Quantification of THC, heavy metals, pesticides, mycotoxins, and microbial contaminants in cannabis inflorescence reveals higher levels in illicit samples than in the licensed Canadian market

Quantification of THC, heavy metals, pesticides, mycotoxins, and microbial contaminants in cannabis inflorescence reveals higher levels in illicit samples than in the licensed Canadian market | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Quantification of THC, heavy metals, pesticides, mycotoxins, and microbial contaminants in cannabis inflorescence reveals higher levels in illicit samples than in the licensed Canadian market Quinton Fiering, Jordyn MacKey, Hayline Kim, Yousef Risha, Ryan Denkert, and 31 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8186487/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 23 Feb, 2026 Read the published version in Journal of Cannabis Research → Version 1 posted 11 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Following the legalization of recreational cannabis in Canada under the Cannabis Act ( 2018 ), regulatory frameworks were implemented to ensure product safety, quality, and consistency within the legal market. Previous studies revealed significantly greater pesticide contamination in illicit cannabis than in licensed products. In light of these findings, the present study expands contaminant surveillance to include the quantification of Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and a broader range of potential toxicants, including heavy metals, pesticides, mycotoxins, and microbial agents. Methods Fifty licensed cannabis products were purchased across Canadian provinces, and 50 illicit samples were obtained via law enforcement seizures. All the samples were tested via validated, accredited/attested methods. THC content was assessed using LC-UV-MS. Pesticides were analyzed via LC-MS/MS and GC-MS/MS; heavy metals via ICP-MS/MS; mycotoxins via LC-MS/MS; and microbial contamination using MALDI-TOF. Results THC levels in 48% of licensed products deviated by more than 20% from their labeled concentrations. Microbiological testing revealed that 20% of legal products exceeded the European Pharmacopoeia microbial limits, prompting regulatory responses and voluntary recall. In contrast, 55% of the illicit products exceeded the aerobic plate count thresholds, and 73% surpassed the yeast and mold limits. Mycotoxins were undetected in licensed products but were present in 12% of illicit samples. Pesticide residues were found at trace levels (0.01 µg/g) for myclobutanil and dichlobenil in two licensed samples, whereas 94% of illicit samples contained pesticides, averaging 3.4 compounds per sample across 24 unique active ingredients. Heavy metal analysis revealed higher levels of arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury in illicit products than in their licensed counterparts. However, licensed samples presented higher chromium concentrations, with peak values approximately threefold greater than those observed in illicit cannabis. The concentrations of arsenic, barium, chromium, copper, molybdenum, nickel, and vanadium exceeded the permissible daily exposure limits of the United States Pharmacopeia (USP) in one or both product categories. Conclusion These findings demonstrate significant differences in licensed THC levels compared with their label claims as well as in contaminants between licensed and illicit cannabis products. The results provide evidence to inform regulatory oversight, enhance public health risk assessments, and support informed decision-making by consumers and policymakers in the context of a legal cannabis framework. Cannabis inflorescence Licensed Illicit THC Metals Elemental Microbial Mycotoxin Pesticides Contaminants Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Background In 2018, Canada legalized the recreational use of cannabis, supplementing the existing medical cannabis framework that had been in place since 2001. The enactment of the Cannabis Act (Cannabis Act, 2018 ) and its associated Regulations (Cannabis Regulations, 2018 ) sought to standardize and enforce consistent health and safety standards throughout Canada’s legal cannabis industry. To protect public health, Health Canada regulates microbial and chemical contaminants in cannabis products. Under the Cannabis Regulations, mandatory analytical testing requirements obligate license holders to demonstrate that contaminant levels do not exceed established thresholds and that the cannabis product label indicates an adequate quantity of THC and CBD. Building on our recent findings that revealed a high prevalence and elevated levels of pesticides in illicit cannabis inflorescence compared with licensed market samples (Gagnon et al., 2023 ), this study aims to comprehensively quantify both THC levels and a broader range of contaminants. These include heavy metals, mycotoxins, and microbial contaminants, thereby extending the scope of analysis beyond pesticides alone. Methods 1 Sampling To reflect as realistically as possible the sources of cannabis inflorescence available to Canadians across the country, 50 licensed products (with packaging dates ranging from October 2022 to September 2023) were purchased in 2023 from 50 license holders located in all five Canadian regions (British Columbia, Prairies, Ontario, Quebec, and Atlantic) (Table 1 ), targeting THC products (with little/no CBD and excluding prerolled products) containing up to approximately 250 mg/g total THC. The 50 illicit cannabis samples were obtained from seizures by law enforcement officers across the country and submitted to Health Canada for laboratory testing in 2023. Table 1 Geographical distribution of cannabis ( C. sativa ) inflorescence samples obtained across Canada Region Licensed samples Illicit samples British Columbia 11 23 Prairies 8 2 Ontario 10 12 Québec 12 8 Atlantic 9 5 Total 50 50 Pesticide analyses The standards and reagents, apparatus, standard solution preparation, sample preparation, instrument analysis, validation criteria and quality control methods used for pesticide analyses were identical to those used in previous publications (Gagnon et al., 2023 ). Total THC analysis Cannabis inflorescence samples were homogenized via a laboratory-grade homogenizer. The samples (0.3 g) were subjected to extraction in 30 mL of methanol with continuous agitation for 30 min, sonicated for 15 min, and centrifuged at 3000 RPM for 5 min. The supernatant was diluted appropriately to ensure that the analyte concentrations fell within the calibrated dynamic range. (±)-11-Nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol-D 3 was spiked into each extract prior to analysis as an internal standard. Quantitative analysis was performed via an ACQUITY UPLC H-Class system (Waters Corp., Milford, MA, USA) coupled with dual detection via ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy and mass spectrometry (MS). Chromatographic separation was achieved on a C18 reversed-phase column employing water‒acetonitrile gradient elution. Cannabinoid identification was confirmed by matching retention times, UV absorption spectra, and accurate mass measurements. Quantification was possible with signals from both the UV and MS detectors. The total THC content represents the sum of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) and its acidic precursor Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (Δ9-THCA), accounting for the potential decarboxylation of Δ9-THCA to Δ9-THC during sample processing. Elemental metal analyses Cannabis inflorescence samples were cryogenically homogenized via a freezer mill (Spex sample prep 6875D, SPEX, New Jersey, USA) prior to subsampling. The samples were subjected to closed-vessel microwave-assisted (Mars 6 System, CEM, North Carolina, USA) acid digestion via a mixture of nitric acid (HNO₃) : hydrochloric acid (HCl) (7:1) at 210°C in 55 mL Teflon vessels. The extracts were then diluted to appropriate volumes, and internal standards were introduced via in-line addition. Analysis targeting 18 elemental impurities was validated with calibration curves spanning from one-tenth to twice the specified limit concentrations of the United States Pharmacopeia 232 (Zaidi, 2010 ). Detection and quantification were carried out via an Inductively Coupled Plasma Triple Quadrupole mass spectrometer (ICP-QQQ, Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA), which employs various collision/reaction cell gas modes to increase the selectivity and sensitivity for specific elements. Mycotoxins Analyses of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2, ochratoxin A and deoxynivalenol were carried out via liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC‒MS/MS, QTRAP 6500+, AB SCIEX, Framingham, MA, USA), as per the methods described by (Desaulniers Brousseau et al., 2023 ). Microbial Contaminants Dried cannabis samples were prepared and tested for total aerobic microbial count (TAMC), total yeast and mold count (TYMC), bile-tolerant gram-negative bacteria (BTGN), and the presence or absence of Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp . according to the (European Pharmacopoeia, 2019 ). In addition, for the samples whose TYMC counts were greater than the limits set by (European Pharmacopoeia, 2019 ), the presence or absence of Aspergillus spp . was tested via a combination of microscopic observation and a matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) spectrometer (Microflex LT/SH, Bruker Daltonics GmbH & Co. KG, Bremen, Germany). Results This study expands upon previous findings (Gagnon et al., 2023 ) by encompassing not only pesticide residues but also heavy metals, mycotoxins, microbial contaminants and THC levels in real-world cannabis inflorescence samples available across Canada. The objective was to determine THC potency and the prevalence of these contaminants in licensed versus illicit cannabis products. A total of 100 samples, 50 licensed and 50 illicit samples, were analyzed for THC content alongside heavy metals, pesticides, mycotoxins, and microbial contaminants. THC levels The total THC concentration reported on the label of licensed commercially available cannabis inflorescence ranged from 143 mg/g to 261 mg/g (Fig. 1 ). A comparison of the measured total THC levels with the label claims (Fig. 2 ) revealed that 52% (n = 26) of the products contained at least 80% of their declared THC content. Conversely, 28% of the products (n = 14) measured between 70% and 80% of the labeled THC amount, whereas 20% (n = 10) contained less than 70% of the stated THC concentration. Analysis of total THC levels in illicit cannabis inflorescence revealed a broad potency range (Fig. 3 ). Notably, 54% of the illicit samples (n = 27) presented total THC concentrations below 175 mg/g, corresponding to medium to low potency. In contrast, only two licensed cannabis samples presented THC levels below this threshold (Table 1 ). Heavy metals A comparison of toxic metals revealed a significantly greater prevalence of arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury in illicit cannabis inflorescence than in licensed samples (Table 2 ). The maximum concentrations of these four metals in illicit samples were nearly double those measured in licensed products (Fig. 4 ). Conversely, licensed samples presented a significantly greater prevalence of chromium, with peak concentrations nearly three times greater than those found in illicit samples (Table 2 , Fig. 4 ). The concentrations of arsenic, barium, chromium, copper, molybdenum, nickel, and vanadium exceeded their United States Pharmacopeia (USP) tolerance limits (Sarma et al., 2020 ) in one or both sample groups (Fig. 4 ). Gold, selenium, silver, thallium, and tin were not detected at significant levels in either illicit or licensed samples, whereas copper and molybdenum were detected in nearly all the samples analyzed (Table 2 ). Table 2 Metal concentrations in licensed and illicit cannabis inflorescence Metal USP limit (µg/g) (Sarma et al., 2020 )* Licensed Illicit Detection rate (%) >USP limit (%) Concentration range (µg/g) Detection rate (%) >USP limit (%) Concentration range (µg/g) Antimony (Sb) 2.0 0 0 < 0.20 0 0 < 0.20 Arsenic (As) 0.2 18 0 < 0.02–0.16 44 2 < 0.02–0.29 Barium (Ba) 30.0 36 2 < 3.00–40.68 38 2 < 3.00–95.26 Cadmium (Cd) 0.3 18 0 < 0.03–0.16 50 0 < 0.03–0.28 Chromium (Cr) 0.3 66 6 < 0.03–0.89 50 4 < 0.03–0.33 Cobalt (Co) 0.3 14 0 < 0.03–0.12 8 0 < 0.03–0.07 Copper (Cu) 3.0 100 100 3.65–63.97 100 98 2.62–24.01 Gold (Au) 0.3 0 0 < 0.01 0 0 < 0.01 Lead (Pb) 0.5 8 0 < 0.05–0.24 32 0 < 0.05–0.32 Lithium (Li) 2.5 8 0 < 0.25–0.76 12 0 < 0.25–1.60 Mercury (Hg) 0.1 6 0 < 0.01–0.03 12 0 < 0.01–0.06 Molybdenum (Mo) 1.0 98 74 < 0.10–9.93 100 16 0.15–2.47 Nickel (Ni) 0.6 72 2 < 0.05–4.69 78 2 < 0.05–0.91 Selenium (Se) 13.0 0 0 < 1.30 0 0 < 1.30 Silver (Ag) 0.7 0 0 < 0.07 0 0 < 0.07 Thallium (Tl) 0.8 0 0 < 0.08 0 0 < 0.08 Tin (Sn) 6.0 0 0 < 0.60 4 0 < 0.60–1.41 Vanadium (V) 0.1 22 4 < 0.01–0.36 22 6 < 0.01–0.19 * Assuming a maximum consumption of 10 g/day. Pesticide residues As shown in Table 3 , two licensed cannabis products contained trace levels of pesticides (myclobutanil and dichlobenil) measured at the lowest calibrated level (LCL) of 0.01 µg/g. In contrast, 47 of the 50 illicit cannabis samples (94%) tested positive for pesticides, with an average of 3.4 unique pesticides per sample and a total of 24 distinct pesticides identified (Table 3 ). Myclobutanil was the most prevalent pesticide and was detected in 72% of illicit samples at concentrations up to 130 µg/g. Paclobutrazol was detected in 60% of the samples, whereas chlorfenapyr (24%), fluopyram (24%), boscalid (26%), and pyrethrins (38%) were also commonly detected at significant levels. Piperonyl butoxide was present in only 6% of the samples but reached an exceptionally high concentration of 1700 µg/g in one instance. Table 3 Pesticide residue levels in illicit dried cannabis Pesticide detected Detection rate > 0.01 µg/g (%) Concentration range (µg/g) Licensed Dichlobenil 2 0.01 Myclobutanil 2 0.01 Illicit Bifenazate 12 0.027–2.0 Boscalid 26 0.01–12 Chlorphenapyr 24 < 0.02–1.4 Chlorpyrifos 2 0.054 p,p’Dicofol 2 0.018 Dimethoate 6 0.042–0.94 Fluxapyroxad 2 0.018 Fluopyram 24 0.016–15 Imidacloprid 6 0.018–0.10 Malathion 2 0.022 Metalaxyl 4 0.042–0.14 Myclobutanil 72 0.01–130 n-Octyl bicycloheptene dicarboximide 2 0.026 Oxathiapiprolin 2 0.018 Paclobutrazol 60 0.048–2.4 Permethrin 10 < 0.25–28 Picoxystrobin 2 3.0 Piperonyl Butoxide 6 1.5–1700 Piraclostrobin 22 0.01–4.6 Pyrethrins 38 < 0.1–14 Pyridaben 2 0.25 Spinosad 2 10 Spirodiclofen 2 1.6 Spiromesifen 10 0.3–1.5 Mycotoxins Licensed cannabis products showed no detectable levels of mycotoxins covered by the method, which covered aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2, as well as ochratoxin A and deoxynivalenol. In contrast, six illicit samples (12%) tested positive for mycotoxins, with three samples containing ochratoxin A and three containing deoxynivalenol (DON, also known as vomitoxin) (Table 4 ). Table 4 Mycotoxin levels in illicit cannabis samples Mycotoxin Concentration (ng/g) Ochratoxin A Present* 18.6 23.6 Deoxynivalenol Present* 70.8 119 * Insufficient quantity available to confirm exact levels in these samples Microbial Microbial contaminant testing in licensed cannabis revealed that 20% (n = 10) of the samples exceeded the European Pharmacopoeia limits( Microbiological quality of herbal medicinal products for oral use and extracts used in their preparation, general chapter , 2016) (Table 5 ). Illicit cannabis samples exhibited significantly greater microbial contamination, frequently surpassing these regulatory thresholds. Specifically, 55% of the illicit samples exceeded the TAMC limit, with counts reaching up to 9 million CFU/g, whereas only 6% of licensed products did. Additionally, the TYMC and BGTN limits were exceeded in 73% and 43% of the illicit samples, respectively. Notably, pathogenic contaminants such as Escherichia coli were detected exclusively in illicit products, whereas Aspergillus spp. occurred at twice the frequency in illicit samples compared with licensed samples. Microorganisms found in dried cannabis samples exceeding the European Pharmacopoeia limits were identified via MALDI‒TOF spectrometry (Microflex LT/SH, Bruker Daltonics GmbH & Co. KG, Bremen, Germany) and are listed in Table 6 . Table 5 Microbial contaminant levels in legal and illicit dried cannabis Contaminant Ph. Eur. Limit ( Microbiological quality of herbal medicinal products for oral use and extracts used in their preparation, general chapter , 2016) Legal cannabis Illicit cannabis* >Ph. Eur. limit % Range >Ph. Eur. ( Microbiological quality of herbal medicinal products for oral use and extracts used in their preparation, general chapter , 2016) limit % Range Total aerobic microbial count (TAMC) 100,000 CFU**/g 6 < 100,000 − 300,000 CFU/g 55 < 100,000 − 9,000,000 CFU/g Total yeast and mold count (TYMC) 10,000 CFU/g 6 < 10,000 - 750,000 CFU/g 73 < 10,000 - 10,000,000 CFU/g Bile-tolerant gram-negative bacteria (BTGN) 10,000 PNB**/g 6 10,000 PNB/g 43 10,000 PNB/g E. coli Absent 0 2 Salmonella spp. Absent 0 0 Aspergillus spp. N/A 14 37 *n = 49, as only 49 of the 50 illicit samples had sufficient amounts to be tested for microbial contaminants. ** abbr: Ph. Eur. = European Pharmacopoeia; CFU = colony forming units; PNB = probable number of bacteria Table 6 Bacteria and Aspergillus spp. identified in dried cannabis exceeding Pharmacopoeia limits Microorganism Number of occurrence licensed cannabis illicit cannabis Total Bacteria Citrobacter amalonaticus/farmeri 0 1 1 Citrobacter braakii 0 1 1 Citrobacter freundii complex 0 6 6 Citrobacter youngae 0 1 1 Cronobacter dublinensis 0 2 2 Cronobacter sakazakii 0 2 2 Dermacoccus nishinomiyaensis 0 1 1 Dietzia kunjamensis/maris/schimae 0 1 1 Enterobacter cloacae complex 1 33 34 Enterobacter hormaechei 1 2 3 Enterobacter quasiroggenkampi 0 1 1 Enterobacter roggenkampii 1 3 4 Enterobacter soli or Enterobacter bugandensis 0 1 1 Enterobacterales 0 1 1 Enterobacteriaceae Leclercia adecarboxylata 1 12 13 Enterococcus durans 0 1 1 Enterococcus faecalis 0 1 1 Enterobacter tamurae 0 1 1 Erwinia aphidicola/persicina 0 3 3 Erwinia gerundensis 0 3 3 Escherichia albertii/Escherichia coli/Echerichia fergusonii/ Escherichia marmotea/Shigella boydii/Shigella dysenteriae/ Shigella flexneri/Shigella sonnei 0 3 3 Escherichia hermannii 0 4 4 Franconibacter helveticus 0 3 3 Franconibacter pulveris 0 1 1 Gordonia aichienses/otitidis/sputi 0 1 1 Klebsiella (raoultella) aerogenes 0 1 1 Klebsiella michiganensis 0 1 1 Klebsiella oxytoca/Raoultella ornithinolytica/planticola/terrigena 0 11 11 Klebsiella pneumoniae 0 7 7 Klebsiella variicola 0 3 3 Kosakonia cowanii 1 8 9 Mixta calida/gaviniae/intestinalis 0 7 7 Pantoea agglomerans 1 2 3 Pantoea brenneri 0 2 2 Pantoea dispersa 1 1 2 Pantoea eucrina 0 3 3 Pantoea septica 1 0 1 Pantoea vagans 0 2 2 Pantoea wallisii 0 1 1 Phytobacter ursingii 0 3 3 Pseudescherichia vulneris 0 10 10 Pseudomonas (stenotrophomonas) beteli/geniculata/ hibiscicola/lactitubi/maltophilia 0 1 1 Pseudomonas aeruginosa/paraeruginosa 0 5 5 Pseudomonas coleopterorum 1 3 4 Pseudomonas fluorescens group 0 6 6 Pseudomonas japonica 0 2 2 Pseudomonas koreensis 0 1 1 Pseudomonas mendocina 0 1 1 Pseudomonas mosselii 0 1 1 Pseudomonas oleovorans 0 1 1 Pseudomonas oryzihabitans 0 2 2 Pseudomonas parafulva 0 2 2 Pseudomonas putida group 0 13 13 Pseudomonas ryzihabitans 1 0 1 Pseudomonas stutzeri 1 0 1 Pseudomonas syringae or savastanoi 0 1 1 Pseudomonas xanthomarina 0 1 1 Rahnella aceris/aquatilis/brichi/variigena/victoriana/woolbedingensis 0 2 2 Siccibacter colletis 0 2 2 Siccibacter furicensis 0 3 3 Staphylococcus epedermidis 1 0 1 Stenotrophomonas bentonitica 0 1 1 Aspergillus spp. Aspergillus austroafricanus/creber/cvjetkovicii/fructur/griseoaurantiacus/ jensenii/protuberus/puulaauensis/sydowii/tabacinus/tennesseensis/ venenatus/versicolor 2 5 7 Aspergillus brasiliensis/niger/tubigensis/vadensis 1 6 7 Aspergillus calidoustus/ustus 2 3 5 Aspergillus flavus/oryzae/parasiticus 0 1 1 Aspergillus fumigatus 1 1 2 Aspergillus glaucus group 1 0 1 Aspergillus ochraceus/westerdijkiae 1 11 12 Aspergillus tamarii 1 0 1 Discussion The primary objective of this study was to broaden the current understanding of cannabis inflorescence THC levels and contamination beyond previously emphasized pesticide residues (Gagnon et al., 2023 ; Moulins et al., 2018 ) by incorporating analysis of total THC concentrations, heavy metals, mycotoxins, and microbial contaminants. To achieve this goal, a total of 100 cannabis inflorescence samples, comprising 50 regulated (licensed) and 50 unregulated (illicit) products, were collected from Canada. These samples were analyzed via validated, ISO/IEC 17025-accredited/attested methodologies within Health Canada laboratories. THC THC concentrations in licensed cannabis inflorescence indicate that approximately 50% of the potency levels measured fall within 20% of their labeled THC content. However, a substantial subset (48%) of licensed products demonstrates total THC concentrations deviating by more than 20% below the labeled THC value. This discrepancy has also been reported in other regulatory jurisdictions (Schwabe et al., 2023 ) (Geweda et al., 2024 ) (Giordano et al., 2025 ). Currently, Health Canada lacks a defined regulatory threshold for permissible variability in total THC concentrations in licensed inflorescence cannabis products (Cannabis Regulations, 2018 ). Longitudinal studies have shown that THC can degrade up to 17% after one year of storage (Ross & Elsohly, 1997 ), influenced by factors such as storage duration and exposure to light (Zamengo et al., 2019 ). Preliminary data from a THC stability study in cannabis inflorescence performed by Health Canada revealed that no significant THC degradation occurred during the first year of storage (data not shown). Although the exact source of the discrepancies is difficult to determine, it is plausibly multifactorial, involving the absence of standardized sampling and analytical methodologies, limited regulatory enforcement, and commercial incentives favoring elevated THC potency claims. Health Canada is currently refining sampling procedures, testing standards, and updating regulations related to THC thresholds in cannabis inflorescence to alleviate these gaps. The presence of inaccurate THC labeling adversely affects consumers’ ability to precisely dose cannabis products, undermines perceptions of product quality within the legal market, and may diminish consumer confidence. Accurate THC potency labeling is critical for mitigating risks such as overconsumption, improper dosing, and associated adverse health outcomes. This is particularly important for medical cannabis patients, for whom precise dose titration is essential for therapeutic efficacy and safety. For samples sourced from the illicit market, the observed variability in THC concentrations may, at least in part, be attributable to differences in sample freshness at the time of seizure. However, it is not feasible to draw definitive conclusions regarding the typical potency of licensed versus illicit dried cannabis products, as this study was limited to legal products containing up to approximately 250 mg/g total THC. Furthermore, illicit market samples were submitted without accompanying information regarding their labeled THC content, geographic origin, or date of seizure, precluding direct comparisons. Importantly, the sample set analyzed in this study may not be fully representative of the broader spectrum of licensed and illicit cannabis products available on the Canadian market. As such, caution should be exercised in generalizing these findings beyond the specific samples included in this analysis. Elemental impurities Cannabis is classified as a hyperaccumulator species characterized by its ability to absorb and concentrate metals from the environment at levels several orders of magnitude greater than those of other plant species (Bengyella et al., 2022 ; Girdhar et al., 2014 ). This capacity explains the ubiquitous detection of certain metals, such as copper and molybdenum, in licensed and illicit samples. Copper was detected in all cannabis inflorescences, with 100% of licensed and 98% of illicit products exceeding the USP permissible limit for inhaled products (3.0 µg/g). Molybdenum was also prevalent and was found in nearly all the samples, with 74% of the legal products exceeding the USP threshold (1.0 µg/g), whereas it was present in 16% of the illicit products. No significant health risks were identified with these elevated metal results. These elevated levels, especially in legal samples, may be attributable to the use of fertilizers and micronutrient additives in commercial cultivation practices. Other studies have demonstrated that unfiltered cannabis smoke contains significant concentrations of toxic metals (Moir et al., 2008 ). Epidemiological studies conducted prior to cannabis legalization reported that individuals who consumed marijuana in the preceding 30 days presented elevated biomarkers of metal exposure compared with nonusers (McGraw et al., 2023 ). Specifically, compared with nonusers, marijuana users had mean cadmium concentrations that were 22% higher in blood and 18% higher in urine, whereas lead concentrations were 27% higher in blood and 21% higher in urine (McGraw et al., 2023 ). Given the capacity for metals to be absorbed via inhalation of cannabis smoke and the significant concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury detected in illicit cannabis inflorescence, consumers of licensed cannabis products are likely to experience reduced exposure to these toxic heavy metals. This reduction can be attributed to the rigorous regulatory framework and stringent laboratory testing requirements for heavy metals enforced by Health Canada (Cannabis Regulations, 2018 ). Both lead and cadmium are toxic at very low concentrations: the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) considers any level of lead exposure to pose a health risk, and cadmium is classified as a probable human carcinogen (Genchi et al., 2020 ). Although arsenic, cobalt, manganese, and mercury were detected at concentrations exceeding USP tolerance limits in some cannabis samples, previous studies have demonstrated no statistically significant associations between cannabis use and elevated levels of these metals in biological matrices (McGraw et al., 2023 ). This suggests a relatively low systemic absorption rate of these elements via smoke inhalation. Additionally, the limits of the pharmacopoeias may not be appropriate for cannabis plants, as there is no specific monograph for cannabis plants, and several US states have established their own limits for cannabis inflorescence (Thomas, 2022 ). Pesticides Pesticide residue analysis of licensed and illicit cannabis inflorescence corroborates the findings of (Gagnon et al., 2023 ), and the expanded sample size in the present analysis provides a more robust national representation of pesticide usage patterns across both the licensed and illicit markets. The overall pesticide detection rate was 4% in licensed samples and 94% in illicit samples, which is consistent with prior results. For licensed products, the same two pesticides—dichlobenil and myclobutanil—were detected at the LCL of 0.01 µg/g. Such levels in licensed products are likely due to environmental or accidental contamination rather than intentional use. No health risk was identified by Health Canada for either dichlobenil or myclobutanil at 0.01 µg/g. Although dichlobenil was detected and quantified in a single licensed cannabis sample, it is not included in the mandatory pesticide active ingredient panel specified by the Mandatory Cannabis Testing for Pesticide Active Ingredients Requirements (Mandatory cannabis testing for pesticide active ingredients requirements, 2019 ). This gap highlights the importance of expanded multiresidue analytical methods with enhanced sensitivity and selectivity to capture a broader spectrum of pesticide residues. In contrast, illicit cannabis samples yielded both previously identified and newly quantified pesticide residues. Notably, the newly detected compounds included p,p’-dicofol, dimethoate, fluxapyroxad, metalaxyl, n-octyl bicycloheptene dicarboximide, oxathiapiprolin, picoxystrobin, and piraclostrobin, with the latter showing a substantial sample positivity rate of 22%. Consistent with earlier findings (Gagnon et al., 2023 ), myclobutanil, paclobutrazol, and pyrethrins were detected at high frequencies, ranging from 38% to 72% across illicit samples. Furthermore, notable shifts in the prevalence of specific pesticides were observed. The sample positivity rates for boscalid, chlorfenapyr, and fluopyram increased by approximately 6- to 12-fold compared with previous data, whereas the detection frequency of piperonyl butoxide decreased approximately threefold. The maximum concentrations of several pesticides—including boscalid, fluopyram, myclobutanil, permethrin, piperonyl butoxide, pyrethrins, and spinosad—in illicit samples were found to be 1 to 3 orders of magnitude higher than those reported in (Gagnon et al., 2023 ). Microbial and mycotoxins Cannabis and hemp plants interact with a community of microbes consisting of more than 100 species of fungi and bacteria that can produce toxic secondary metabolites (i.e., mycotoxins) that can potentially affect the health of humans (Gwinn et al., 2023 ). Testing for bacterial contaminants revealed that 20% of licensed samples and a significantly greater proportion (43–55%) of illicit samples contained bacterial levels above the European Pharmacopoeia limits. Production sites and agroclimatic conditions have previously been shown to significantly influence microbial load and composition (Sopovski et al., 2023 ), which could explain the higher bacterial and fungal prevalence in illicit samples not produced in controlled environments and not subjected to the stringent quality standards of the licensed market (Cannabis Regulations, 2018 ). The most commonly identified genera of bacteria included species of Enterobacter, Klebsiella, Pseudomonas and Pantoea , with notable differences in their presence between licensed and illicit samples, with the former being more common in illicit samples (Table 6 ). Enterobacter cloacae was detected in 72% of illicit samples and is recognized in the literature as an opportunistic pathogen (Hennigs et al., 2011 ). Klebsiella spp. and Pseudomonas aeruginosa , which are associated with respiratory infections (Bahy et al., 2022 ), were also identified predominantly in illicit samples. For 20% of the positively regulated samples, appropriate compliance and enforcement measures were taken to address each of these cases, which resulted in voluntary recall in one instance. Similarly, the significantly higher TYMC and Aspergillus counts in illicit samples than in licensed products increase health risks, as inhalation of these spores can cause lung infections, particularly in immunocompromised and cancer patients, in whom aspergillosis accounts for 43% of fungal infections associated with cannabis use (Benedict et al., 2020 ). Species of Aspergillus are known to produce ochratoxin A, which can result in kidney damage (Gwinn et al., 2023 ). The observed prevalence of ochratoxin A in illicit cannabis inflorescence samples corroborates previous findings in California (Jameson et al., 2022 ) and Luxembourg (Buchicchio et al., 2022 ). Ochratoxin A in illicit cannabis can be of concern, as although heat combustion can degrade a portion of ochratoxin A, it does not always result in reduced toxicity since some degradation products are as toxic as the parent molecule (Boudra et al., 1995 ). Similarly, the Fusarium mycotoxin DON has been shown to accumulate in cannabis inflorescence and to cause chronic immunosuppression, cancer and toxicosis (Gwinn et al., 2023 ). Even though the smoking process can reduce the level of DON, this mycotoxin is efficiently and rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream through inhalation. However, there are no tolerance limits established in any of the publications listed in Schedule B of the Food and Drugs Act for these two contaminants in cannabis (Sarma et al., 2020 ). Conclusion This study is a comprehensive assessment of contaminant profiles in both licensed and illicit cannabis inflorescences in Canada, encompassing not only pesticide residues (Gagnon et al., 2023 ; Moulins et al., 2018 ) but also heavy metals, mycotoxins, microbial contaminants, and THC concentration variability. Notably, 48% of licensed cannabis products presented THC concentrations deviating by more than 20% from their labeled values, prompting Health Canada to initiate efforts to refine sampling protocols, testing standards, and regulatory frameworks governing THC thresholds. Such labeling inaccuracies can compromise dosing precision, undermine consumer confidence in regulated products, and pose significant safety concerns, particularly for medical cannabis users. Microbiological analysis revealed that 20% of licensed samples exceeded the European Pharmacopoeia microbial limits, resulting in regulatory notifications and compliance measures, including voluntary recall. Illicit samples presented substantially elevated contamination, with 55% surpassing aerobic microbial limits and 73% exceeding yeast and mold thresholds. Mycotoxins were undetected in licensed products but were present in 12% of illicit samples. Pesticide analysis identified trace residues of myclobutanil and dichlobenil at the lowest calibrated level (0.01 µg/g) in only two licensed samples, whereas 94% of illicit samples tested positive for pesticides, averaging 3.4 unique residues per sample, encompassing 24 distinct compounds. Heavy metal quantification demonstrated a significantly greater prevalence and concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury in illicit cannabis than in licensed products. The licensed samples, however, presented greater chromium levels, with peak concentrations nearly threefold higher than those of illicit cannabis. The concentrations of arsenic, barium, chromium, copper, molybdenum, nickel, and vanadium exceeded the USP tolerance limits in one or both groups. Collectively, these findings provide critical data to inform regulatory policy enhancements and support evidence-based decision-making among Canadian cannabis consumers. Abbreviations LC-MS/MS: liquid chromatography – triple quadruple mass spectrometry, UV: ultraviolet, MS: mass spectrometry, THC: tetrahydrocannabinol, TAMC: total aerobic microbial count, TYMC: total yeast and mold count, BTGN: bile-tolerant gram-negative bacteria, USP: United States Pharmacopeia, LCL: lowest calibrated level, Ph Eur: European Pharmacopoeia; CFU: colony-forming units, PNB = probable number of bacteria Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable. Consent for publication Not applicable. Availability of data and materials The data is available from the corresponding author on reasonable request Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding Open Access funding provided by Health Canada. None to declare. Authors’ contributions QF, MP, WM, JM, YR, RD, MI, GZ, JK, GA-Y, EB, JV, MG, CR, RA, JBB, ML, JA, DBR, AG, DBB, CS, CD, KH, GM, and RY performed sample analysis. PB, CL, AR, CD, and ID reviewed the analytical data. VZ, GC, HK, and ID coordinated the in-laboratory analyses and approved the results MF developed the project and assisted in the writing of the manuscript. DRB, JB, II allocated the laboratory resources for this project. DRB wrote the manuscript. All the authors have read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgments : The authors would like to thank Health Canada colleagues for reviewing the manuscript. References Bahy, R., Fatyan, E., Saafan, A. E., & El-Gebaly, E. A. E. A. (2022). 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Cannabis Science and Technology, 5 , 12–17. https://www.cannabissciencetech.com/view/expanding-the-panel-of-heavy-metal-contaminants-in-cannabis-and-hemp-beyond-the-big-four-what-is-the-regulatory-evidence-telling-us- https://www.cannabissciencetech.com Zaidi, K. (2010). United States Pharmacopeia 232 - Elemental Impurities - Limits. 36 (1), 1–4. Zamengo, L., Bettin, C., Badocco, D., Di Marco, V., Miolo, G., & Frison, G. (2019). The role of time and storage conditions on the composition of hashish and marijuana samples: A four-year study. Forensic Science International, 298 , 131–137. 10.1016/j.forsciint.2019.02.058 Footnotes 1 The methodologies presented herein are intended exclusively to advance scientific understanding. Utilization of these methods outside the context of a well-established and robust quality management system, encompassing rigorous controls, verification procedures, and deviation management, may compromise the precision and reproducibility of the results. Consequently, the authors and their affiliated employers disclose any liability arising from the application of these methods. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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08:28:04","extension":"xml","order_by":8,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":161948,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"1104ed8cc3a846e496a94e533ea7cbd31structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8186487/v1/d80025d7c2e9f21d04266eab.xml"},{"id":97324921,"identity":"01cf739c-cd61-4751-8d9b-a7b57633178d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-03 08:28:04","extension":"html","order_by":9,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":173641,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8186487/v1/4d0f1d08517c865f5e396440.html"},{"id":97324916,"identity":"267ad330-d7dc-4f65-ada4-35b12e8b675e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-03 08:28:04","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":32599,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLabeled total THC levels in licensed commercially available cannabis inflorescences\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8186487/v1/30de2679f6a4b5ae65b6395c.png"},{"id":97324949,"identity":"54c3ffda-cf85-44d8-923f-574e1818b5e0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-03 08:28:12","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":35411,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePercent of total THC levels measured versus the labeled amount in licensed commercial cannabis inflorescence\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8186487/v1/bbd81556d1479ac760fbf1bb.png"},{"id":97324952,"identity":"742750dc-3374-45ed-9481-9caca63412e1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-03 08:28:19","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":24553,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal THC levels in illicit cannabis inflorescence\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8186487/v1/6b334fa024b88360bd45c763.png"},{"id":97324919,"identity":"d510861a-63a3-4bbc-916b-409c717d5e48","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-03 08:28:04","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":68501,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHighest metal levels \u003c/strong\u003emeasured in licensed and illicit\u003cstrong\u003e dried cannabis relative to their respective United States Pharmacopeia (USP) limits\u003c/strong\u003e (Sarma et \u0026nbsp;al., 2020)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8186487/v1/807797d17e81d95b3b95fd90.png"},{"id":103766429,"identity":"cd734702-9894-441b-bc87-84f0a5a5aa05","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-02 16:14:31","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2012272,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8186487/v1/2ae47a0b-880c-4b8e-b05e-8a426204649f.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Quantification of THC, heavy metals, pesticides, mycotoxins, and microbial contaminants in cannabis inflorescence reveals higher levels in illicit samples than in the licensed Canadian market","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn 2018, Canada legalized the recreational use of cannabis, supplementing the existing medical cannabis framework that had been in place since 2001. The enactment of the Cannabis Act (Cannabis Act, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) and its associated Regulations (Cannabis Regulations, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) sought to standardize and enforce consistent health and safety standards throughout Canada\u0026rsquo;s legal cannabis industry. To protect public health, Health Canada regulates microbial and chemical contaminants in cannabis products. Under the Cannabis Regulations, mandatory analytical testing requirements obligate license holders to demonstrate that contaminant levels do not exceed established thresholds and that the cannabis product label indicates an adequate quantity of THC and CBD.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBuilding on our recent findings that revealed a high prevalence and elevated levels of pesticides in illicit cannabis inflorescence compared with licensed market samples (Gagnon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), this study aims to comprehensively quantify both THC levels and a broader range of contaminants. These include heavy metals, mycotoxins, and microbial contaminants, thereby extending the scope of analysis beyond pesticides alone.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSampling\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo reflect as realistically as possible the sources of cannabis inflorescence available to Canadians across the country, 50 licensed products (with packaging dates ranging from October 2022 to September 2023) were purchased in 2023 from 50 license holders located in all five Canadian regions (British Columbia, Prairies, Ontario, Quebec, and Atlantic) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), targeting THC products (with little/no CBD and excluding prerolled products) containing up to approximately 250 mg/g total THC. The 50 illicit cannabis samples were obtained from seizures by law enforcement officers across the country and submitted to Health Canada for laboratory testing in 2023.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGeographical distribution of cannabis (\u003cem\u003eC. sativa\u003c/em\u003e) inflorescence samples obtained across Canada\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegion\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLicensed samples\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIllicit samples\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBritish Columbia\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrairies\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOntario\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQu\u0026eacute;bec\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAtlantic\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e50\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e50\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePesticide analyses\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe standards and reagents, apparatus, standard solution preparation, sample preparation, instrument analysis, validation criteria and quality control methods used for pesticide analyses were identical to those used in previous publications (Gagnon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTotal THC analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCannabis inflorescence samples were homogenized via a laboratory-grade homogenizer. The samples (0.3 g) were subjected to extraction in 30 mL of methanol with continuous agitation for 30 min, sonicated for 15 min, and centrifuged at 3000 RPM for 5 min. The supernatant was diluted appropriately to ensure that the analyte concentrations fell within the calibrated dynamic range. (\u0026plusmn;)-11-Nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol-D\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e was spiked into each extract prior to analysis as an internal standard. Quantitative analysis was performed via an ACQUITY UPLC H-Class system (Waters Corp., Milford, MA, USA) coupled with dual detection via ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy and mass spectrometry (MS). Chromatographic separation was achieved on a C18 reversed-phase column employing water‒acetonitrile gradient elution. Cannabinoid identification was confirmed by matching retention times, UV absorption spectra, and accurate mass measurements. Quantification was possible with signals from both the UV and MS detectors. The total THC content represents the sum of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) and its acidic precursor Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (Δ9-THCA), accounting for the potential decarboxylation of Δ9-THCA to Δ9-THC during sample processing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eElemental metal analyses\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCannabis inflorescence samples were cryogenically homogenized via a freezer mill (Spex sample prep 6875D, SPEX, New Jersey, USA) prior to subsampling. The samples were subjected to closed-vessel microwave-assisted (Mars 6 System, CEM, North Carolina, USA) acid digestion via a mixture of nitric acid (HNO₃) : hydrochloric acid (HCl) (7:1) at 210\u0026deg;C in 55 mL Teflon vessels. The extracts were then diluted to appropriate volumes, and internal standards were introduced via in-line addition. Analysis targeting 18 elemental impurities was validated with calibration curves spanning from one-tenth to twice the specified limit concentrations of the United States Pharmacopeia 232 (Zaidi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Detection and quantification were carried out via an Inductively Coupled Plasma Triple Quadrupole mass spectrometer (ICP-QQQ, Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA), which employs various collision/reaction cell gas modes to increase the selectivity and sensitivity for specific elements.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMycotoxins\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnalyses of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2, ochratoxin A and deoxynivalenol were carried out via liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC‒MS/MS, QTRAP 6500+, AB SCIEX, Framingham, MA, USA), as per the methods described by (Desaulniers Brousseau et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMicrobial Contaminants\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDried cannabis samples were prepared and tested for total aerobic microbial count (TAMC), total yeast and mold count (TYMC), bile-tolerant gram-negative bacteria (BTGN), and the presence or absence of \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eSalmonella spp\u003c/em\u003e. according to the (European Pharmacopoeia, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, for the samples whose TYMC counts were greater than the limits set by (European Pharmacopoeia, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), the presence or absence of \u003cem\u003eAspergillus spp\u003c/em\u003e. was tested via a combination of microscopic observation and a matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) spectrometer (Microflex LT/SH, Bruker Daltonics GmbH \u0026amp; Co. KG, Bremen, Germany).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study expands upon previous findings (Gagnon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) by encompassing not only pesticide residues but also heavy metals, mycotoxins, microbial contaminants and THC levels in real-world cannabis inflorescence samples available across Canada. The objective was to determine THC potency and the prevalence of these contaminants in licensed versus illicit cannabis products. A total of 100 samples, 50 licensed and 50 illicit samples, were analyzed for THC content alongside heavy metals, pesticides, mycotoxins, and microbial contaminants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTHC levels\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe total THC concentration reported on the label of licensed commercially available cannabis inflorescence ranged from 143 mg/g to 261 mg/g (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA comparison of the measured total THC levels with the label claims (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) revealed that 52% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;26) of the products contained at least 80% of their declared THC content. Conversely, 28% of the products (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;14) measured between 70% and 80% of the labeled THC amount, whereas 20% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10) contained less than 70% of the stated THC concentration.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnalysis of total THC levels in illicit cannabis inflorescence revealed a broad potency range (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Notably, 54% of the illicit samples (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;27) presented total THC concentrations below 175 mg/g, corresponding to medium to low potency. In contrast, only two licensed cannabis samples presented THC levels below this threshold (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eHeavy metals\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA comparison of toxic metals revealed a significantly greater prevalence of arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury in illicit cannabis inflorescence than in licensed samples (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The maximum concentrations of these four metals in illicit samples were nearly double those measured in licensed products (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Conversely, licensed samples presented a significantly greater prevalence of chromium, with peak concentrations nearly three times greater than those found in illicit samples (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). The concentrations of arsenic, barium, chromium, copper, molybdenum, nickel, and vanadium exceeded their United States Pharmacopeia (USP) tolerance limits (Sarma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) in one or both sample groups (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Gold, selenium, silver, thallium, and tin were not detected at significant levels in either illicit or licensed samples, whereas copper and molybdenum were detected in nearly all the samples analyzed (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMetal concentrations in licensed and illicit cannabis inflorescence\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMetal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUSP limit\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u0026micro;g/g) (Sarma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e)*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLicensed\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIllicit\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDetection rate\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;USP limit\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConcentration range\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u0026micro;g/g)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDetection rate\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;USP limit\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConcentration range\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u0026micro;g/g)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAntimony (Sb)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArsenic (As)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u0026ndash;0.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u0026ndash;0.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBarium (Ba)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;3.00\u0026ndash;40.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;3.00\u0026ndash;95.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCadmium (Cd)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u0026ndash;0.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u0026ndash;0.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChromium (Cr)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u0026ndash;0.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u0026ndash;0.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCobalt (Co)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u0026ndash;0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u0026ndash;0.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCopper (Cu)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.65\u0026ndash;63.97\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.62\u0026ndash;24.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGold (Au)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLead (Pb)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u0026ndash;0.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u0026ndash;0.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLithium (Li)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u0026ndash;0.76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u0026ndash;1.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMercury (Hg)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u0026ndash;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u0026ndash;0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMolybdenum (Mo)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e74\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u0026ndash;9.93\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.15\u0026ndash;2.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNickel (Ni)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u0026ndash;4.69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u0026ndash;0.91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSelenium (Se)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSilver (Ag)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThallium (Tl)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTin (Sn)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.60\u0026ndash;1.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVanadium (V)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u0026ndash;0.36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u0026ndash;0.19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e* Assuming a maximum consumption of 10 g/day.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePesticide residues\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, two licensed cannabis products contained trace levels of pesticides (myclobutanil and dichlobenil) measured at the lowest calibrated level (LCL) of 0.01 \u0026micro;g/g.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn contrast, 47 of the 50 illicit cannabis samples (94%) tested positive for pesticides, with an average of 3.4 unique pesticides per sample and a total of 24 distinct pesticides identified (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Myclobutanil was the most prevalent pesticide and was detected in 72% of illicit samples at concentrations up to 130 \u0026micro;g/g. Paclobutrazol was detected in 60% of the samples, whereas chlorfenapyr (24%), fluopyram (24%), boscalid (26%), and pyrethrins (38%) were also commonly detected at significant levels. Piperonyl butoxide was present in only 6% of the samples but reached an exceptionally high concentration of 1700 \u0026micro;g/g in one instance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePesticide residue levels in illicit dried cannabis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePesticide detected\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDetection rate\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.01 \u0026micro;g/g\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConcentration range\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u0026micro;g/g)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLicensed\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDichlobenil\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMyclobutanil\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIllicit\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBifenazate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.027\u0026ndash;2.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoscalid\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u0026ndash;12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChlorphenapyr\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u0026ndash;1.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChlorpyrifos\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.054\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep,p\u0026rsquo;Dicofol\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.018\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDimethoate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.042\u0026ndash;0.94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFluxapyroxad\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.018\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFluopyram\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.016\u0026ndash;15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eImidacloprid\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.018\u0026ndash;0.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMalathion\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMetalaxyl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.042\u0026ndash;0.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMyclobutanil\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u0026ndash;130\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003en-Octyl bicycloheptene dicarboximide\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.026\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOxathiapiprolin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.018\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePaclobutrazol\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.048\u0026ndash;2.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePermethrin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u0026ndash;28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePicoxystrobin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePiperonyl Butoxide\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.5\u0026ndash;1700\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePiraclostrobin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u0026ndash;4.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePyrethrins\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u0026ndash;14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePyridaben\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpinosad\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpirodiclofen\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpiromesifen\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3\u0026ndash;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMycotoxins\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eLicensed cannabis products showed no detectable levels of mycotoxins covered by the method, which covered aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2, as well as ochratoxin A and deoxynivalenol. In contrast, six illicit samples (12%) tested positive for mycotoxins, with three samples containing ochratoxin A and three containing deoxynivalenol (DON, also known as vomitoxin) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMycotoxin levels in illicit cannabis samples\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMycotoxin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConcentration (ng/g)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOchratoxin A\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePresent*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDeoxynivalenol\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePresent*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e70.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e119\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e* Insufficient quantity available to confirm exact levels in these samples\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMicrobial\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eMicrobial contaminant testing in licensed cannabis revealed that 20% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10) of the samples exceeded the European Pharmacopoeia limits(\u003cem\u003eMicrobiological quality of herbal medicinal products for oral use and extracts used in their preparation, general chapter\u003c/em\u003e, 2016) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Illicit cannabis samples exhibited significantly greater microbial contamination, frequently surpassing these regulatory thresholds. Specifically, 55% of the illicit samples exceeded the TAMC limit, with counts reaching up to 9\u0026nbsp;million CFU/g, whereas only 6% of licensed products did. Additionally, the TYMC and BGTN limits were exceeded in 73% and 43% of the illicit samples, respectively. Notably, pathogenic contaminants such as \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e were detected exclusively in illicit products, whereas \u003cem\u003eAspergillus\u003c/em\u003e spp. occurred at twice the frequency in illicit samples compared with licensed samples. Microorganisms found in dried cannabis samples exceeding the European Pharmacopoeia limits were identified via MALDI‒TOF spectrometry (Microflex LT/SH, Bruker Daltonics GmbH \u0026amp; Co. KG, Bremen, Germany) and are listed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMicrobial contaminant levels in legal and illicit dried cannabis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContaminant\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePh. Eur. Limit (\u003cem\u003eMicrobiological quality of herbal medicinal products for oral use and extracts used in their preparation, general chapter\u003c/em\u003e, 2016)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLegal cannabis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIllicit cannabis*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026gt;Ph. Eur. limit\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRange\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026gt;Ph. Eur.\u003c/b\u003e (\u003cem\u003eMicrobiological quality of herbal medicinal products for oral use and extracts used in their preparation, general chapter\u003c/em\u003e, 2016) \u003cb\u003elimit\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRange\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal aerobic microbial count (TAMC)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100,000 CFU**/g\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;100,000 \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;300,000 CFU/g\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;100,000 \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;9,000,000 CFU/g\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal yeast and mold count (TYMC)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10,000 CFU/g\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;10,000 -\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e750,000 CFU/g\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;10,000 -\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e10,000,000 CFU/g\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBile-tolerant gram-negative bacteria (BTGN)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10,000 PNB**/g\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;10 -\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10,000 PNB/g\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;10 -\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10,000 PNB/g\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAbsent\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e spp.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAbsent\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAspergillus\u003c/em\u003e spp.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e*n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;49, as only 49 of the 50 illicit samples had sufficient amounts to be tested for microbial contaminants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e** abbr: Ph. Eur. = European Pharmacopoeia; CFU\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;colony forming units; PNB\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;probable number of bacteria\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBacteria and \u003cem\u003eAspergillus\u003c/em\u003e spp. identified in dried cannabis exceeding Pharmacopoeia limits\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMicroorganism\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumber of occurrence\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003elicensed cannabis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eillicit\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ecannabis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBacteria\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCitrobacter amalonaticus/farmeri\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCitrobacter braakii\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCitrobacter freundii complex\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCitrobacter youngae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCronobacter dublinensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCronobacter sakazakii\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDermacoccus nishinomiyaensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDietzia kunjamensis/maris/schimae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEnterobacter cloacae complex\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEnterobacter hormaechei\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEnterobacter quasiroggenkampi\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEnterobacter roggenkampii\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEnterobacter soli or Enterobacter bugandensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEnterobacterales\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEnterobacteriaceae Leclercia adecarboxylata\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEnterococcus durans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEnterococcus faecalis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEnterobacter tamurae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eErwinia aphidicola/persicina\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eErwinia gerundensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEscherichia albertii/Escherichia coli/Echerichia fergusonii/\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEscherichia marmotea/Shigella boydii/Shigella dysenteriae/\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eShigella flexneri/Shigella sonnei\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEscherichia hermannii\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFranconibacter helveticus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFranconibacter pulveris\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGordonia aichienses/otitidis/sputi\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKlebsiella (raoultella) aerogenes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKlebsiella michiganensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKlebsiella oxytoca/Raoultella ornithinolytica/planticola/terrigena\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKlebsiella pneumoniae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKlebsiella variicola\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKosakonia cowanii\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMixta calida/gaviniae/intestinalis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePantoea agglomerans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePantoea brenneri\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePantoea dispersa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePantoea eucrina\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePantoea septica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePantoea vagans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePantoea wallisii\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePhytobacter ursingii\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePseudescherichia vulneris\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePseudomonas (stenotrophomonas) beteli/geniculata/\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ehibiscicola/lactitubi/maltophilia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePseudomonas aeruginosa/paraeruginosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePseudomonas coleopterorum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePseudomonas fluorescens group\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePseudomonas japonica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePseudomonas koreensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePseudomonas mendocina\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePseudomonas mosselii\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePseudomonas oleovorans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePseudomonas oryzihabitans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePseudomonas parafulva\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePseudomonas putida group\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePseudomonas ryzihabitans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePseudomonas stutzeri\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePseudomonas syringae or savastanoi\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePseudomonas xanthomarina\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRahnella aceris/aquatilis/brichi/variigena/victoriana/woolbedingensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSiccibacter colletis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSiccibacter furicensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus epedermidis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStenotrophomonas bentonitica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAspergillus\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003espp.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAspergillus austroafricanus/creber/cvjetkovicii/fructur/griseoaurantiacus/\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ejensenii/protuberus/puulaauensis/sydowii/tabacinus/tennesseensis/\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003evenenatus/versicolor\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAspergillus brasiliensis/niger/tubigensis/vadensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAspergillus calidoustus/ustus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAspergillus flavus/oryzae/parasiticus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAspergillus fumigatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAspergillus glaucus group\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAspergillus ochraceus/westerdijkiae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAspergillus tamarii\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe primary objective of this study was to broaden the current understanding of cannabis inflorescence THC levels and contamination beyond previously emphasized pesticide residues (Gagnon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Moulins et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) by incorporating analysis of total THC concentrations, heavy metals, mycotoxins, and microbial contaminants. To achieve this goal, a total of 100 cannabis inflorescence samples, comprising 50 regulated (licensed) and 50 unregulated (illicit) products, were collected from Canada. These samples were analyzed via validated, ISO/IEC 17025-accredited/attested methodologies within Health Canada laboratories.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eTHC\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTHC concentrations in licensed cannabis inflorescence indicate that approximately 50% of the potency levels measured fall within 20% of their labeled THC content. However, a substantial subset (48%) of licensed products demonstrates total THC concentrations deviating by more than 20% below the labeled THC value. This discrepancy has also been reported in other regulatory jurisdictions (Schwabe et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) (Geweda et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) (Giordano et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Currently, Health Canada lacks a defined regulatory threshold for permissible variability in total THC concentrations in licensed inflorescence cannabis products (Cannabis Regulations, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Longitudinal studies have shown that THC can degrade up to 17% after one year of storage (Ross \u0026amp; Elsohly, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e), influenced by factors such as storage duration and exposure to light (Zamengo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Preliminary data from a THC stability study in cannabis inflorescence performed by Health Canada revealed that no significant THC degradation occurred during the first year of storage (data not shown).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough the exact source of the discrepancies is difficult to determine, it is plausibly multifactorial, involving the absence of standardized sampling and analytical methodologies, limited regulatory enforcement, and commercial incentives favoring elevated THC potency claims. Health Canada is currently refining sampling procedures, testing standards, and updating regulations related to THC thresholds in cannabis inflorescence to alleviate these gaps. The presence of inaccurate THC labeling adversely affects consumers\u0026rsquo; ability to precisely dose cannabis products, undermines perceptions of product quality within the legal market, and may diminish consumer confidence. Accurate THC potency labeling is critical for mitigating risks such as overconsumption, improper dosing, and associated adverse health outcomes. This is particularly important for medical cannabis patients, for whom precise dose titration is essential for therapeutic efficacy and safety.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor samples sourced from the illicit market, the observed variability in THC concentrations may, at least in part, be attributable to differences in sample freshness at the time of seizure. However, it is not feasible to draw definitive conclusions regarding the typical potency of licensed versus illicit dried cannabis products, as this study was limited to legal products containing up to approximately 250 mg/g total THC. Furthermore, illicit market samples were submitted without accompanying information regarding their labeled THC content, geographic origin, or date of seizure, precluding direct comparisons. Importantly, the sample set analyzed in this study may not be fully representative of the broader spectrum of licensed and illicit cannabis products available on the Canadian market. As such, caution should be exercised in generalizing these findings beyond the specific samples included in this analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eElemental impurities\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eCannabis is classified as a hyperaccumulator species characterized by its ability to absorb and concentrate metals from the environment at levels several orders of magnitude greater than those of other plant species (Bengyella et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Girdhar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). This capacity explains the ubiquitous detection of certain metals, such as copper and molybdenum, in licensed and illicit samples. Copper was detected in all cannabis inflorescences, with 100% of licensed and 98% of illicit products exceeding the USP permissible limit for inhaled products (3.0 \u0026micro;g/g). Molybdenum was also prevalent and was found in nearly all the samples, with 74% of the legal products exceeding the USP threshold (1.0 \u0026micro;g/g), whereas it was present in 16% of the illicit products. No significant health risks were identified with these elevated metal results. These elevated levels, especially in legal samples, may be attributable to the use of fertilizers and micronutrient additives in commercial cultivation practices.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOther studies have demonstrated that unfiltered cannabis smoke contains significant concentrations of toxic metals (Moir et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Epidemiological studies conducted prior to cannabis legalization reported that individuals who consumed marijuana in the preceding 30 days presented elevated biomarkers of metal exposure compared with nonusers (McGraw et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Specifically, compared with nonusers, marijuana users had mean cadmium concentrations that were 22% higher in blood and 18% higher in urine, whereas lead concentrations were 27% higher in blood and 21% higher in urine (McGraw et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Given the capacity for metals to be absorbed via inhalation of cannabis smoke and the significant concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury detected in illicit cannabis inflorescence, consumers of licensed cannabis products are likely to experience reduced exposure to these toxic heavy metals. This reduction can be attributed to the rigorous regulatory framework and stringent laboratory testing requirements for heavy metals enforced by Health Canada (Cannabis Regulations, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Both lead and cadmium are toxic at very low concentrations: the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) considers any level of lead exposure to pose a health risk, and cadmium is classified as a probable human carcinogen (Genchi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Although arsenic, cobalt, manganese, and mercury were detected at concentrations exceeding USP tolerance limits in some cannabis samples, previous studies have demonstrated no statistically significant associations between cannabis use and elevated levels of these metals in biological matrices (McGraw et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This suggests a relatively low systemic absorption rate of these elements via smoke inhalation. Additionally, the limits of the pharmacopoeias may not be appropriate for cannabis plants, as there is no specific monograph for cannabis plants, and several US states have established their own limits for cannabis inflorescence (Thomas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePesticides\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePesticide residue analysis of licensed and illicit cannabis inflorescence corroborates the findings of (Gagnon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), and the expanded sample size in the present analysis provides a more robust national representation of pesticide usage patterns across both the licensed and illicit markets. The overall pesticide detection rate was 4% in licensed samples and 94% in illicit samples, which is consistent with prior results. For licensed products, the same two pesticides\u0026mdash;dichlobenil and myclobutanil\u0026mdash;were detected at the LCL of 0.01 \u0026micro;g/g. Such levels in licensed products are likely due to environmental or accidental contamination rather than intentional use. No health risk was identified by Health Canada for either dichlobenil or myclobutanil at 0.01 \u0026micro;g/g. Although dichlobenil was detected and quantified in a single licensed cannabis sample, it is not included in the mandatory pesticide active ingredient panel specified by the \u003cem\u003eMandatory Cannabis Testing for Pesticide Active Ingredients Requirements\u003c/em\u003e (Mandatory cannabis testing for pesticide active ingredients requirements, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). This gap highlights the importance of expanded multiresidue analytical methods with enhanced sensitivity and selectivity to capture a broader spectrum of pesticide residues.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn contrast, illicit cannabis samples yielded both previously identified and newly quantified pesticide residues. Notably, the newly detected compounds included p,p\u0026rsquo;-dicofol, dimethoate, fluxapyroxad, metalaxyl, n-octyl bicycloheptene dicarboximide, oxathiapiprolin, picoxystrobin, and piraclostrobin, with the latter showing a substantial sample positivity rate of 22%.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConsistent with earlier findings (Gagnon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), myclobutanil, paclobutrazol, and pyrethrins were detected at high frequencies, ranging from 38% to 72% across illicit samples. Furthermore, notable shifts in the prevalence of specific pesticides were observed. The sample positivity rates for boscalid, chlorfenapyr, and fluopyram increased by approximately 6- to 12-fold compared with previous data, whereas the detection frequency of piperonyl butoxide decreased approximately threefold. The maximum concentrations of several pesticides\u0026mdash;including boscalid, fluopyram, myclobutanil, permethrin, piperonyl butoxide, pyrethrins, and spinosad\u0026mdash;in illicit samples were found to be 1 to 3 orders of magnitude higher than those reported in (Gagnon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMicrobial and mycotoxins\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eCannabis and hemp plants interact with a community of microbes consisting of more than 100 species of fungi and bacteria that can produce toxic secondary metabolites (i.e., mycotoxins) that can potentially affect the health of humans (Gwinn et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTesting for bacterial contaminants revealed that 20% of licensed samples and a significantly greater proportion (43\u0026ndash;55%) of illicit samples contained bacterial levels above the European Pharmacopoeia limits. Production sites and agroclimatic conditions have previously been shown to significantly influence microbial load and composition (Sopovski et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), which could explain the higher bacterial and fungal prevalence in illicit samples not produced in controlled environments and not subjected to the stringent quality standards of the licensed market (Cannabis Regulations, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The most commonly identified genera of bacteria included species of \u003cem\u003eEnterobacter, Klebsiella, Pseudomonas\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ePantoea\u003c/em\u003e, with notable differences in their presence between licensed and illicit samples, with the former being more common in illicit samples (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). \u003cem\u003eEnterobacter cloacae\u003c/em\u003e was detected in 72% of illicit samples and is recognized in the literature as an opportunistic pathogen (Hennigs et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). \u003cem\u003eKlebsiella\u003c/em\u003e spp. and \u003cem\u003ePseudomonas aeruginosa\u003c/em\u003e, which are associated with respiratory infections (Bahy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), were also identified predominantly in illicit samples. For 20% of the positively regulated samples, appropriate compliance and enforcement measures were taken to address each of these cases, which resulted in voluntary recall in one instance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimilarly, the significantly higher TYMC and \u003cem\u003eAspergillus\u003c/em\u003e counts in illicit samples than in licensed products increase health risks, as inhalation of these spores can cause lung infections, particularly in immunocompromised and cancer patients, in whom aspergillosis accounts for 43% of fungal infections associated with cannabis use (Benedict et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Species of \u003cem\u003eAspergillus\u003c/em\u003e are known to produce ochratoxin A, which can result in kidney damage (Gwinn et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The observed prevalence of ochratoxin A in illicit cannabis inflorescence samples corroborates previous findings in California (Jameson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and Luxembourg (Buchicchio et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Ochratoxin A in illicit cannabis can be of concern, as although heat combustion can degrade a portion of ochratoxin A, it does not always result in reduced toxicity since some degradation products are as toxic as the parent molecule (Boudra et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, the \u003cem\u003eFusarium\u003c/em\u003e mycotoxin DON has been shown to accumulate in cannabis inflorescence and to cause chronic immunosuppression, cancer and toxicosis (Gwinn et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Even though the smoking process can reduce the level of DON, this mycotoxin is efficiently and rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream through inhalation. However, there are no tolerance limits established in any of the publications listed in Schedule B of the \u003cem\u003eFood and Drugs Act\u003c/em\u003e for these two contaminants in cannabis (Sarma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study is a comprehensive assessment of contaminant profiles in both licensed and illicit cannabis inflorescences in Canada, encompassing not only pesticide residues (Gagnon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Moulins et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) but also heavy metals, mycotoxins, microbial contaminants, and THC concentration variability. Notably, 48% of licensed cannabis products presented THC concentrations deviating by more than 20% from their labeled values, prompting Health Canada to initiate efforts to refine sampling protocols, testing standards, and regulatory frameworks governing THC thresholds. Such labeling inaccuracies can compromise dosing precision, undermine consumer confidence in regulated products, and pose significant safety concerns, particularly for medical cannabis users.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMicrobiological analysis revealed that 20% of licensed samples exceeded the European Pharmacopoeia microbial limits, resulting in regulatory notifications and compliance measures, including voluntary recall. Illicit samples presented substantially elevated contamination, with 55% surpassing aerobic microbial limits and 73% exceeding yeast and mold thresholds. Mycotoxins were undetected in licensed products but were present in 12% of illicit samples.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePesticide analysis identified trace residues of myclobutanil and dichlobenil at the lowest calibrated level (0.01 \u0026micro;g/g) in only two licensed samples, whereas 94% of illicit samples tested positive for pesticides, averaging 3.4 unique residues per sample, encompassing 24 distinct compounds.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeavy metal quantification demonstrated a significantly greater prevalence and concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury in illicit cannabis than in licensed products. The licensed samples, however, presented greater chromium levels, with peak concentrations nearly threefold higher than those of illicit cannabis. The concentrations of arsenic, barium, chromium, copper, molybdenum, nickel, and vanadium exceeded the USP tolerance limits in one or both groups.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCollectively, these findings provide critical data to inform regulatory policy enhancements and support evidence-based decision-making among Canadian cannabis consumers.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eLC-MS/MS: liquid chromatography \u0026ndash; triple quadruple mass spectrometry, UV: ultraviolet, MS: mass spectrometry, THC: tetrahydrocannabinol, TAMC: total aerobic microbial count, TYMC: total yeast and mold count, BTGN: bile-tolerant gram-negative bacteria, USP: United States Pharmacopeia, LCL: lowest calibrated level, Ph Eur: European Pharmacopoeia; CFU: colony-forming units, PNB = probable number of bacteria\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data is available from the corresponding author on reasonable request\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOpen Access funding provided by Health Canada. \u0026nbsp; None to declare.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQF, MP, WM, JM, YR, RD, MI, GZ, JK, GA-Y, EB, JV, MG, CR, RA, JBB, ML, JA, DBR, AG, DBB, CS, CD, KH, GM, and RY performed sample analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePB, CL, AR, CD, and ID reviewed the analytical data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eVZ, GC, HK, and ID coordinated the in-laboratory analyses and approved the results\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMF developed the project and assisted in the writing of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDRB, JB, II allocated the laboratory resources for this project.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDRB wrote the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll the authors have read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to thank Health Canada colleagues for reviewing the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBahy, R., Fatyan, E., Saafan, A. 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(2023). \u003cem\u003eFungal Contamination Monitoring in Legal Cannabis Products: Optimization of an existing method\u003c/em\u003e10.13140/RG.2.2.36057.29284\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEuropean Pharmacopoeia. (2019). \u003cem\u003eMicrobiological Examination of Herbal Medicinal Products\u003c/em\u003e (10.0th ed.)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGagnon, M., McRitchie, T., Montsion, K., Tully, J., Blais, M., Snider, N., \u0026amp; Blais, D. R. (2023). High levels of pesticides found in illicit cannabis inflorescence compared to licensed samples in Canadian study using expanded 327 pesticides multiresidue method.\u003cem\u003e Journal of Cannabis Research, 5\u003c/em\u003e(1), 34–0. 10.1186/s42238-023-00200-0\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGenchi, G., Sinicropi, M. S., Lauria, G., Carocci, A., \u0026amp; Catalano, A. (2020). The Effects of Cadmium Toxicity.\u003cem\u003e International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17\u003c/em\u003e(11), 3782. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17113782. 10.3390/ijerph17113782\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGeweda, M. M., Majumdar, C. G., Moore, M. N., Elhendawy, M. A., Radwan, M. M., Chandra, S., \u0026amp; ElSohly, M. A. (2024). Evaluation of dispensaries' cannabis flowers for accuracy of labeling of cannabinoids content.\u003cem\u003e Journal of Cannabis Research, 6\u003c/em\u003e(1), 11–4. 10.1186/s42238-024-00220-4\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGiordano, G., Brook, C. P., Ortiz Torres, M., MacDonald, G., Skrzynski, C. J., Lisano, J. K., Mackie, D. I., \u0026amp; Bidwell, L. C. (2025). Accuracy of labeled THC potency across flower and concentrate cannabis products.\u003cem\u003e Scientific Reports, 15\u003c/em\u003e(1), 20822. 10.1038/s41598-025-03854-3\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGirdhar, M., Sharma, N. R., Rehman, H., Kumar, A., \u0026amp; Mohan, A. (2014). Comparative assessment for hyperaccumulatory and phytoremediation capability of three wild weeds.\u003cem\u003e 3 Biotech, 4\u003c/em\u003e(6), 579–589. 10.1007/s13205-014-0194-0\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGwinn, K. D., Leung, M. C. K., Stephens, A. B., \u0026amp; Punja, Z. K. (2023). Fungal and mycotoxin contaminants in cannabis and hemp flowers: implications for consumer health and directions for further research.\u003cem\u003e Frontiers in Microbiology, 14\u003c/em\u003e, 1278189. 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1278189\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHennigs, J. K., Baumann, H. J., Schmiedel, S., Tennstedt, P., Sobottka, I., Bokemeyer, C., Kluge, S., \u0026amp; Klose, H. (2011). Characterization of \u003cem\u003eEnterobacter cloacae\u003c/em\u003e pneumonia: a single-center retrospective analysis.\u003cem\u003e Lung, 189\u003c/em\u003e(6), 475–483. 10.1007/s00408-011-9323-2\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJameson, L. E., Conrow, K. D., Pinkhasova, D. V., Boulanger, H. L., Ha, H., Jourabchian, N., Johnson, S. A., Simeone, M. P., Afia, I. A., Cahill, T. M., Orser, C. S., \u0026amp; Leung, M. C. K. (2022). Comparison of State-Level Regulations for Cannabis Contaminants and Implications for Public Health.\u003cem\u003e Environmental Health Perspectives, 130\u003c/em\u003e(9), 97001. 10.1289/EHP11206\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMandatory cannabis testing for pesticide active ingredients requirements. (2019). \u003cem\u003ehttps://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/publications/drugs-health-products/cannabis-testing-pesticide-requirements.html.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMcGraw, K. E., Nigra, A. E., Klett, J., Sobel, M., Oelsner, E. C., Navas-Acien, A., Hu, X., \u0026amp; Sanchez, T. R. (2023). Blood and Urinary Metal Levels among Exclusive Marijuana Users in NHANES (2005-2018).\u003cem\u003e Environmental Health Perspectives, 131\u003c/em\u003e(8), 87019. 10.1289/EHP12074\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cem\u003eMicrobiological quality of herbal medicinal products for oral use and extracts used in their preparation, general chapter\u003c/em\u003e (2016). (9th ed.). Strasbourg: Council of Europe:\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMoir, D., Rickert, W. S., Levasseur, G., Larose, Y., Maertens, R., White, P., \u0026amp; Desjardins, S. (2008). A comparison of mainstream and sidestream marijuana and tobacco cigarette smoke produced under two machine smoking conditions.\u003cem\u003e Chemical Research in Toxicology, 21\u003c/em\u003e(2), 494–502. 10.1021/tx700275p\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMoulins, J. R., Blais, M., Montsion, K., Tully, J., Mohan, W., Gagnon, M., McRitchie, T., Kwong, K., Snider, N., \u0026amp; Blais, D. R. (2018). Multiresidue Method of Analysis of Pesticides in Medical Cannabis.\u003cem\u003e Journal of AOAC International, 101\u003c/em\u003e(6), 1948–1960. 10.5740/jaoacint.17-0495\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRoss, S. A., \u0026amp; Elsohly, M. A. (1997). CBN and D9-THC concentration ratio as an indicator of the age of stored marijuana samples.\u003cem\u003e Bulletin on Narcotics, 49\u003c/em\u003e(50), 139–147.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSarma, N. D., Waye, A., ElSohly, M. A., Brown, P. N., Elzinga, S., Johnson, H. E., Marles, R. J., Melanson, J. E., Russo, E., Deyton, L., Hudalla, C., Vrdoljak, G. A., Wurzer, J. H., Khan, I. A., Kim, N. C., \u0026amp; Giancaspro, G. I. (2020). Cannabis Inflorescence for Medical Purposes: USP Considerations for Quality Attributes.\u003cem\u003e Journal of Natural Products, 83\u003c/em\u003e(4), 1334–1351. 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.9b01200\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSchwabe, A. L., Johnson, V., Harrelson, J., \u0026amp; McGlaughlin, M. E. (2023). Uncomfortably high: Testing reveals inflated THC potency on retail Cannabis labels.\u003cem\u003e PloS One, 18\u003c/em\u003e(4), e0282396. 10.1371/journal.pone.0282396\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSopovski, D. S., Han, J., Stevens-Riley, M., Wang, Q., Erickson, B. D., Oktem, B., Vanlandingham, M., Taylor, C. L., \u0026amp; Foley, S. L. (2023). Investigation of microorganisms in cannabis after heating in a commercial vaporizer.\u003cem\u003e Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 12\u003c/em\u003e, 1051272. 10.3389/fcimb.2022.1051272\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThomas, R. (2022). Expanding the Panel of Heavy Metal Contaminants in Cannabis and Hemp Beyond the Big Four: What Is the Regulatory Evidence Telling Us?; Expanding the Panel of Heavy Metal Contaminants in Cannabis and Hemp Beyond the Big Four: What Is the Regulatory Evidence Telling Us?\u003cem\u003e Cannabis Science and Technology, 5\u003c/em\u003e, 12–17. https://www.cannabissciencetech.com/view/expanding-the-panel-of-heavy-metal-contaminants-in-cannabis-and-hemp-beyond-the-big-four-what-is-the-regulatory-evidence-telling-us- https://www.cannabissciencetech.com\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZaidi, K. (2010). United States Pharmacopeia 232 - Elemental Impurities - Limits.\u003cem\u003e36\u003c/em\u003e(1), 1–4.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZamengo, L., Bettin, C., Badocco, D., Di Marco, V., Miolo, G., \u0026amp; Frison, G. (2019). The role of time and storage conditions on the composition of hashish and marijuana samples: A four-year study.\u003cem\u003e Forensic Science International, 298\u003c/em\u003e, 131–137. 10.1016/j.forsciint.2019.02.058\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Footnotes","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003eThe methodologies presented herein are intended exclusively to advance scientific understanding. Utilization of these methods outside the context of a well-established and robust quality management system, encompassing rigorous controls, verification procedures, and deviation management, may compromise the precision and reproducibility of the results. Consequently, the authors and their affiliated employers disclose any liability arising from the application of these methods.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-cannabis-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jcan","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Cannabis Research](https://jcannabisresearch.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"42238","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/42238/3","title":"Journal of Cannabis Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Cannabis inflorescence, Licensed, Illicit, THC, Metals, Elemental, Microbial, Mycotoxin, Pesticides, Contaminants","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8186487/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8186487/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFollowing the legalization of recreational cannabis in Canada under the Cannabis Act (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), regulatory frameworks were implemented to ensure product safety, quality, and consistency within the legal market. Previous studies revealed significantly greater pesticide contamination in illicit cannabis than in licensed products. In light of these findings, the present study expands contaminant surveillance to include the quantification of Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and a broader range of potential toxicants, including heavy metals, pesticides, mycotoxins, and microbial agents.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFifty licensed cannabis products were purchased across Canadian provinces, and 50 illicit samples were obtained via law enforcement seizures. All the samples were tested via validated, accredited/attested methods. THC content was assessed using LC-UV-MS. Pesticides were analyzed via LC-MS/MS and GC-MS/MS; heavy metals via ICP-MS/MS; mycotoxins via LC-MS/MS; and microbial contamination using MALDI-TOF.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTHC levels in 48% of licensed products deviated by more than 20% from their labeled concentrations. Microbiological testing revealed that 20% of legal products exceeded the European Pharmacopoeia microbial limits, prompting regulatory responses and voluntary recall. In contrast, 55% of the illicit products exceeded the aerobic plate count thresholds, and 73% surpassed the yeast and mold limits. Mycotoxins were undetected in licensed products but were present in 12% of illicit samples. Pesticide residues were found at trace levels (0.01 \u0026micro;g/g) for myclobutanil and dichlobenil in two licensed samples, whereas 94% of illicit samples contained pesticides, averaging 3.4 compounds per sample across 24 unique active ingredients. Heavy metal analysis revealed higher levels of arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury in illicit products than in their licensed counterparts. However, licensed samples presented higher chromium concentrations, with peak values approximately threefold greater than those observed in illicit cannabis. The concentrations of arsenic, barium, chromium, copper, molybdenum, nickel, and vanadium exceeded the permissible daily exposure limits of the United States Pharmacopeia (USP) in one or both product categories.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese findings demonstrate significant differences in licensed THC levels compared with their label claims as well as in contaminants between licensed and illicit cannabis products. The results provide evidence to inform regulatory oversight, enhance public health risk assessments, and support informed decision-making by consumers and policymakers in the context of a legal cannabis framework.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Quantification of THC, heavy metals, pesticides, mycotoxins, and microbial contaminants in cannabis inflorescence reveals higher levels in illicit samples than in the licensed Canadian market","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-03 08:27:59","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8186487/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-12-18T20:42:11+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-12T02:54:58+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"262651017835249668779491353682524020070","date":"2025-12-10T01:31:51+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-07T17:30:51+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"169219642776477526530732127037171153154","date":"2025-12-03T17:20:07+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"163001345292601632120538413382862107669","date":"2025-12-03T11:21:01+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"175426934485301786805217328602538310684","date":"2025-12-01T23:32:35+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-01T17:09:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-11-25T04:02:23+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-11-25T04:02:04+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Journal of Cannabis Research","date":"2025-11-23T15:26:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-cannabis-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jcan","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Cannabis Research](https://jcannabisresearch.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"42238","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/42238/3","title":"Journal of Cannabis Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ff17e13c-df79-4cc1-ac18-f9e7cb7695dc","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 3rd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-02T16:11:34+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-8186487","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s42238-026-00414-y","journal":{"identity":"journal-of-cannabis-research","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Journal of Cannabis Research"},"publishedOn":"2026-02-23 15:59:43","publishedOnDateReadable":"February 23rd, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-03 08:27:59","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s42238-026-00414-y","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s42238-026-00414-y","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8186487","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8186487","identity":"rs-8186487","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}