Expansion and increase of human pressures on global land ecosystems between 1990 and 2020

Abstract We present a spatially explicit, global-scale index to assess the effects of the five direct anthropogenic drivers of biodiversity loss identified by the IPBES: land use change, natural resource extraction, climate change, pollution, and invasive alien species. The Biodiversity Pressure Index (BPI) covers 30 years (1990-2020) with an annual time-step and a spatial resolution of 0.1 degrees. We find that the coverage of drivers in available data varies and we highlight the key uncertainties that result from this. Using the best available data, we show that large parts of the terrestrial biosphere (approximately 89%, including Antarctica and Greenland) are under medium or high human pressure and that almost all areas (approximately 96%) have experienced an increase in pressure over the past three decades. The BPI shows varied spatial and temporal patterns across world regions and biomes, but many of these areas are dominated by pressures associated with rising temperatures and trade flows. Tropical and subtropical areas are subject to particularly rapidly-growing pressures, while wetlands consistently show the highest pressure levels across biomes. In revealing these and other patterns, the BPI provides a basis for improved understanding and management of biodiversity impacts in the future. Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest. Footnotes Added corresponding author and shifted a few paragraphs for better flow.