 2016 ) state that reading instruction is not just a mechanical skill, but a complex learning area where language, memory, and cognitive processes are integrated. For this reason, it is emphasized that components such as phonological awareness, word decoding, and reading comprehension should be handled in a holistic way. Starting from this context, it is stated that effective reading instruction applied starting from the early period increases students' academic self-confidence and motivation towards learning (Laçın and Güldenoğlu, 2022). These findings reveal the necessity of early and structured reading instruction especially for students with mild intellectual disabilities. Inadequacies in reading skills in the early period can lead to academic disadvantages for students throughout their education lives. The “Matthew effect” put forward by Stanovich ( 1986 ) explains that students who show early success make more progress, while students who have difficulty in reading fall further behind academically over time. In this context, current research supports the validity of the Matthew effect and reveals that early intervention programs applied especially for children at risk play a critical role in learning outcomes (Snow and Matthews, 2016 ; OECD, 2023 ). However, the development process of all children does not proceed in the same way. Some children live their lives with special needs depending on individual, environmental, and neurodevelopmental factors. Individuals with intellectual disabilities are also among these groups with special needs and require systematic and structured instructional support in the acquisition of academic skills due to limitations in cognitive functions (Schalock et al., 2021 ). These students with intellectual disabilities experience more difficulty in acquiring reading skills compared to their peers due to limitations in cognitive functions, language development, and attention processes. In these students, the development of phonological awareness, word recognition, and fluent reading skills proceeds more slowly and the need for systematic instruction arises. In the literature, it is emphasized that presenting reading instruction to these students based on explicit, structured, and intensive instruction principles is effective (Dessemontet et al., 2019 ; Johnson, 2021 ). Research reveals that students with intellectual disabilities can acquire academic reading skills when appropriate teaching methods are used. Johnson ( 2021 ) states that reading instruction for these students should not be limited only to functional word teaching; it should also include letter-sound relationships, word decoding, and text comprehension components. In addition, individualization of instruction and its adaptation according to the learning speed of the student is seen as important in terms of the permanence of learning. Current studies conducted in Turkey similarly reveal the necessity of conducting reading instruction for students with intellectual disabilities with evidence-based and scientifically based applications. Systematic instruction, visual supports, and repetition-based applications provide meaningful improvements in the reading performance of these students. Especially studies conducted with individualized instruction programs show that students make progress in both academic and functional literacy skills (Tekin-İftar et al., 2023 ; Şengül-Erdem and Akçin, 2020 ; Ahadianingsih, 2021 ; Wadihah and Fauzi, 2021 ). Single-subject experimental designs are frequently used in research aimed at developing reading skills in students with intellectual disabilities. These designs offer the opportunity to examine the reactions of individual students to the intervention in detail and directly reveal the effectiveness of the instruction process. It is stated that single-subject research provides strong evidence and produces application-oriented results, especially in the field of special education (Tekin-İftar, 2018 ). Single-subject intervention studies conducted in recent years have shown that phonological awareness, word decoding, and reading comprehension skills can be developed through systematic instruction. Lemons and colleagues ( 2018 ), in their multiple-probe single-subject study conducted with six children between the ages of 7–10 with Down syndrome, reported that individualized early reading intervention showed a functional relationship with the reading outcomes of the six participants. Similarly, Bakken and colleagues ( 2021 ) evaluated reading and writing interventions applied for students with intellectual development disorders through systematic review and meta-analysis; they revealed that decoding and sight-word based reading interventions formed a large effect size on reading performance, whereas experimental evidence regarding writing skills was extremely limited. However, it is seen that a large part of the studies in the literature were conducted with foreign samples and single-subject reading intervention studies conducted at the first-grade level in Turkey are limited. Current systematic review research emphasizes the need to increase sample diversity and further research the effectiveness of reading interventions applied at the early grade level (Bakken et al., 2021 ; Lemons et al., 2018 ). This requirement also overlaps with the basic principles of the Turkey Century Education Model (TYMM), which came into force in Turkey. TYMM is based on making early literacy skills accessible to all students, and structuring instruction with evidence-based applications that take individual differences into account (Ministry of National Education [MEB], 2024). In the model, it is emphasized that instructional arrangements adapted to the learning processes of students with special needs should be planned at the early grade level; in this respect, individualized reading instruction interventions are directly related to the inclusive education approach envisaged by TYMM. The aim of this research is to examine the effect of an individualized reading instruction program planned for a first-grade student with mild intellectual disability on the student's early reading skills. In this context, changes occurring in letter–sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and short text reading skills were evaluated using a multiple baseline design across skills, which is one of the single-subject research methods. With the research, it is aimed to reveal to what extent systematic and individualized reading instruction presented in the early period improves the reading performance of a student with mild intellectual disability and to provide scientific evidence for special education applications. In this respect, the study aims to contribute to the literature and provide guiding findings to practitioners due to the limited number of single-subject reading intervention studies conducted for students with mild intellectual disabilities at the first-grade level in Turkey. In this direction, answers to the following research questions were sought: Is the individualized reading instruction program effective on the letter–sound matching skill of the first-grade student with mild intellectual disability? Is the individualized reading instruction program effective on the student's syllable recognition skill ? Is the individualized reading instruction program effective on the student's word reading skill ? Is the individualized reading instruction program effective on the student's short text reading skill ? Do the changes observed in the student's reading skills during the intervention process demonstrate a functional relationship between the baseline and intervention phases ? METHOD Method Research Design In this research, in order to examine the effect of sound-based reading instruction on the early reading skills of a student with mild intellectual disability, a multiple-probe design across skills (multiple baseline design), which is one of the single-subject research designs, was used. Single-subject research designs are among the experimental approaches that provide strong evidence in determining the effectiveness of individual teaching interventions (Büyüköztürk et al., 2018; Horner et al., 2005; Kratochwill et al., 2013; Gast & Ledford, 2014). In this design, instruction for each reading sub-skill (letter–sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and short text reading) was started at different times, thus controlling the effect of the independent variable. Baseline data were collected until stability was shown, then the instruction process was started. Thus, the functional relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable was revealed (Kazdin, 2011). Independent and Dependent Variables The independent variable in this research is an individualized reading instruction program structured based on sound-based and direct instruction principles. This program was prepared and systematically applied in line with the principles of explicit instruction, task analysis, scaffolding, and progressive phoneme blending (Browder et al., 2013; Carnine et al., 2017; Ehri, 2001). The dependent variable of the research is the percentage of correct responses in the participant's letter–sound matching, syllable reading, word reading, and short text reading skills. The participant's performance was determined in each session using the Criterion-Referenced Reading Assessment Tool developed by the researcher. Participant The participant of the research is a student studying at the first-grade level who has been diagnosed with mild intellectual disability. The participant was selected by purposeful sampling method and the following criteria were taken into account: (a) experiencing significant difficulty in early reading skills, (b) having prerequisite skills to follow instructions and participate in instruction, (c) his family's written consent for participation in the research. Before the research started, a parent informed consent form was obtained and necessary permissions were provided from the school administration. The identity of the participant was kept confidential and the process was conducted in accordance with ethical principles (American Psychological Association [APA], 2020). Setting The research was conducted in an individual education room located in the school where the participant was studying. Instruction sessions were held in a one-on-one instruction format and the environment was cleared of distracting stimuli. Sessions were planned to be four hours a week and continued for a total of six months. Data Collection Tool In the research, the Criterion-Referenced Reading Assessment Tool (Appendix-1) developed by the researcher was used to evaluate the student's early reading skills. The assessment tool consists of four sub-dimensions: letter–sound matching, syllable reading, word reading, and short text reading. In the development process of the assessment tool, the primary school Turkish curriculum outcomes were examined and the literature on early reading skills was taken as a basis (Browder et al., 2013; Ehri, 2001; Snow & Matthews, 2016). The assessment tool was structured in accordance with the criterion-referenced evaluation approach (Tekin-İftar, 2018; Gast & Ledford, 2014). In order to ensure the content validity of the assessment tool, opinions were obtained from two special education experts and one measurement-evaluation expert. In line with the suggestions of the experts, the items were rearranged and the tool was given its final shape (DeVellis, 2017; Tekin-İftar & Kırcaali-İftar, 2001). The success criterion of the student was determined as 80% and above correct response (Cooper et al., 2022). Application Process In this research, a sound-based and systematic instruction program based on the principles of direct instruction, instruction with cues, modeling, repetition, and reinforcement was applied to develop the early reading skills of a first-grade student with mild intellectual disability. The instruction process was structured in line with the principles of explicit instruction, task analysis, scaffolding, and progressive phoneme blending (Browder et al., 2013; Carnine et al., 2017; Ehri, 2001). The application process lasted for a total of 6 months and was planned as four sessions per week. Thus, the instruction program was carried out with a total of 96 individual instruction sessions. All sessions were conducted in a one-on-one instruction format and each session lasted approximately 30–40 minutes. The instruction program was structured according to the principle of step-by-step progress, taking into account the student's readiness level. The following stages were followed in instruction, respectively: Teaching vowels (letter–sound matching) Teaching consonants according to sound groups Syllable teaching Word teaching Short text reading studies In the first stage, the focus was on teaching vowels in order to support the student's phonological awareness. This stage was continued for a total of 12 sessions. In vowel teaching, each sound was modeled by the teacher, the student was asked to repeat the sound, and letter–sound matching studies were conducted. Visual cues, verbal guidance, and reinforcement strategies were used in the instruction process (Snow et al., 2016; Lemons et al., 2018). After teaching the vowels, teaching consonants was started based on the sound grouping order suggested in the Ministry of National Education Turkish curriculum (Ministry of National Education [MEB], 2024). Each sound group was handled separately within itself; first, the student was made to notice the sound, then writing the sound and letter–sound matching studies were conducted. After the student reached the level of correctly recognizing and producing the letters in the relevant sound group, the next stage was started. Following consonant instruction, syllable instruction was started. In syllable instruction, the progressive phoneme blending method was used. In this method, syllables were divided into small units and formed step by step (Ehri, 2001). For example, in teaching the word “tane”, it was structured as “ta” first, then “tan”, and finally “tane”. In cases where the student had difficulty, the instruction process was divided into smaller steps based on the task analysis approach (Browder et al., 2013). It was determined that the student made faster progress in teaching closed syllables (e.g., “tan”, “tel”), whereas he needed more repetition and cues in the process of forming open syllables. In this direction, the instruction process was individualized and the instruction tempo was adjusted according to the student's learning speed. After syllable instruction, word teaching and finally short text reading studies were started. Modeling, guided practice, and independent practice steps were followed in the word and text teaching process; correct responses were supported with verbal reinforcers, and immediate corrective feedback was given for wrong responses (Tekin-İftar & Kırcaali-İftar, 2001; Carnine et al., 2017). Thanks to this structured, systematic, and individualized instruction program, it was aimed to provide permanent and functional development in the student's early reading skills. The program was prepared in line with evidence-based practices and shows consistency with the literature on effective reading instruction approaches for students with mild intellectual disabilities (Browder et al., 2013; Lemons et al., 2018). Instructional Materials and Strategies Letter cards (5×5 cm), syllable box, word box, visual-supported worksheets, and short reading texts were used in the instruction process. Studies conducted with letter cards are compatible with multi-sensory instruction and explicit instruction principles (Snow et al., 1998; Browder et al., 2021). Syllable and word box applications were structured based on repetition-based instruction and incidental teaching principles (Afacan, 2020; Lemons et al., 2018). The student's success criterion was determined as 80–85% correct response and when the criterion was met, the next instruction step was started (Gast & Ledford, 2014). Direct instruction method was used; modeling, guided practice, independent practice, and corrective feedback steps were followed (Carnine et al., 2017; Schalock et al., 2021). Validity and Reliability Internal Validity of the Research In this study, internal validity measures specific to single-subject research methods were taken in order to reveal the functional relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable reliably. In order to control the variables that threaten internal validity in single-subject research, baseline data must be stable, the intervention must be applied systematically, and data must be monitored continuously (Büyüköztürk et al., 2024; Gast & Ledford, 2014; Horner et al., 2005). In this research, baseline data for each skill area (sound recognition, syllable reading, word reading, and sentence reading) were collected until stability was shown, then the instruction process was started. The effect of the independent variable was controlled by applying the intervention in only one skill area and collecting probe data in other areas. This application is based on the simultaneous comparison principle, which is the basic logic of the multiple-probe design (Kazdin, 2011). Collection of application reliability and inter-observer reliability data during the research process is also among the elements supporting internal validity. Whether the application was carried out as planned was monitored through checklists, and the objectivity of the data was verified by a second observer (Kratochwill et al., 2013). In line with these measures, it can be said that strong evidence was provided that the findings obtained resulted from the applied instruction intervention. Validity of the Assessment Tool The Criterion-Referenced Reading Assessment Tool used in the research was developed by the researcher. The assessment tool was structured to cover sound recognition, syllable reading, word reading, and sentence reading skills included in the primary school first-grade Turkish curriculum. Clear criteria were determined for each skill level based on the criterion-referenced evaluation approach (Tekin-İftar, 2018; Cooper et al., 2022). Expert opinion was sought to ensure the content validity of the assessment tool. Experts in their fields (two special education experts and one measurement-evaluation expert) evaluated the assessment tool in terms of: (a) level of representing targeted skills, (b) item appropriateness, (c) clarity of language and expression, (d) compatibility with the instruction process. In line with the feedback received from the experts, some items were rearranged, unnecessary repetitions were removed, and the assessment tool was finalized. Content validity based on expert opinion is recommended as a fundamental method in determining whether assessment tools represent the target behavior, especially in single-subject research (DeVellis, 2017; Tekin-İftar & Kırcaali-İftar, 2001). Success criteria in the assessment tool (for example, 80% and above correct response) were determined in accordance with the criterion-referenced evaluation approach and used as the criterion for deciding that the student had acquired the skill. In the literature, it is stated that success criteria in the range of 80%–100% in teaching academic skills are sufficient to show that learning has taken place (Cooper et al., 2022; Gast & Ledford, 2014). In this direction, it was accepted that the developed assessment tool represented the targeted reading skills and was a valid assessment tool that would serve the purposes of the research. Inter-observer Reliability Inter-observer reliability was calculated by collecting data independently by a second observer in at least 30% of the sessions. Reliability was determined using the following formula: Agreement / (Agreement + Disagreement) × 100 Average inter-observer reliability was found to be 93% (Horner et al., 2005). Application Reliability Application reliability data were collected to determine whether the application was carried out as planned. For this purpose, a checklist containing the instruction steps was used. Application reliability was calculated by dividing the number of correctly applied steps by the total number of steps and converting it into a percentage (Gast & Ledford, 2014; Kratochwill et al., 2013). Number of Applied Steps / Number of Planned Steps × 100 Average application reliability was calculated as 93%. Monitoring and Generalization Data After the instruction process was completed, monitoring and generalization data were collected to determine whether the student maintained the acquired early reading skills and his level of transferring them to different conditions. Monitoring and generalization sessions were held a total of four times in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th weeks (25, 26, 27, 28) following the end of instruction. In monitoring sessions, no instruction was provided to the student, only the student's performance was evaluated using the Criterion-Referenced Reading Assessment Tool developed by the researcher. With this application, it was determined whether the student maintained the letter–sound matching, syllable reading, word reading, and short text reading skills acquired during the instruction process over time (Cooper et al., 2022; Gast & Ledford, 2014). Generalization data were collected through different words and short texts than the materials used in the instruction process and by different practitioners. In this context, generalization sessions were conducted by two different teachers who entered the student's class and the student was asked to display the reading skills he had learned with these new people. Thus, generalization was evaluated in terms of the person variable (Cooper et al., 2022; Horner et al., 2005; Kazdin, 2011). No instruction was given in generalization sessions, only probe measurements were performed. The performance displayed by the student with different practitioners and different materials aimed to show that the acquired skills were not unique to the instruction environment and could be transferred to new conditions (Gast & Ledford, 2014; Tekin-İftar & Kırcaali-İftar, 2001). In this direction, the obtained monitoring and generalization data provided important evidence that the applied sound-based individualized reading instruction program was effective in terms of permanence and generalizability. Social Validity The social validity of the instruction program applied in this research was evaluated. Social validity refers to determining whether the targeted behaviors, used instruction methods, and obtained results are meaningful, acceptable, and useful for practitioners and families (Horner et al., 2005; Kazdin, 2011). Social validity evaluation is considered important in terms of revealing the applicability and sustainability of an intervention found to be experimentally effective in educational settings (Cooper et al., 2022; Gast & Ledford, 2014). After the application process was completed, interviews were conducted with the student's classroom teacher and family, and the Social Validity Interview Form developed by the researcher was applied. The form included closed-ended questions regarding the appropriateness of the application, the applicability of the instruction process, the significance of the changes in the student's letter-sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and short text reading skills, and the reflections of these skills on daily life. Participants were asked to respond to the questions with one of the options “Yes”, “Undecided”, or “No”. Data Analysis The data obtained in this research were evaluated with visual analysis and effect size calculations, which are widely used in single-subject research. Data analysis in single-subject research is based on the interpretation of the functional relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable through graphs (Horner et al., 2005; Gast & Ledford, 2014; Kratochwill et al., 2013). During the visual analysis process, data were presented in the form of line graphs and examined based on the criteria of level, trend, stability, and immediacy of effect (Kazdin, 2011; Gast & Ledford, 2014). In addition, since a multiple baseline design across skills was used, experimental control was evaluated on the basis of performance increase appearing only in the skills where the intervention was started (Horner et al., 2005). To support visual analysis, data were also analyzed with PND (Percentage of Nonoverlapping Data) and Tau-U methods. PND was calculated by comparing the data points in the intervention phase with the highest data point in the baseline level (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1998; Gast & Ledford, 2014). Tau-U, on the other hand, is an effect size indicator that handles intervention effect and trend control together (Parker et al., 2011). Effect size calculations were performed through online calculators. Ethics Committee Approval and Ethical Principles This research was examined by the Gaziantep University Social and Human Sciences Ethics Committee and found ethically appropriate. Before starting the research, written informed consent was obtained from the participant's parent and necessary permissions were provided from the school administration. During the research process, the identity of the participant was kept confidential, personal information was stored by coding, and the obtained data were used only for scientific purposes. The study was conducted in accordance with the ethical principles of the American Psychological Association (American Psychological Association [APA], 2020). FINDINGS In this part of the research, the effects of the applied instruction program on the student's targeted academic skills were examined. Findings were evaluated based on visual analysis and effect size indicators widely used in single-subject research. During the visual analysis process, data were interpreted in terms of the criteria of level, trend, stability, and immediacy of the intervention effect (Horner et al., 2005; Kazdin, 2011; Gast & Ledford, 2014). In addition, Tau-U effect size coefficients were calculated to quantitatively support the effectiveness of the intervention and the change between the baseline and intervention phases was compared (Parker et al., 2011). Data regarding monitoring and generalization sessions were handled separately to reveal the preservation of acquired skills and their transferability to different conditions. The performance levels of the student regarding letter-sound matching, syllable reading, word reading, and text reading skills were presented graphically according to the multiple baseline design. In Figure 1, there are the percentages of correct responses obtained in baseline, intervention, monitoring, and generalization sessions for each skill area. Below, in Figure 1, the student's performance levels regarding letter-sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and short text reading skills are presented. In Figure 1, the percentages of correct responses regarding the student's letter–sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and short text reading skills are presented according to the multiple baseline design. The graph illustrates the performance changes across the baseline (A), intervention phases (B1–B4), maintenance, and generalization stages. Intervention for each skill was initiated at different times, and a significant increase was observed only in the skill to which the intervention was applied. In the baseline (A1) phase , the student's performance across all skill areas was found to be low and stable. The percentages of correct responses in letter–sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and short text reading skills ranged between 0% and 10%, and no significant increase was observed. In the B1 phase , with the initiation of the intervention targeting the letter–sound matching skill, a rapid and steady increase occurred in this skill; the percentage of correct responses reached the 100% level in a short time and was maintained stably. During this process, no significant change was observed in the other skills. In the B2 phase , upon applying the intervention to the syllable recognition skill, the percentages of correct responses in this skill increased rapidly and reached the 100% level. It was determined that the high performance in the letter–sound matching skill was maintained, while no significant change was yet seen in the word reading and short text reading skills. In the B3 phase , with the start of the intervention for the word reading skill, a distinct performance increase was observed in this skill, reaching 100% accuracy in a short period. It is observed that the high performance acquired in the previous skills was also maintained during this phase. In the B4 phase , with the application of the intervention for the short text reading skill, it was determined that the student’s percentage of correct responses in this skill increased rapidly and reached the 100% level. In this phase, performance across all skill areas was observed to be high and stable. Maintenance (follow-up) data were collected in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th weeks (weeks 25, 26, 27, and 28) following the completion of the intervention. In the maintenance sessions, it was determined that the student largely preserved the gains achieved in all skills, with the percentages of correct responses ranging between 85% and 95%. These findings support the permanence of the instruction. Generalization data were evaluated simultaneously by two different teachers, and it was observed that the student displayed the skills at a 90–95% accuracy level. This situation indicates that the acquired skills could be generalized to different teachers and environments. When the graph is examined as a whole, it is seen that the performance increase in each skill occurred only after the intervention for the relevant skill was initiated, whereas performance remained low and stable during the pre-intervention phases. These findings demonstrate that the multiple baseline design met the experimental control criteria and that the applied intervention was effective, permanent, and generalizable (Cooper et al., 2022; Horner et al., 2005; Kazdin, 2011). In order to numerically summarize the graphical analysis results and to reveal the change in the student's performance more clearly at a descriptive level, the performance values for the baseline, intervention, maintenance, and generalization sessions have been organized into a table. Accordingly, the student's average baseline level for each reading sub-skill, the highest performance reached, the final intervention session score, and the average correct response percentages in the maintenance and generalization sessions are presented in Table 1. Table 1 Baseline, Intervention, Maintenance, and Generalization Performances of the Participant Regarding Reading Sub-skills Skill Baseline (Mean %) Maximum Performance (%) Last Intervention Session (%) Maintenance (Mean %) Generalization (Mean %) Change Trend Letter–Sound Matching 0 100 100 95 94 Rapid and distinct increase Syllable Recognition 0 100 100 92 93 Gradual and steady increase Word Reading 0 100 100 90 92 Gradual progress Text Reading 0 100 100 88 91 Moderate and sustainable increase When Table 1 is examined, it is observed that the performance in all reading sub-skills was low during the baseline phase, and maximum performance levels were reached with the intervention process. The findings obtained in the maintenance sessions indicate that the student largely preserved the acquired skills. Similarly, generalization data revealed that the student displayed letter–sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and text reading skills at a high level of accuracy in environments evaluated by different teachers. These results demonstrate that the applied instructional program did not only create a short-term effect but also supported the permanence of learning and its transferability to different contexts. The descriptive findings presented in Table 1 support the results of the graphical analysis. To further support the graphical analysis findings, the data were analyzed using the Tau-U effect size method. Tau-U is an effect size indicator in single-subject research that addresses both the intervention effect and trend control together (Parker et al., 2011). The analysis results showed that the Tau-U value was 1.00 for each of the letter–sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and text reading skills. These values indicate that the intervention had a very strong effect on all target skills and that the increase in performance emerged only after the intervention began. The Tau-U values are presented in Table 2. Table 2 Tau-U Effect Size Values Regarding Reading Skills Skills Phase Comparison Tau-U Value 95% Confidence Interval p Value Letter–Sound Matching Baseline vs. Intervention 1.00 [0.58, 1.00] <.001 Syllable Recognition Baseline vs. Intervention 0.98 [0.54, 0.99] <.001 Word Reading Baseline vs. Intervention 0.96 [0.52, 0.98] <.001 Short Text Reading Baseline vs. Intervention 0.92 [0.48, 0.96] <.001 The Tau-U effect size values were interpreted in accordance with the criteria suggested by Parker et al. (2011) (0.93–1.00 = very strong effect, 0.66–0.92 = moderate-to-high effect, < 0.65 = weak effect). When evaluated together with the graphical analysis findings, it was determined that the intervention process created a significant and strong effect on all of the student's targeted reading sub-skills. The performance levels obtained in the maintenance and generalization sessions support the sustainability of the gains and their transferability to different contexts. Social Validity (Social Impact) Social validity data regarding the intervention program implemented in this research were collected through the "Social Validity Interview Form" developed by the researcher. The social validity form was administered to the student's teacher and family, and the evaluation was conducted in line with the opinions obtained. The participant's teacher expressed that the student made significant progress in letter–sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and short text reading skills during the intervention process, and that this progress positively affected the student's participation in classroom reading activities. In the family interviews, it was stated that the student participated more willingly in reading activities in the home environment and required less assistance during reading. The feedback provided by the teacher and the family indicates that the applied instructional method is functional, applicable, and meaningful for the student. These findings reveal that the intervention is not only experimentally effective but also an acceptable and sustainable practice in educational settings. DISCUSSION In this research, the effectiveness of an individualized reading instruction program implemented in teaching letter–sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and short text reading skills was examined using a multiple baseline design. The findings obtained showed that the intervention process significantly increased the student's percentage of correct responses in all target skills, and the gains were largely maintained during maintenance and generalization sessions. When the graphical analysis and Tau-U effect size results are evaluated together, it can be stated that the intervention has a strong effect and meets the experimental control criteria (Horner et al., 2005 ; Parker et al., 2011 ). These findings are consistent with previous research emphasizing the effectiveness of systematic, structured, and direct instruction-based practices in teaching reading skills. It has been demonstrated in many studies that especially instructional approaches based on letter-sound relationships play a critical role in the development of early reading skills (Ehri, 2001; Snow & Matthews, 2016 ). In this study, a distinct performance increase was observed immediately after the intervention was initiated in the student's letter-sound matching skill, and it was seen that this increase was later generalized to the syllable, word, and text levels. This situation confirms the hierarchical structure of reading skills and the supportive role of sub-skills for higher-level skills (Ehri, 2001; Stanovich, 1986 ). The research findings also show parallelism with national studies indicating that individualized instruction programs are effective in teaching early reading skills to students with special needs. For example, Güldenoğlu et al. ( 2016 ) and Lemons et al. ( 2018 ) showed that structured and direct instruction-based reading interventions provided significant improvements in word reading and reading comprehension skills of students with intellectual disabilities. Similarly, Terzioğlu and Yıkmış ( 2025 ) stated in their intervention studies based on the multiple baseline design that performance increases were observed only in the skills where the intervention was applied, which supports experimental control. In this research, the fact that the performance increase in each skill emerged only after the intervention was initiated strengthens the internal validity of the findings. Maintenance and generalization data indicate that the instruction program produced not only short-term but also permanent and functional results. The student's maintenance of a high level of accuracy in follow-up sessions can be considered an important indicator in terms of the permanence of learning. Furthermore, the fact that the student displayed skills with over 90% accuracy in generalization assessments conducted by different teachers reveals that the gains were not limited to the research environment and could be transferred to natural educational settings. These results are consistent with the literature emphasizing that the intervention meets the criteria for generalizability and sustainability (Cooper et al., 2022 ; Ledford & Gast, 2018; Kazdin, 2011 ). Another important finding of the research is the positive nature of the social validity data. Teacher and family opinions showed that the applied instruction program increased the student's classroom participation, supported reading behaviors in the home environment, and increased the student's motivation. The social validity findings obtained reveal that the intervention was not only statistically effective but also found acceptable and functionally meaningful by practitioners and families. This finding overlaps with current approaches emphasizing that social validity is a fundamental criterion in the evaluation of educational interventions (Huntington et al., 2022 ; Snodgrass et al., 2018 ). The findings of this study show that applications based on the multiple baseline design offer an effective research method in teaching early reading skills. Providing experimental control through the staggered initiation of the intervention across skills allowed the effect of the intervention to be demonstrated independently of external variables. This situation overlaps with current methodological approaches showing that single-subject research has the potential to produce strong evidence in the field of special education (Gast & Ledford, 2014 ; Kratochwill et al., 2013 ). In conclusion, it can be stated that the individualized reading instruction program applied in this research produced effective, permanent, and generalizable results in the acquisition of letter–sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and short text reading skills. The findings reveal that practices based on the systematic teaching of early reading skills support the academic development of students with special needs. In future research, it is recommended to examine the effectiveness of similar instruction programs by applying them to different age groups, different types of disabilities, and in group instruction settings. Additionally, increasing long-term maintenance data and integrating it with technology-supported instruction practices will provide significant contributions to the literature (Cooper et al., 2022 ; Gast & Ledford, 2014 ; Snow & Matthews, 2016 ). RESULTS In this research, the effect of an individualized reading instruction program on the letter–sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and short text reading skills of a student with mild intellectual disability was examined. The findings indicate that the instruction process provided a significant performance increase in all target skills, and the gains were largely maintained during maintenance and generalization sessions. Graphical analysis and Tau-U effect size results revealed that the observed improvement was directly related to the intervention process. These findings are consistent with current research demonstrating that early reading skills can be developed through explicit, systematic, and individualized instruction (Wanzek et al., 2018 ; Snow & Matthews, 2016 ). In particular, it is stated that structured reading instruction significantly increases word decoding and basic reading performance in students with learning disabilities and intellectual disabilities (Dessemontet et al., 2021 ). Studies conducted in Turkey in recent years show that individualized instruction programs and the direct instruction approach increase the learning speed and permanence of students in the acquisition of early reading skills (Güldenoğlu et al., 2016 ; Lemons et al., 2018 ). These findings emphasize the importance of planned and structured instructional practices for students with special needs. In this respect, the study presents findings parallel to both national and international literature and provides an empirical contribution to practices regarding early reading instruction. LIMITATIONS The first limitation of this research is that the study was conducted with only one participant using a single-subject research design. Although single-subject designs reveal the intervention effect in detail, the generalizability of the findings to larger groups of students is limited. Secondly, maintenance and generalization data were collected within a limited time frame. This situation makes it difficult to draw stronger conclusions regarding the long-term permanence of the acquired reading skills. It is believed that long-term follow-up studies would provide more reliable evidence regarding the sustainability of the intervention. Another limitation of the research is that it focused only on basic reading sub-skills. Higher-level reading skills such as reading fluency and reading comprehension were not included in the scope of the assessment. However, current studies suggest that addressing reading instruction multidimensionally would create stronger effects on learning outcomes. RECOMMENDATIONS In future research, it is recommended to examine individualized reading instruction programs with a larger number of participants and by using different research designs. Group experimental studies and single-subject designs with multiple participants are thought to increase the generalizability of the findings. In addition, extending the maintenance period and collecting generalization data across different teachers and various classroom settings may provide stronger evidence regarding the permanence of the learned skills. Finally, in terms of practice, it is recommended to develop in-service training programs for teachers on the use of evidence-based practices in early reading instruction. Increasing teacher competency will support the sustainable implementation of intervention programs in classroom environments. Declarations Author Contribution M.K. conceptualized the study, designed the methodology, collected and analyzed the data, and wrote the manuscript. The author reviewed and approved the final manuscript. Data Availability The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. References Afacan, K. (2020). Zihinsel engelli öğrencilere yönelik okuduğunu anlama müdahaleleri: Sistematik bir literatür taraması. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 21 (4), 819–846. https://doi.org/10.21565/ozelegitimdergisi.557692 Ahadianingsih, M. N. (2021). The use of straw string media to improve pre-writing skills for children with intellectual disability. JASSI ANAKKU, 21 (2), 121–130. https://doi.org/10.17509/jassi.v21i2.39513 Akbey, G. Ö. (2016). Down sendromlu bireylerin akıcı okuma ve okuduğunu anlama ile fonolojik farkındalık düzeyleri arasındaki ilişki (Yüksek lisans tezi, Anadolu Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü) Yükseköğretim Kurulu Ulusal Tez Merkezi. (Tez No: 438253) Altınkaynak, Ş.Ö. (2019). 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G., Halle, J., McGee, G., Odom, S., & Wolery, M. (2005). The use of single-subject research to identify evidence-based practice in special education. Exceptional Children, 71 (2), 165–179. Huntington, R. N., Badgett, N. M., Rosenberg, N. E., Greeny, K., Bravo, A., Bristol, R. M., Byun, Y. H., & Park, M. S. (2022). Social validity in behavioral research: A selective review. Perspectives on Behavior Science, 46 (1), 201–215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40614-022-00364-9 Johnson, A. (2021). Reading instruction for students with intellectual disabilities. Journal for the Child Development, Exceptionality and Education, 2 (1), 1-9. Laçın, E., & Güldenoğlu, B. (2021). Sınıflarında Özel Gereksinimli Çocuk Olan Okulöncesi Öğretmenlerinin Erken Okuryazarlık Bilgi Düzeylerinin İncelenmesi. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 55 : 100-128. Doi:10.9779.pauefd.975676 Lemons, C. J., King, S. A., Davidson, K. A., Puranik, C. S., Al Otaiba, S., & Fidler, D. J. (2018). Personalized reading intervention for children with Down syndrome. Journal of School Psychology, 66 , 67–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2017.07.006 Kazdin, A. E. (2011). Single-case research designs: Methods for clinical and applied settings (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. Kratochwill, T. R., Hitchcock, J. H., Horner, R. H., Levin, J. R., Odom, S. L., Rindskopf, D. M., & Shadish, W. R. (2013). Single-case intervention research design standards. Remedial and Special Education, 34 (1), 26–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932512452794 OECD. (2023). PISA 2022 results (Volume I): The state of learning and equity in education . OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/53f23881-en Parker, R. I., Vannest, K. J., & Davis, J. L. (2011). Effect size in single-case research: A review of nine nonoverlap techniques. Behavior Modification, 35 (4), 303–322. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445511399147 Schalock, R. L., Luckasson, R., & Tassé, M. J. (2021). Intellectual disability: Definition, diagnosis, classification, and systems of supports (12th ed.). American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities. Scruggs, T. E., & Mastropieri, M. A. (1998). Summarizing single-subject research: Issues and applications. Behavior Modification, 22 (3), 221–242. https://doi.org/10.1177/01454455980223001 Snodgrass, M. R., Chung, M. Y., Meadan, H., & Halle, J. W. (2018). Social validity in single-case research: A systematic literature review of prevalence and application. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 74 , 160–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2018.01.007 Snow, C.E., & Matthews, T.J. (2016). Reading and Language in the Early Grades. The Future of Children 26 (2), 57-74. https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/foc.2016.0012. Stanovich, K. E. (1986). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 21 (4), 360–407. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.21.4.1 Şengül, H. (2008). Özel eğitim öğretmenlerinin zihin engelli çocuklara okuma-yazma öğretiminde kullandıkları yöntemlerin belirlenmesi (Yüksek lisans tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü). Yükseköğretim Kurulu Ulusal Tez Merkezi. (Tez No: 231852) Şengül-Erdem, H., & Akçin, N. (2020). Zihinsel yetersizliği olan öğrencilere okuma yazma öğretme konusunda özel eğitim öğretmenlerinin görüşleri . Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi, 42 (2), 1–26. Tekin-İftar, E., Tosun, D. G., & Özen, A. (2023). Özel eğitim öğretmenlerinin bilimseldayanaklı uygulamalara ilişkin bilgileri, deneyimleri ve mesleki gelişim gereksinimleri. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Buca Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, (58) , 3209- 3235. https://doi.org/10.53444/deubefd.1368139 Tekin-İftar, E., & Kırcaali-İftar, G. (2001). Özel eğitimde yanlışsız öğretim yöntemleri (5. baskı). Vize Yayıncılık. Tekin-İftar, E. (2018). Eğitim ve Davranış Bilimlerinde Tek Denekli Araştırmalar. In E. Tekin-İftar (Ed.), Tek-Denekli Araştırmalar ve Temel Kavramlar (pp. 15–39). Anı Yayıncılık. Terzioğlu, N. K., & Yıkmış, A. (2025). Using the virtual–representational–abstract instructional sequence to teach multiplication and division to students with intellectual disabilities. JASS Studies – The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies, 18 (105), 109–128. Yazıcıoğlu, T., & Kumaş Altındağ, Ö. (2024). Zihinsel yetersizliği olan öğrencilere okuma yazma öğretiminde kullanılan yaklaşımlar. Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli Üniversitesi SBE Dergisi, 14 (1), 153–168. https://doi.org/10.30783/nevsosbilen.1412994 Wadihah, H., & Fauzi, A. (2021). Using image media on reading text to improve reading comprehension of students with intellectual disabilities. JASSI ANAKKU, 21 (1), 51–56. https://doi.org/10.17509/jassi.v21i1.39525 Wanzek, J., Stevens, E. A., Williams, K. J., Scammacca, N., Vaughn, S., & Sargent, K. (2018). Current evidence on the effects of intensive early reading interventions . Journal of Learning Disabilities, 51 (6), 612–624. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219418775110 Finally, the collection of social validity data based solely on teacher and family opinions caused the data to remain limited to subjective evaluations. Adding data based on the student's own views and independent observers could have provided a more holistic evaluation of social validity. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files SupplementaryMaterial.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8845136","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":589584124,"identity":"52e10845-eb30-482d-83a3-bef60fc2ccd3","order_by":0,"name":"MEHMET KAYA","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA+ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFACxgcHPhjYyLExMx98AOTy8BHWwmx4cEZFmjE/O1uyAUgLGxFajA/znDmUOLOfx0wCxCeoRbe9meHgzLYDjBsOM5hVfs2xk2FjYH746AYeLWZnDjMc+Nh2h9ngMEPabdltyUCHsRkb5+DTciP/ANCWZ2xALcduS25jBmrhYZPGq+X+Y4bDvG2HeQwOM7YVS26rJ0LLDWYGoPcPS0g2M7Mxftx2mAgtZ5IZQIFswM/MxizNuO04DxszIb8cP8z8ARiV9W385z9+/Lmt2p6fvfnhY3xaUAAzD5gkVjkIMP4gRfUoGAWjYBSMGAAAnMhNI8qKK9cAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Ministry of National Education","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"MEHMET","middleName":"","lastName":"KAYA","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-02-10 20:39:08","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8845136/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8845136/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":102993310,"identity":"452d3b35-1abd-495e-a379-91da8ccb1d51","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-19 11:47:10","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":99969,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMultiple baseline research design regarding letter-sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and short text reading\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChanges in student performance across sessions for letter–sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and short text reading within a multiple baseline design.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8845136/v1/a6435e3bbd386dabaf34e7fc.png"},{"id":104009913,"identity":"b1eab1ed-5b01-4986-959d-3ff331f5c8b2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-05 15:41:37","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1308362,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8845136/v1/fa2e168a-b6de-41cd-ac7e-c7348e46b94f.pdf"},{"id":102993311,"identity":"cd1a23ee-6d03-4dac-b935-fce8c111f16d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-19 11:47:11","extension":"docx","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":24310,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryMaterial.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8845136/v1/e4dc7fd28fc5a573e8b2810e.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eTeaching Reading Skills to a First-Grade Student with Mild Intellectual Disability: A Single-Subject Intervention Study\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eReading skill is accepted as a competency area that enables the acquisition of basic life and social skills that support not only the individual's academic performance but also independent functionality in daily life (Yazıcıoğlu \u0026amp; Altındağ Kumaş, 2024). Literacy skills play a decisive role in the individual's acquisition of academic and social competencies in a functional way. Current research shows that reading skills acquired in the early period affect not only language development but also problem-solving, critical thinking, and attitudes towards learning in a positive way. PISA 2022 evaluations conducted by the OECD show that reading proficiency is strongly related to students' success in other academic areas such as mathematics and science, and that literacy is one of the basic components of lifelong learning (OECD, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn effective and successful reading process includes the stages of correctly decoding words, making sense of the decoded words by relating them to the individual's vocabulary and experiences, then evaluating these words syntactically within the sentence and grasping the conveyed message (G\u0026uuml;ldenoğlu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Difficulties experienced in this multi-dimensional process negatively affect both the individual's academic performance and the level of independent movement in daily life. Indeed, it is seen that individuals who have problems in the processes of reading comprehension and meaning-making have difficulty in performing academic tasks and their level of independence in daily life remains limited (Akbey, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis general framework gains a more distinct importance in terms of individuals with special needs. Limitations in the cognitive and symbolic thinking skills of individuals with mild intellectual disability (MID) make it difficult to acquire phonological awareness, phoneme knowledge, fluency, word recognition, and comprehension processes, which are the basic components of reading (Şeng\u0026uuml;l, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). For this reason, gaining early reading skills for students with MID forms the basis of subsequent learning and supports functional literacy development. Basic skills such as letter\u0026ndash;sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and reading short texts are among the building blocks of fluent and meaningful reading. Systematic presentation of reading instruction at early ages plays a critical role in preventing academic difficulties that students may encounter in later education stages.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSnow and Matthews (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) state that reading instruction is not just a mechanical skill, but a complex learning area where language, memory, and cognitive processes are integrated. For this reason, it is emphasized that components such as phonological awareness, word decoding, and reading comprehension should be handled in a holistic way. Starting from this context, it is stated that effective reading instruction applied starting from the early period increases students' academic self-confidence and motivation towards learning (La\u0026ccedil;ın and G\u0026uuml;ldenoğlu, 2022). These findings reveal the necessity of early and structured reading instruction especially for students with mild intellectual disabilities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInadequacies in reading skills in the early period can lead to academic disadvantages for students throughout their education lives. The \u0026ldquo;Matthew effect\u0026rdquo; put forward by Stanovich (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e) explains that students who show early success make more progress, while students who have difficulty in reading fall further behind academically over time. In this context, current research supports the validity of the Matthew effect and reveals that early intervention programs applied especially for children at risk play a critical role in learning outcomes (Snow and Matthews, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; OECD, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, the development process of all children does not proceed in the same way. Some children live their lives with special needs depending on individual, environmental, and neurodevelopmental factors. Individuals with intellectual disabilities are also among these groups with special needs and require systematic and structured instructional support in the acquisition of academic skills due to limitations in cognitive functions (Schalock et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). These students with intellectual disabilities experience more difficulty in acquiring reading skills compared to their peers due to limitations in cognitive functions, language development, and attention processes. In these students, the development of phonological awareness, word recognition, and fluent reading skills proceeds more slowly and the need for systematic instruction arises. In the literature, it is emphasized that presenting reading instruction to these students based on explicit, structured, and intensive instruction principles is effective (Dessemontet et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Johnson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch reveals that students with intellectual disabilities can acquire academic reading skills when appropriate teaching methods are used. Johnson (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) states that reading instruction for these students should not be limited only to functional word teaching; it should also include letter-sound relationships, word decoding, and text comprehension components. In addition, individualization of instruction and its adaptation according to the learning speed of the student is seen as important in terms of the permanence of learning. Current studies conducted in Turkey similarly reveal the necessity of conducting reading instruction for students with intellectual disabilities with evidence-based and scientifically based applications. Systematic instruction, visual supports, and repetition-based applications provide meaningful improvements in the reading performance of these students. Especially studies conducted with individualized instruction programs show that students make progress in both academic and functional literacy skills (Tekin-İftar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Şeng\u0026uuml;l-Erdem and Ak\u0026ccedil;in, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Ahadianingsih, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Wadihah and Fauzi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingle-subject experimental designs are frequently used in research aimed at developing reading skills in students with intellectual disabilities. These designs offer the opportunity to examine the reactions of individual students to the intervention in detail and directly reveal the effectiveness of the instruction process. It is stated that single-subject research provides strong evidence and produces application-oriented results, especially in the field of special education (Tekin-İftar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Single-subject intervention studies conducted in recent years have shown that phonological awareness, word decoding, and reading comprehension skills can be developed through systematic instruction. Lemons and colleagues (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), in their multiple-probe single-subject study conducted with six children between the ages of 7\u0026ndash;10 with Down syndrome, reported that individualized early reading intervention showed a functional relationship with the reading outcomes of the six participants. Similarly, Bakken and colleagues (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) evaluated reading and writing interventions applied for students with intellectual development disorders through systematic review and meta-analysis; they revealed that decoding and sight-word based reading interventions formed a large effect size on reading performance, whereas experimental evidence regarding writing skills was extremely limited.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, it is seen that a large part of the studies in the literature were conducted with foreign samples and single-subject reading intervention studies conducted at the first-grade level in Turkey are limited. Current systematic review research emphasizes the need to increase sample diversity and further research the effectiveness of reading interventions applied at the early grade level (Bakken et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Lemons et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). This requirement also overlaps with the basic principles of the Turkey Century Education Model (TYMM), which came into force in Turkey. TYMM is based on making early literacy skills accessible to all students, and structuring instruction with evidence-based applications that take individual differences into account (Ministry of National Education [MEB], 2024). In the model, it is emphasized that instructional arrangements adapted to the learning processes of students with special needs should be planned at the early grade level; in this respect, individualized reading instruction interventions are directly related to the inclusive education approach envisaged by TYMM.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe aim of this research is to examine the effect of an individualized reading instruction program planned for a first-grade student with mild intellectual disability on the student's early reading skills. In this context, changes occurring in letter\u0026ndash;sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and short text reading skills were evaluated using a multiple baseline design across skills, which is one of the single-subject research methods. With the research, it is aimed to reveal to what extent systematic and individualized reading instruction presented in the early period improves the reading performance of a student with mild intellectual disability and to provide scientific evidence for special education applications. In this respect, the study aims to contribute to the literature and provide guiding findings to practitioners due to the limited number of single-subject reading intervention studies conducted for students with mild intellectual disabilities at the first-grade level in Turkey. In this direction, answers to the following research questions were sought:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eIs the individualized reading instruction program effective on the \u003cb\u003eletter\u0026ndash;sound matching skill\u003c/b\u003e of the first-grade student with mild intellectual disability?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eIs the individualized reading instruction program effective on the student's \u003cb\u003esyllable recognition skill\u003c/b\u003e?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eIs the individualized reading instruction program effective on the student's \u003cb\u003eword reading skill\u003c/b\u003e?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eIs the individualized reading instruction program effective on the student's \u003cb\u003eshort text reading skill\u003c/b\u003e?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eDo the changes observed in the student's reading skills during the intervention process demonstrate a \u003cb\u003efunctional relationship between the baseline and intervention phases\u003c/b\u003e?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHOD","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethod\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eResearch Design\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this research, in order to examine the effect of sound-based reading instruction on the early reading skills of a student with mild intellectual disability, a multiple-probe design across skills (multiple baseline design), which is one of the single-subject research designs, was used. Single-subject research designs are among the experimental approaches that provide strong evidence in determining the effectiveness of individual teaching interventions (Büyüköztürk et al., 2018; Horner et al., 2005; Kratochwill et al., 2013; Gast \u0026amp; Ledford, 2014). In this design, instruction for each reading sub-skill (letter–sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and short text reading) was started at different times, thus controlling the effect of the independent variable. Baseline data were collected until stability was shown, then the instruction process was started. Thus, the functional relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable was revealed (Kazdin, 2011).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIndependent and Dependent Variables\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe independent variable in this research is an individualized reading instruction program structured based on sound-based and direct instruction principles. This program was prepared and systematically applied in line with the principles of explicit instruction, task analysis, scaffolding, and progressive phoneme blending (Browder et al., 2013; Carnine et al., 2017; Ehri, 2001). The dependent variable of the research is the percentage of correct responses in the participant's letter–sound matching, syllable reading, word reading, and short text reading skills. The participant's performance was determined in each session using the Criterion-Referenced Reading Assessment Tool developed by the researcher.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParticipant\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe participant of the research is a student studying at the first-grade level who has been diagnosed with mild intellectual disability. The participant was selected by purposeful sampling method and the following criteria were taken into account: (a) experiencing significant difficulty in early reading skills, (b) having prerequisite skills to follow instructions and participate in instruction, (c) his family's written consent for participation in the research. Before the research started, a parent informed consent form was obtained and necessary permissions were provided from the school administration. The identity of the participant was kept confidential and the process was conducted in accordance with ethical principles (American Psychological Association [APA], 2020).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSetting\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe research was conducted in an individual education room located in the school where the participant was studying. Instruction sessions were held in a one-on-one instruction format and the environment was cleared of distracting stimuli. Sessions were planned to be four hours a week and continued for a total of six months.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Collection Tool\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the research, the \u003cstrong\u003eCriterion-Referenced Reading Assessment Tool (Appendix-1)\u003c/strong\u003e developed by the researcher was used to evaluate the student's early reading skills. The assessment tool consists of four sub-dimensions:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eletter–sound matching,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003esyllable reading,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eword reading, and\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eshort text reading.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the development process of the assessment tool, the primary school Turkish curriculum outcomes were examined and the literature on early reading skills was taken as a basis (Browder et al., 2013; Ehri, 2001; Snow \u0026amp; Matthews, 2016). The assessment tool was structured in accordance with the criterion-referenced evaluation approach (Tekin-İftar, 2018; Gast \u0026amp; Ledford, 2014). In order to ensure the content validity of the assessment tool, opinions were obtained from two special education experts and one measurement-evaluation expert. In line with the suggestions of the experts, the items were rearranged and the tool was given its final shape (DeVellis, 2017; Tekin-İftar \u0026amp; Kırcaali-İftar, 2001). The success criterion of the student was determined as 80% and above correct response (Cooper et al., 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eApplication Process\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;In this research, a sound-based and systematic instruction program based on the principles of direct instruction, instruction with cues, modeling, repetition, and reinforcement was applied to develop the early reading skills of a first-grade student with mild intellectual disability. The instruction process was structured in line with the principles of explicit instruction, task analysis, scaffolding, and progressive phoneme blending (Browder et al., 2013; Carnine et al., 2017; Ehri, 2001). The application process lasted for a total of 6 months and was planned as four sessions per week. Thus, the instruction program was carried out with a total of 96 individual instruction sessions. All sessions were conducted in a one-on-one instruction format and each session lasted approximately 30–40 minutes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe instruction program was structured according to the principle of step-by-step progress, taking into account the student's readiness level. The following stages were followed in instruction, respectively:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col start=\"1\" type=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTeaching vowels (letter–sound matching)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTeaching consonants according to sound groups\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSyllable teaching\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWord teaching\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eShort text reading studies\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the first stage, the focus was on teaching vowels in order to support the student's phonological awareness. This stage was continued for a total of 12 sessions. In vowel teaching, each sound was modeled by the teacher, the student was asked to repeat the sound, and letter–sound matching studies were conducted. Visual cues, verbal guidance, and reinforcement strategies were used in the instruction process (Snow et al., 2016; Lemons et al., 2018). After teaching the vowels, teaching consonants was started based on the sound grouping order suggested in the Ministry of National Education Turkish curriculum (Ministry of National Education [MEB], 2024). Each sound group was handled separately within itself; first, the student was made to notice the sound, then writing the sound and letter–sound matching studies were conducted. After the student reached the level of correctly recognizing and producing the letters in the relevant sound group, the next stage was started.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFollowing consonant instruction, syllable instruction was started. In syllable instruction, the progressive phoneme blending method was used. In this method, syllables were divided into small units and formed step by step (Ehri, 2001). For example, in teaching the word “tane”, it was structured as “ta” first, then “tan”, and finally “tane”. In cases where the student had difficulty, the instruction process was divided into smaller steps based on the task analysis approach (Browder et al., 2013). It was determined that the student made faster progress in teaching closed syllables (e.g., “tan”, “tel”), whereas he needed more repetition and cues in the process of forming open syllables. In this direction, the instruction process was individualized and the instruction tempo was adjusted according to the student's learning speed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter syllable instruction, word teaching and finally short text reading studies were started. Modeling, guided practice, and independent practice steps were followed in the word and text teaching process; correct responses were supported with verbal reinforcers, and immediate corrective feedback was given for wrong responses (Tekin-İftar \u0026amp; Kırcaali-İftar, 2001; Carnine et al., 2017). Thanks to this structured, systematic, and individualized instruction program, it was aimed to provide permanent and functional development in the student's early reading skills. The program was prepared in line with evidence-based practices and shows consistency with the literature on effective reading instruction approaches for students with mild intellectual disabilities (Browder et al., 2013; Lemons et al., 2018).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInstructional Materials and Strategies\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLetter cards (5×5 cm), syllable box, word box, visual-supported worksheets, and short reading texts were used in the instruction process. Studies conducted with letter cards are compatible with multi-sensory instruction and explicit instruction principles (Snow et al., 1998; Browder et al., 2021). Syllable and word box applications were structured based on repetition-based instruction and incidental teaching principles (Afacan, 2020; Lemons et al., 2018). The student's success criterion was determined as 80–85% correct response and when the criterion was met, the next instruction step was started (Gast \u0026amp; Ledford, 2014). Direct instruction method was used; modeling, guided practice, independent practice, and corrective feedback steps were followed (Carnine et al., 2017; Schalock et al., 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eValidity and Reliability\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eInternal Validity of the Research\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this study, internal validity measures specific to single-subject research methods were taken in order to reveal the functional relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable reliably. In order to control the variables that threaten internal validity in single-subject research, baseline data must be stable, the intervention must be applied systematically, and data must be monitored continuously (Büyüköztürk et al., 2024; Gast \u0026amp; Ledford, 2014; Horner et al., 2005). In this research, baseline data for each skill area (sound recognition, syllable reading, word reading, and sentence reading) were collected until stability was shown, then the instruction process was started. The effect of the independent variable was controlled by applying the intervention in only one skill area and collecting probe data in other areas. This application is based on the simultaneous comparison principle, which is the basic logic of the multiple-probe design (Kazdin, 2011). Collection of application reliability and inter-observer reliability data during the research process is also among the elements supporting internal validity. Whether the application was carried out as planned was monitored through checklists, and the objectivity of the data was verified by a second observer (Kratochwill et al., 2013). In line with these measures, it can be said that strong evidence was provided that the findings obtained resulted from the applied instruction intervention.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eValidity of the Assessment Tool\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Criterion-Referenced Reading Assessment Tool used in the research was developed by the researcher. The assessment tool was structured to cover sound recognition, syllable reading, word reading, and sentence reading skills included in the primary school first-grade Turkish curriculum. Clear criteria were determined for each skill level based on the criterion-referenced evaluation approach (Tekin-İftar, 2018; Cooper et al., 2022). Expert opinion was sought to ensure the content validity of the assessment tool. Experts in their fields (two special education experts and one measurement-evaluation expert) evaluated the assessment tool in terms of: (a) level of representing targeted skills, (b) item appropriateness, (c) clarity of language and expression, (d) compatibility with the instruction process. In line with the feedback received from the experts, some items were rearranged, unnecessary repetitions were removed, and the assessment tool was finalized. Content validity based on expert opinion is recommended as a fundamental method in determining whether assessment tools represent the target behavior, especially in single-subject research (DeVellis, 2017; Tekin-İftar \u0026amp; Kırcaali-İftar, 2001). Success criteria in the assessment tool (for example, 80% and above correct response) were determined in accordance with the criterion-referenced evaluation approach and used as the criterion for deciding that the student had acquired the skill. In the literature, it is stated that success criteria in the range of 80%–100% in teaching academic skills are sufficient to show that learning has taken place (Cooper et al., 2022; Gast \u0026amp; Ledford, 2014). In this direction, it was accepted that the developed assessment tool represented the targeted reading skills and was a valid assessment tool that would serve the purposes of the research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInter-observer Reliability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInter-observer reliability was calculated by collecting data independently by a second observer in at least 30% of the sessions. Reliability was determined using the following formula: \u003cstrong\u003eAgreement / (Agreement + Disagreement) × 100\u003c/strong\u003e Average inter-observer reliability was found to be 93% (Horner et al., 2005).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eApplication Reliability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eApplication reliability data were collected to determine whether the application was carried out as planned. For this purpose, a checklist containing the instruction steps was used. Application reliability was calculated by dividing the number of correctly applied steps by the total number of steps and converting it into a percentage (Gast \u0026amp; Ledford, 2014; Kratochwill et al., 2013). \u003cstrong\u003eNumber of Applied Steps / Number of Planned Steps × 100\u003c/strong\u003e Average application reliability was calculated as 93%.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMonitoring and Generalization\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData After the instruction process was completed, monitoring and generalization data were collected to determine whether the student maintained the acquired early reading skills and his level of transferring them to different conditions. Monitoring and generalization sessions were held a total of four times in the \u003cstrong\u003e1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th weeks (25, 26, 27, 28)\u003c/strong\u003e following the end of instruction. In monitoring sessions, no instruction was provided to the student, only the student's performance was evaluated using the Criterion-Referenced Reading Assessment Tool developed by the researcher. With this application, it was determined whether the student maintained the letter–sound matching, syllable reading, word reading, and short text reading skills acquired during the instruction process over time (Cooper et al., 2022; Gast \u0026amp; Ledford, 2014).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGeneralization data were collected through different words and short texts than the materials used in the instruction process and by different practitioners. In this context, generalization sessions were conducted by \u003cstrong\u003etwo different teachers\u003c/strong\u003e who entered the student's class and the student was asked to display the reading skills he had learned with these new people. Thus, generalization was evaluated in terms of the person variable (Cooper et al., 2022; Horner et al., 2005; Kazdin, 2011). No instruction was given in generalization sessions, only probe measurements were performed. The performance displayed by the student with different practitioners and different materials aimed to show that the acquired skills were not unique to the instruction environment and could be transferred to new conditions (Gast \u0026amp; Ledford, 2014; Tekin-İftar \u0026amp; Kırcaali-İftar, 2001). In this direction, the obtained monitoring and generalization data provided important evidence that the applied sound-based individualized reading instruction program was effective in terms of permanence and generalizability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSocial Validity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe social validity of the instruction program applied in this research was evaluated. Social validity refers to determining whether the targeted behaviors, used instruction methods, and obtained results are meaningful, acceptable, and useful for practitioners and families (Horner et al., 2005; Kazdin, 2011). Social validity evaluation is considered important in terms of revealing the applicability and sustainability of an intervention found to be experimentally effective in educational settings (Cooper et al., 2022; Gast \u0026amp; Ledford, 2014). After the application process was completed, interviews were conducted with the student's classroom teacher and family, and the Social Validity Interview Form developed by the researcher was applied. The form included closed-ended questions regarding the appropriateness of the application, the applicability of the instruction process, the significance of the changes in the student's letter-sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and short text reading skills, and the reflections of these skills on daily life. Participants were asked to respond to the questions with one of the options “Yes”, “Undecided”, or “No”.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data obtained in this research were evaluated with visual analysis and effect size calculations, which are widely used in single-subject research. Data analysis in single-subject research is based on the interpretation of the functional relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable through graphs (Horner et al., 2005; Gast \u0026amp; Ledford, 2014; Kratochwill et al., 2013). During the visual analysis process, data were presented in the form of line graphs and examined based on the criteria of level, trend, stability, and immediacy of effect (Kazdin, 2011; Gast \u0026amp; Ledford, 2014). In addition, since a multiple baseline design across skills was used, experimental control was evaluated on the basis of performance increase appearing only in the skills where the intervention was started (Horner et al., 2005). To support visual analysis, data were also analyzed with PND (Percentage of Nonoverlapping Data) and Tau-U methods. PND was calculated by comparing the data points in the intervention phase with the highest data point in the baseline level (Scruggs \u0026amp; Mastropieri, 1998; Gast \u0026amp; Ledford, 2014). Tau-U, on the other hand, is an effect size indicator that handles intervention effect and trend control together (Parker et al., 2011). Effect size calculations were performed through online calculators.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Committee Approval and Ethical Principles\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was examined by the Gaziantep University Social and Human Sciences Ethics Committee and found ethically appropriate. Before starting the research, written informed consent was obtained from the participant's parent and necessary permissions were provided from the school administration. During the research process, the identity of the participant was kept confidential, personal information was stored by coding, and the obtained data were used only for scientific purposes. The study was conducted in accordance with the ethical principles of the American Psychological Association (American Psychological Association [APA], 2020).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"FINDINGS","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this part of the research, the effects of the applied instruction program on the student\u0026apos;s targeted academic skills were examined. Findings were evaluated based on visual analysis and effect size indicators widely used in single-subject research. During the visual analysis process, data were interpreted in terms of the criteria of level, trend, stability, and immediacy of the intervention effect (Horner et al., 2005; Kazdin, 2011; Gast \u0026amp; Ledford, 2014). In addition, Tau-U effect size coefficients were calculated to quantitatively support the effectiveness of the intervention and the change between the baseline and intervention phases was compared (Parker et al., 2011). Data regarding monitoring and generalization sessions were handled separately to reveal the preservation of acquired skills and their transferability to different conditions. The performance levels of the student regarding letter-sound matching, syllable reading, word reading, and text reading skills were presented graphically according to the multiple baseline design. In Figure 1, there are the percentages of correct responses obtained in baseline, intervention, monitoring, and generalization sessions for each skill area. Below, in Figure 1, the student\u0026apos;s performance levels regarding letter-sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and short text reading skills are presented.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn Figure 1, the percentages of correct responses regarding the student\u0026apos;s \u003cstrong\u003eletter\u0026ndash;sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and short text reading skills\u003c/strong\u003e are presented according to the multiple baseline design. The graph illustrates the performance changes across the baseline (A), intervention phases (B1\u0026ndash;B4), maintenance, and generalization stages. Intervention for each skill was initiated at different times, and a significant increase was observed only in the skill to which the intervention was applied.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the \u003cstrong\u003ebaseline (A1) phase\u003c/strong\u003e, the student\u0026apos;s performance across all skill areas was found to be low and stable. The percentages of correct responses in letter\u0026ndash;sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and short text reading skills ranged between 0% and 10%, and no significant increase was observed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the \u003cstrong\u003eB1 phase\u003c/strong\u003e, with the initiation of the intervention targeting the letter\u0026ndash;sound matching skill, a rapid and steady increase occurred in this skill; the percentage of correct responses reached the 100% level in a short time and was maintained stably. During this process, no significant change was observed in the other skills.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the \u003cstrong\u003eB2 phase\u003c/strong\u003e, upon applying the intervention to the syllable recognition skill, the percentages of correct responses in this skill increased rapidly and reached the 100% level. It was determined that the high performance in the letter\u0026ndash;sound matching skill was maintained, while no significant change was yet seen in the word reading and short text reading skills.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the \u003cstrong\u003eB3 phase\u003c/strong\u003e, with the start of the intervention for the word reading skill, a distinct performance increase was observed in this skill, reaching 100% accuracy in a short period. It is observed that the high performance acquired in the previous skills was also maintained during this phase.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the \u003cstrong\u003eB4 phase\u003c/strong\u003e, with the application of the intervention for the short text reading skill, it was determined that the student\u0026rsquo;s percentage of correct responses in this skill increased rapidly and reached the 100% level. In this phase, performance across all skill areas was observed to be high and stable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMaintenance (follow-up) data\u003c/strong\u003e were collected in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th weeks (weeks 25, 26, 27, and 28) following the completion of the intervention. In the maintenance sessions, it was determined that the student largely preserved the gains achieved in all skills, with the percentages of correct responses ranging between 85% and 95%. These findings support the permanence of the instruction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGeneralization data\u003c/strong\u003e were evaluated simultaneously by two different teachers, and it was observed that the student displayed the skills at a 90\u0026ndash;95% accuracy level. This situation indicates that the acquired skills could be generalized to different teachers and environments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen the graph is examined as a whole, it is seen that the performance increase in each skill occurred only after the intervention for the relevant skill was initiated, whereas performance remained low and stable during the pre-intervention phases. These findings demonstrate that the multiple baseline design met the experimental control criteria and that the applied intervention was effective, permanent, and generalizable (Cooper et al., 2022; Horner et al., 2005; Kazdin, 2011).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn order to numerically summarize the graphical analysis results and to reveal the change in the student\u0026apos;s performance more clearly at a descriptive level, the performance values for the baseline, intervention, maintenance, and generalization sessions have been organized into a table. Accordingly, the student\u0026apos;s average baseline level for each reading sub-skill, the highest performance reached, the final intervention session score, and the average correct response percentages in the maintenance and generalization sessions are presented in Table 1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eBaseline, Intervention, Maintenance, and Generalization Performances of the Participant Regarding Reading Sub-skills\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSkill\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBaseline (Mean %)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMaximum Performance (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLast Intervention Session (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMaintenance (Mean %)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGeneralization (Mean %)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChange Trend\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLetter\u0026ndash;Sound Matching\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRapid and distinct increase\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSyllable Recognition\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGradual and steady increase\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWord Reading\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGradual progress\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eText Reading\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModerate and sustainable increase\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen \u003cstrong\u003eTable 1\u003c/strong\u003e is examined, it is observed that the performance in all reading sub-skills was low during the baseline phase, and maximum performance levels were reached with the intervention process. The findings obtained in the maintenance sessions indicate that the student largely preserved the acquired skills. Similarly, generalization data revealed that the student displayed letter\u0026ndash;sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and text reading skills at a high level of accuracy in environments evaluated by different teachers. These results demonstrate that the applied instructional program did not only create a short-term effect but also supported the permanence of learning and its transferability to different contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe descriptive findings presented in Table 1 support the results of the graphical analysis. To further support the graphical analysis findings, the data were analyzed using the \u003cstrong\u003eTau-U effect size\u003c/strong\u003e method. Tau-U is an effect size indicator in single-subject research that addresses both the intervention effect and trend control together (Parker et al., 2011).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe analysis results showed that the Tau-U value was 1.00 for each of the letter\u0026ndash;sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and text reading skills. These values indicate that the intervention had a very strong effect on all target skills and that the increase in performance emerged only after the intervention began. The Tau-U values are presented in Table 2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eTau-U Effect Size Values Regarding Reading Skills\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSkills\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 100px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePhase Comparison\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTau-U Value\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e95% Confidence Interval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ep Value\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLetter\u0026ndash;Sound Matching\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 100px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBaseline vs. Intervention\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[0.58, 1.00]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSyllable Recognition\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 100px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBaseline vs. Intervention\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[0.54, 0.99]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWord Reading\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 100px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBaseline vs. Intervention\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[0.52, 0.98]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eShort Text Reading\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 100px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBaseline vs. Intervention\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[0.48, 0.96]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe \u003cstrong\u003eTau-U effect size values\u003c/strong\u003e were interpreted in accordance with the criteria suggested by \u003cstrong\u003eParker et al. (2011)\u003c/strong\u003e (0.93\u0026ndash;1.00 = very strong effect, 0.66\u0026ndash;0.92 = moderate-to-high effect, \u0026lt; 0.65 = weak effect). When evaluated together with the graphical analysis findings, it was determined that the intervention process created a significant and strong effect on all of the student\u0026apos;s targeted reading sub-skills. The performance levels obtained in the maintenance and generalization sessions support the sustainability of the gains and their transferability to different contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSocial Validity (Social Impact)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSocial validity data regarding the intervention program implemented in this research were collected through the \u003cstrong\u003e\u0026quot;Social Validity Interview Form\u0026quot;\u003c/strong\u003e developed by the researcher. The social validity form was administered to the student\u0026apos;s teacher and family, and the evaluation was conducted in line with the opinions obtained.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe participant\u0026apos;s teacher expressed that the student made significant progress in letter\u0026ndash;sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and short text reading skills during the intervention process, and that this progress positively affected the student\u0026apos;s participation in classroom reading activities. In the family interviews, it was stated that the student participated more willingly in reading activities in the home environment and required less assistance during reading.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe feedback provided by the teacher and the family indicates that the applied instructional method is functional, applicable, and meaningful for the student. These findings reveal that the intervention is not only experimentally effective but also an acceptable and sustainable practice in educational settings.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this research, the effectiveness of an individualized reading instruction program implemented in teaching letter\u0026ndash;sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and short text reading skills was examined using a multiple baseline design. The findings obtained showed that the intervention process significantly increased the student's percentage of correct responses in all target skills, and the gains were largely maintained during maintenance and generalization sessions. When the graphical analysis and Tau-U effect size results are evaluated together, it can be stated that the intervention has a strong effect and meets the experimental control criteria (Horner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Parker et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings are consistent with previous research emphasizing the effectiveness of systematic, structured, and direct instruction-based practices in teaching reading skills. It has been demonstrated in many studies that especially instructional approaches based on letter-sound relationships play a critical role in the development of early reading skills (Ehri, 2001; Snow \u0026amp; Matthews, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). In this study, a distinct performance increase was observed immediately after the intervention was initiated in the student's letter-sound matching skill, and it was seen that this increase was later generalized to the syllable, word, and text levels. This situation confirms the hierarchical structure of reading skills and the supportive role of sub-skills for higher-level skills (Ehri, 2001; Stanovich, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe research findings also show parallelism with national studies indicating that individualized instruction programs are effective in teaching early reading skills to students with special needs. For example, G\u0026uuml;ldenoğlu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) and Lemons et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) showed that structured and direct instruction-based reading interventions provided significant improvements in word reading and reading comprehension skills of students with intellectual disabilities. Similarly, Terzioğlu and Yıkmış (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) stated in their intervention studies based on the multiple baseline design that performance increases were observed only in the skills where the intervention was applied, which supports experimental control. In this research, the fact that the performance increase in each skill emerged only after the intervention was initiated strengthens the internal validity of the findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaintenance and generalization data indicate that the instruction program produced not only short-term but also permanent and functional results. The student's maintenance of a high level of accuracy in follow-up sessions can be considered an important indicator in terms of the permanence of learning. Furthermore, the fact that the student displayed skills with over 90% accuracy in generalization assessments conducted by different teachers reveals that the gains were not limited to the research environment and could be transferred to natural educational settings. These results are consistent with the literature emphasizing that the intervention meets the criteria for generalizability and sustainability (Cooper et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Ledford \u0026amp; Gast, 2018; Kazdin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother important finding of the research is the positive nature of the social validity data. Teacher and family opinions showed that the applied instruction program increased the student's classroom participation, supported reading behaviors in the home environment, and increased the student's motivation. The social validity findings obtained reveal that the intervention was not only statistically effective but also found acceptable and functionally meaningful by practitioners and families. This finding overlaps with current approaches emphasizing that social validity is a fundamental criterion in the evaluation of educational interventions (Huntington et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Snodgrass et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study show that applications based on the multiple baseline design offer an effective research method in teaching early reading skills. Providing experimental control through the staggered initiation of the intervention across skills allowed the effect of the intervention to be demonstrated independently of external variables. This situation overlaps with current methodological approaches showing that single-subject research has the potential to produce strong evidence in the field of special education (Gast \u0026amp; Ledford, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Kratochwill et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, it can be stated that the individualized reading instruction program applied in this research produced effective, permanent, and generalizable results in the acquisition of letter\u0026ndash;sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and short text reading skills. The findings reveal that practices based on the systematic teaching of early reading skills support the academic development of students with special needs. In future research, it is recommended to examine the effectiveness of similar instruction programs by applying them to different age groups, different types of disabilities, and in group instruction settings. Additionally, increasing long-term maintenance data and integrating it with technology-supported instruction practices will provide significant contributions to the literature (Cooper et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Gast \u0026amp; Ledford, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Snow \u0026amp; Matthews, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this research, the effect of an individualized reading instruction program on the letter\u0026ndash;sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and short text reading skills of a student with mild intellectual disability was examined. The findings indicate that the instruction process provided a significant performance increase in all target skills, and the gains were largely maintained during maintenance and generalization sessions. Graphical analysis and Tau-U effect size results revealed that the observed improvement was directly related to the intervention process.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings are consistent with current research demonstrating that early reading skills can be developed through explicit, systematic, and individualized instruction (Wanzek et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Snow \u0026amp; Matthews, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). In particular, it is stated that structured reading instruction significantly increases word decoding and basic reading performance in students with learning disabilities and intellectual disabilities (Dessemontet et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies conducted in Turkey in recent years show that individualized instruction programs and the direct instruction approach increase the learning speed and permanence of students in the acquisition of early reading skills (G\u0026uuml;ldenoğlu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Lemons et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). These findings emphasize the importance of planned and structured instructional practices for students with special needs. In this respect, the study presents findings parallel to both national and international literature and provides an empirical contribution to practices regarding early reading instruction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLIMITATIONS\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe first limitation of this research is that the study was conducted with only one participant using a single-subject research design. Although single-subject designs reveal the intervention effect in detail, the generalizability of the findings to larger groups of students is limited.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondly, maintenance and generalization data were collected within a limited time frame. This situation makes it difficult to draw stronger conclusions regarding the long-term permanence of the acquired reading skills. It is believed that long-term follow-up studies would provide more reliable evidence regarding the sustainability of the intervention.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother limitation of the research is that it focused only on basic reading sub-skills. Higher-level reading skills such as reading fluency and reading comprehension were not included in the scope of the assessment. However, current studies suggest that addressing reading instruction multidimensionally would create stronger effects on learning outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRECOMMENDATIONS\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn future research, it is recommended to examine individualized reading instruction programs with a larger number of participants and by using different research designs. Group experimental studies and single-subject designs with multiple participants are thought to increase the generalizability of the findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, extending the maintenance period and collecting generalization data across different teachers and various classroom settings may provide stronger evidence regarding the permanence of the learned skills.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, in terms of practice, it is recommended to develop in-service training programs for teachers on the use of evidence-based practices in early reading instruction. Increasing teacher competency will support the sustainable implementation of intervention programs in classroom environments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eM.K. conceptualized the study, designed the methodology, collected and analyzed the data, and wrote the manuscript. The author reviewed and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAfacan, K. (2020). Zihinsel engelli \u0026ouml;ğrencilere y\u0026ouml;nelik okuduğunu anlama m\u0026uuml;dahaleleri: Sistematik bir literat\u0026uuml;r taraması. \u003cem\u003eAnkara \u0026Uuml;niversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fak\u0026uuml;ltesi \u0026Ouml;zel Eğitim Dergisi, 21\u003c/em\u003e(4), 819\u0026ndash;846. https://doi.org/10.21565/ozelegitimdergisi.557692\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAhadianingsih, M. N. (2021). 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Effect size in single-case research: A review of nine nonoverlap techniques. \u003cem\u003eBehavior Modification, 35\u003c/em\u003e(4), 303\u0026ndash;322. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445511399147\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSchalock, R. L., Luckasson, R., \u0026amp; Tass\u0026eacute;, M. J. (2021).\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eIntellectual disability: Definition, diagnosis, classification, and systems of supports\u003c/em\u003e (12th ed.). American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eScruggs, T. E., \u0026amp; Mastropieri, M. A. (1998). Summarizing single-subject research: Issues and applications. \u003cem\u003eBehavior Modification, 22\u003c/em\u003e(3), 221\u0026ndash;242. https://doi.org/10.1177/01454455980223001\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSnodgrass, M. R., Chung, M. Y., Meadan, H., \u0026amp; Halle, J. W. (2018). Social validity in single-case research: A systematic literature review of prevalence and application. \u003cem\u003eResearch in Developmental Disabilities, 74\u003c/em\u003e, 160\u0026ndash;173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2018.01.007\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSnow, C.E., \u0026amp; Matthews, T.J. (2016). Reading and Language in the Early Grades. \u003cem\u003eThe Future of Children 26\u003c/em\u003e(2), 57-74. https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/foc.2016.0012.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eStanovich, K. E. (1986). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eReading Research Quarterly, 21\u003c/em\u003e(4), 360\u0026ndash;407.\u003cbr\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.21.4.1\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eŞeng\u0026uuml;l, H. (2008).\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026Ouml;zel eğitim \u0026ouml;ğretmenlerinin zihin engelli \u0026ccedil;ocuklara okuma-yazma \u0026ouml;ğretiminde kullandıkları y\u0026ouml;ntemlerin belirlenmesi\u003c/em\u003e (Y\u0026uuml;ksek lisans tezi, Marmara \u0026Uuml;niversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstit\u0026uuml;s\u0026uuml;). Y\u0026uuml;ksek\u0026ouml;ğretim Kurulu Ulusal Tez Merkezi. (Tez No: 231852)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eŞeng\u0026uuml;l-Erdem, H., \u0026amp; Ak\u0026ccedil;in, N. (2020). \u003cem\u003eZihinsel yetersizliği olan \u0026ouml;ğrencilere okuma yazma \u0026ouml;ğretme konusunda \u0026ouml;zel eğitim \u0026ouml;ğretmenlerinin g\u0026ouml;r\u0026uuml;şleri\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnkara \u0026Uuml;niversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fak\u0026uuml;ltesi Dergisi, 42\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e(2), 1\u0026ndash;26.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTekin-İftar, E., Tosun, D. G., \u0026amp; \u0026Ouml;zen, A. (2023). \u0026Ouml;zel eğitim \u0026ouml;ğretmenlerinin bilimseldayanaklı uygulamalara ilişkin bilgileri, deneyimleri ve mesleki gelişim gereksinimleri. \u003cem\u003eDokuz Eyl\u0026uuml;l \u0026Uuml;niversitesi Buca Eğitim Fak\u0026uuml;ltesi Dergisi, (58)\u003c/em\u003e, 3209- 3235. https://doi.org/10.53444/deubefd.1368139\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTekin-İftar, E., \u0026amp; Kırcaali-İftar, G. (2001). \u003cem\u003e\u0026Ouml;zel eğitimde yanlışsız \u0026ouml;ğretim y\u0026ouml;ntemleri\u003c/em\u003e (5. baskı). Vize Yayıncılık.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTekin-İftar, E. (2018). Eğitim ve Davranış Bilimlerinde Tek Denekli Araştırmalar. In E. Tekin-İftar (Ed.), \u003cem\u003eTek-Denekli Araştırmalar ve Temel Kavramlar\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 15\u0026ndash;39). Anı Yayıncılık.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTerzioğlu, N. K., \u0026amp; Yıkmış, A. (2025). Using the virtual\u0026ndash;representational\u0026ndash;abstract instructional sequence to teach multiplication and division to students with intellectual disabilities. \u003cem\u003eJASS Studies \u0026ndash; The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies, 18\u003c/em\u003e(105), 109\u0026ndash;128.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eYazıcıoğlu, T., \u0026amp; Kumaş Altındağ, \u0026Ouml;. (2024).\u003c/strong\u003e Zihinsel yetersizliği olan \u0026ouml;ğrencilere okuma yazma \u0026ouml;ğretiminde kullanılan yaklaşımlar. \u003cem\u003eNevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli \u0026Uuml;niversitesi SBE Dergisi, 14\u003c/em\u003e(1), 153\u0026ndash;168. https://doi.org/10.30783/nevsosbilen.1412994\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWadihah, H., \u0026amp; Fauzi, A. (2021). Using image media on reading text to improve reading comprehension of students with intellectual disabilities. \u003cem\u003eJASSI ANAKKU, 21\u003c/em\u003e(1), 51\u0026ndash;56. https://doi.org/10.17509/jassi.v21i1.39525\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWanzek, J., Stevens, E. A., Williams, K. J., Scammacca, N., Vaughn, S., \u0026amp; Sargent, K. (2018). \u003cem\u003eCurrent evidence on the effects of intensive early reading interventions\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Learning Disabilities, 51\u003c/em\u003e(6), 612\u0026ndash;624. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219418775110\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinally, the collection of social validity data based solely on teacher and family opinions caused the data to remain limited to subjective evaluations. Adding data based on the student\u0026apos;s own views and independent observers could have provided a more holistic evaluation of social validity.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"mild intellectual disability, early reading skills, individualized instruction, single-subject research, Tau-U, social validity","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8845136/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8845136/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eReading is a fundamental skill that supports independence in daily life activities such as communication, access to information, and social participation, rather than just academic success. For students with intellectual disabilities, acquiring reading skills at an early age is of critical importance for subsequent learning and functional literacy development. Basic skills such as letter\u0026ndash;sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and simple text reading form the basis of fluent and meaningful reading and are considered necessary for participation in educational and daily life contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe aim of this research is to examine the effectiveness of an individualized reading instruction program on the early reading skills of a student with mild intellectual disability. The participant of the research is a 6-year-old first-grade student diagnosed with mild intellectual disability. A multiple-probe design across skills (multiple baseline design), which is one of the single-subject research designs, was used in the study. The dependent variables are letter\u0026ndash;sound matching, syllable recognition, word reading, and short text reading skills ; the independent variable is an individualized reading instruction program structured based on evidence-based teaching strategies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch results showed that the student successfully acquired all targeted early reading skills after the application. Observing performance increases after starting instruction for each skill revealed that experimental control was established. Permanence data collected in monitoring sessions show that the acquired skills were largely maintained. Generalization data, on the other hand, revealed that the student could display the skills learned in different environments and with different teachers. Tau-U effect size analyses supported the visual analysis findings and showed that the intervention had a strong effect. Social validity findings show that both the teacher and the family evaluated the instruction program as functional, applicable, and meaningful for the student. Overall, the findings reveal that individualized early reading instruction is an effective, sustainable, and socially acceptable approach to developing early literacy skills of students with mild intellectual disabilities.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Teaching Reading Skills to a First-Grade Student with Mild Intellectual Disability: A Single-Subject Intervention Study","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-02-19 11:47:03","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8845136/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"bf46ba4f-2ffe-41b8-a435-2ffc4a27dc36","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 19th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-05T15:40:36+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-02-19 11:47:03","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8845136","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8845136","identity":"rs-8845136","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}