Demographic, Maternal and Biochemical Predictors of Early Management Outcomes in Newborns with Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy in a Resource-Limited Setting

Demographic, Maternal and Biochemical Predictors of Early Management Outcomes in Newborns with Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy in a Resource-Limited Setting | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Demographic, Maternal and Biochemical Predictors of Early Management Outcomes in Newborns with Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy in a Resource-Limited Setting Chigozie Kingsley Onyeje, Blessing Tochukwu Onyeje, Chimezie Udennaka, and 7 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7490677/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background: Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) remains a leading cause of neonatal mortality and long-term neurological disability, particularly in resource-limited settings. Understanding predictive factors for early outcomes is crucial for optimizing management strategies. Objective: To identify demographic, maternal, and biochemical predictors of early management outcomes in newborns with HIE in a Nigerian tertiary health institution. Methods: A prospective hospital-based study was conducted at Nnamdi Azikiwe University Teaching Hospital, Nnewi, from September 2023 to May 2024. Seventy term newborns with HIE admitted within 72 hours of delivery were enrolled. HIE diagnosis was based on abnormal neurological examination using the Thompson score. Data on demographic characteristics, maternal factors, and biochemical parameters were collected and analyzed using SPSS version 25. Fisher's exact test and Chi-square analysis was used to determine associations between variables, with p<0.05 considered significant. Results: Among 70 newborns, 45.7% (32/70) experienced short-term adverse outcomes. The case fatality rate was 17.1% (12/70), while 28.6% (20/70) developed complications including seizures (80%), absent nutritive suckling (65%), poor Moro reflex (25%), respiratory distress (20%), and altered consciousness (15%). Significant predictors of adverse outcomes included place of delivery (p=0.005), with outborn babies showing higher risk than inborn deliveries. HIE severity was strongly associated with outcomes (p<0.001), as was 5 th minute Apgar score <7 (p<0.001). Maternal factors significantly associated with adverse outcomes included mode of delivery (p=0.032) and maternal occupation (p=0.020). Random blood glucose levels showed significant association with outcomes (p<0.001), while serum magnesium levels did not (p=0.980). Conclusion: HIE severity, low Apgar scores, outborn delivery status, and abnormal blood glucose levels were significant predictors of early adverse outcomes in newborns with HIE. These findings emphasize the importance of skilled birth attendance, early recognition, and prompt glucose monitoring in improving outcomes for affected newborns in resource-limited settings. Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy neonatal outcomes predictors resource-limited setting Nigeria Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Introduction Perinatal asphyxia remains a major cause of neonatal death globally, disproportionately affecting developing regions like Sub-Saharan Africa where survivors often face long-term health challenges. Babies who survive perinatal asphyxia often develop multiple disabilities that impact their future quality of life and productivity. 1 These long-term sequelae include cerebral palsy, seizures, mental disorders, vision and hearing impairment, and cognitive and learning disabilities. 2 , 3 Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) is a syndrome of neurologic dysfunction which complicates perinatal asphyxia. 4 It is the commonest cause of neonatal encephalopathy. 5 Hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy develops in a predictable pattern with initial signs observed within the first 12 hours of birth followed by the classical symptoms appearing between 12 and 48 hours post delivery. The timing of onset and features depend on the degree of cerebral insult. 4 Survival rates in babies with HIE depend not just on severity, but also on factors like place of birth, quality of prenatal care, underlying cause, gestational age, maternal health and age, economic status, and access to timely specialized care. 5 – 7 Factors predisposing to HIE can be antenatal, perinatal, or a combination of both. 8 HIE is a major cause of neurologic disability in term neonates despite widespread use of hypothermia therapy 9 and its severe form is associated with multi-organ dysfunction. During hypoxic-ischaemic injury, excessive glutamate released results in overstimulation of glutamate receptors on nerve cells. This excitotoxicity triggers enzyme cascades that destroy neuronal membranes and cellular processes, leading to HIE symptoms. 9 Using the modified Sarnat and Sarnat staging system, HIE is categorized into three levels of increasing severity: mild (Stage I), moderate (Stage II), and severe (Stage III), each with distinct clinical parameters. 10 Approximately 20–30% of infants with HIE die in the neonatal period, with about 33–50% of survivors left with permanent neuro-developmental abnormalities. 11 HIE accounts for 6–9% of all neonatal deaths and 21–23% of deaths in term infants. While HIE affects 1.5–2.5 per 1000 births in developed countries, 12 rates increase dramatically to over 26 per 1000 births in resource-limited settings, 13 with one hospital-based study in Sagamu, Ogun State Nigeria reporting an even higher prevalence of 35.9%. 4 It is still a scientific puzzle why some asphyxiated newborns develop HIE while others do not. However, some researchers have suggested variation in newborns’ compensatory thresholds and intrinsic resistance of the brain to severe asphyxia; 14 complex relationship between the neonatal brain and the immune system during the perinatal period; 15 developmental maturity of the brain 16 and possibly intrinsic genetic factors of the neonates, 17 as plausible explanations. Numerous risk factors have been implicated to predispose asphyxiated newborns to HIE; including severe acidosis, thick meconium stained liquor, abnormal fetal heart patterns, chorioamnionitis, and acute obstetric events. 18 Similarly, other maternal and obstetric factors such as maternal age, primigravida, previous fetal death/stillbirth, smoking, diabetes, and peripartum fever might affect fetal brain adaptation to acidosis, 19 , 20 thus increasing risk for HIE. The occurrence of multiple risk factors may likely increase the odds for HIE. Identifying neonates with HIE at higher risk of severe neurological impairment or death is a major focus of research, as this will set the tune for determining management modalities including neuro-protective therapies, prognostication and anticipatory counseling of caregivers. 21 Management outcomes in HIE depends on several factors including; need for advanced resuscitation and abnormal neurological examination; 22 presence of seizures- clinical or electrophysiological, low APGAR scores, poor electroencephalogram background activity, severity of HIE and the clinical status of the neonate at birth. 23 A hospital-based retrospective study done in Nigeria found that place of delivery, booking status of mother, gestational age at birth, age of infant at presentation and severity of HIE significantly predict in-hospital mortality in babies with HIE. 5 We studied the interplay between some identified risk factors and clinical findings at presentation in predicting early management outcomes in newborns with HIE in a tertiary health institution in Nigeria. Understanding these factors will not only guide clinicians in predicting outcomes but also in deciding which interventions are most urgent for affected newborns. The objectives of the study therefore include: to determine case fatality rate and prevalence of major short-term adverse outcomes among newborns with HIE; to investigate newborn’s demographic and clinical characteristics (age, gender, place of delivery, sentinel events in labour, 5th minute Apgar score, HIE severity) associated with adverse outcomes among newborns with HIE; to evaluate the influence of maternal characteristics (age, parity, mother’s educational level and occupation and mode of delivery) on early outcomes of newborns with HIE; to assess the role of serum biochemical parameters including magnesium and random blood glucose levels, in predicting short-term outcomes in neonates with HIE; To propose actionable interventions based on study findings to improve early management outcomes among newborns with HIE in resource-limited settings Materials and methods Study area This was a hospital-based prospective study conducted at the Special Care Baby unit (SCBU) of the Nnamdi Azikiwe University Teaching Hospital (NAUTH), Nnewi, Anambra State. NAUTH is a Federal tertiary health institution located in the commercial city of Nnewi, Anambra State. The facility offers specialized healthcare while serving as a referral center for primary and secondary health facilities in the state and neighboring regions. The neonatal unit at NAUTH provides a 24-hours service, can accommodate 45 babies, and is conveniently located next to the labour ward. About 1,092 newborns are admitted annually; an average of 3 neonates per day. The SCBU is equipped with 15 incubators, four resuscitaire, two handheld pulse oximeters, four phototherapy units, four apnea monitors, three bubble CPAP machines and different oxygen delivery systems with piped oxygen supply. The SCBU is supervised by seven neonatologists. Other clinical personnel in the unit include eight resident doctors (four senior and four junior registrars, rotating through the unit on 3-6monthly basis), five interns and twenty nurses of different cadres. The SCBU Protocol for management of HIE involves respiratory support with free flow intranasal oxygen or continuous positive airway pressure; anti-seizure drugs; prophylactic antibiotics; dextrose-containing intravenous fluid for caloric support and nasogastric tube feeding when appropriate. Newborn participation and enrolment The study population comprised of seventy term newborns with HIE (both in-born and out-born) admitted into the SCBU within 72hours of delivery, who met the inclusion criteria. The study duration spanned nine months from September, 2023 to May, 2024. In the present study, a diagnosis of HIE was based on abnormal neurologic examination during the first 72hours of life as judged by application of the Thompson score (Fig. 2 ) and any one of the following: Weak/poor cry at birth. Need for assisted ventilation initiated at birth and continued for at least 5minutes Eligible newborns with HIE received comprehensive evaluation including medical history and clinical examination, then were classified using the Thompson score (Fig. 1). Exclusion Criteria All newborns with evidence of septicemia (e.g. temperature instability, abdominal swelling, abnormal bleeding, petechiae rash), intrauterine infection, congenital anomalies, necrotizing enterocolitis Newborns who were clinically anaemic Newborns of diabetic mothers Newborn babies of mothers who received opioids and other depressant medications. After obtaining written informed consent from each participating mother in her preferred language and voluntariness assured, eligible newborns were enrolled consecutively into the study and monitored daily until discharge or death. Research variable The following information was obtained on admission or at subsequent reviews using a structured researcher administered questionnaire. These include the outcome and predictor variables. Outcome variables – this is the final outcome of newborns admitted for HIE in the special care baby unit during the study period. This includes death; survived without complications; or survived with complications such as respiratory distress, absence of a nutritive suckling reflex, altered level of consciousness, seizures and poor Moro reflex. Predictor variables – these are independent variables that are related to newborn management outcomes. They include birth and demographic variables, clinical parameters, laboratory parameters, and HIE scores categorized as shown below: Birth and demographic variables: (a) age of patient at presentation categorized into < 24, 24- <48, and 48–72 hours of life; (b) sex – categorized into male and female; (c) birth weight ( 4.0 kg); (d) place of birth (inborn or outborn); (e) mode of delivery which could be- normal vaginal, assisted vaginal or cesarean section; (f) sentinel events in labour which could be present or absent (events like cord prolapsed, meconium-stained liquor, abruptio placenta, etc); (g) maternal age categorized into 18- 35 years; (h) parity grouped into primiparous, multiparous and grand multiparous; (i) mother’s highest educational attainment categorized into primary, secondary and tertiary; (j) mother’s occupation categorized into unemployed, civil servant, trader and others Clinical data: Apgar score in the 5th minute grouped into 7. HIE staging: the degree of hypoxic encephalopathy in newborns enrolled for this study was measured using the Thompson HIE score (Fig. 1) and the babies were categorized into mild (HIE I), moderate (HIE II) and severe (HIE III). Laboratory parameters include random blood glucose using capillary blood obtained by heel prick and read using a glucometer (Fine test auto-coding premium, OSANG Healthcare Co., Ltd., Korea), normal range 73-109mg/dl. Serum magnesium- estimated using the xylidyl blue spectrophotometric method, normal range 1.50-2.30mg/dl. Treatment protocol for asphyxiated neonates with HIE Perinatal asphyxia is a neonatal emergency condition. Upon admission, affected newborns are resuscitated as required including giving intermittent positive pressure ventilation using a bag-valve-mask device. Once regular breathing is achieved, other components of care include: Random blood glucose assay to correct hypoglycemia if present Venous blood sample collected for necessary investigations including serum magnesium Supplemental oxygen (using a concentrator of bubble CPAP) if oxygen saturation (SPO 2 ) was less than 90% Intravenous dextrose water infusion for the first day on admission with subsequent addition of electrolytes (sodium) after 48 hours, and potassium after adequate urine output has been established Anticonvulsants such as diazepam and phenobarbitone were used in cases with seizure Intravenous phenobarbitone was given for all cases with severe HIE Empirical antibiotic using broad-spectrum antibiotics as prophylaxis for neonatal infections Cerebral decongestants such as intravenous mannitol were used in cases where cerebral oedema was suspected Nasogastric tube feeding where applicable Affected newborn were followed up by a daily clinical examination (mainly with the Thompson score parameters recorded at presentation, 24 hours and 48 hour later) and short-term outcomes recorded on day 7 Data Analysis The collected data were initially entered into Microsoft Excel, cleaned and subsequently exported and analyzed using statistical package for social science (SPSS) version 25 (IBM Corp., Armonk, New York, USA). Descriptive statistics of frequency count, percentages, mean and standard deviation was used to summarize demographic characteristics. Variables which had missing values were excluded from the analysis. The Fisher’s exact test and Chi-square (χ2) analysis was used to determine association between variables. P values < 0.05 was considered as statistically significant. Ethical Consideration Approval for this study was obtained from the NAUTH Ethics Committee with reference number NAUTH/CS/66/VOL.15/VER.3/100/2022/057. A written informed consent was obtained from every mother-newborn dyad following adequate explanation of the research objectives, potential benefits of participation, and assurance that the study posed minimal risk to their newborns. Participation in the study was entirely voluntary and no form of financial inducement was involved. Voluntary withdrawal at any stage of interaction was guaranteed for all subjects without any adverse effect for the newborns. All information was handled with strict confidentiality. Results Among the 603 neonates admitted into the SCBU during the study period, 200 were diagnosed with perinatal asphyxia; however, 100 of them were excluded based on the eligibility criteria (Fig. 2 ). A further 30 babies were excluded as they did not meet the criteria for diagnosis of HIE; thus, a final analysis included 70 newborns. Thirty-two out of 70 (45.7%) had short-term adverse outcome; among these 37.5% (n = 12) died within seven days of admission given a case fatality rate of 17.1%, while 62.5% (n = 20) developed at least one adverse complication. The prevalence of major short-term adverse outcomes include: seizure- 80% (16/20), absent nutritive suckling – 65% (13/20), poor Moro reflex- 25% (5/20), respiratory distress- 20% (4/20) and altered consciousness- 15% (3/20). Table 1 shows that most newborns in our study presented to the hospital within the first 24 hours of life (58.6%, n=41), with a mean presentation age of 27.1 ± 23.3 hours. The study population showed a slight male predominance (male to female ratio 1.2:1). Majority of the deliveries (75.7%, n=53) occurred outside the study facility. Regarding labour characteristics, sentinel events were documented in a substantial proportion of cases (77.1%). Vaginal delivery was the most common mode of delivery (52.9%, n=37), and half of the mothers were first-time mothers (primiparous, 50%, n=35). The maternal demographic profile showed that most mothers were under 35 years of age (84.3%, n=59), had received some form of education and were employed in various occupations. Table 1 Demographic profile of Neonates with HIE Parameters Frequency n (%) Mean(x̄) ± SD Age at presentation < 24 hours 24-<48 hour 48–72 hours 41 (58.6) 14 (20.0) 15 (21.4) 27.1 ± 23.3 hours Birth weight Low ( 4.0kg) 9 (12.9) 58 (82.9) 3 (4.2) 3.09 ± 0.5kg Gender Male Female 38 (54.3) 32 (45.7) Place of delivery Inborn Outborn 17 (24.3) 53 (75.7) Mode of delivery Normal vaginal Assisted vaginal Caesarean section 37 (52.9) 5 (7.1) 28 (40.0) Sentinel events in labour Present Absent 54 (77.1) 16 (22.9) Maternal age 18- 35 years 40 (57.1) 19 (27.1) 11 (15.8) 28.7 ± 5.7 years Parity Primiparous Multiparous Grand multiparous 35 (50.0) 24 (34.3) 11 (15.7) Mother’s HEA Primary Secondary Tertiary 4 (5.7) 41 (58.6) 25 (35.7) Mother’s occupation Unemployed Trader Civil servant Others 20 (28.9) 21 (30.0) 18 (25.7) 11 (15.7) HEA: highest educational attainment The results in Table 2 , shows that inborn babies had significantly better outcomes (88.2% no adverse outcomes) compared to outborn babies who had higher rates of adverse outcomes (35.8%) and death (20.8%). Similarly, the severity of HIE was significantly associated with outcomes as 76.3% of newborns with mild HIE had no adverse outcomes, 50% of those with moderate HIE had adverse outcomes while 50% of those with severe HIE died. Furthermore, the 5th minute Apgar score was a strong predictor of outcome; 72.1% of newborns with scores greater than seven had no adverse outcomes; while those with scores less than seven, 40.7% had adverse outcome and 33.4% died. In addition, with regards to occurrence of sentinel events in labour, 20.4% of babies with sentinel events during labour died compared to 6.3% who did not have such events. However, age at presentation and gender were not significantly associated with outcomes. Table 2 Newborn’s demographic and clinical characteristics associated with adverse outcomes Parameters No adverse outcomes Adverse outcomes Dead Total P value Age at presentation < 24 hours 24-<48 hour 48–72 hours 22 (53.6%) 7 (50.0%) 9 (60.0%) 10 (24.4) 5 (35.7%) 5 (33.3%) 9 (22.0%) 2 (14.3%) 1 (6.7%) 41 (58.6%) 14 (20.0%) 15 (21.4%) 0.673 Gender Male Female 18 (47.3%) 20 (62.5%) 12 (31.6%) 8 (25.0%) 8 (21.1%) 4 (12.5%) 38 (54.3%) 32 (45.7%) 0.420 Place of delivery Inborn Outborn 15 (88.2%) 23 (43.4%) 1 (5.9%) 19 (35.8%) 1 (5.9%) 11 (20.8%) 17 (24.3%) 53 (75.7%) 0.005* HIE severity Mild HIE Moderate HIE Severe HIE 29 (76.3%) 7 (43.7%) 2 (12.5%) 6 (15.8%) 8 (50.0%) 6 (37.5%) 3 (7.9%) 1 (6.3%) 8 (50.0%) 38 (54.2%) 16 (22.9%) 16 (22.9%) 7 < 7 31 (72.1%) 7 (25.9%) 9 (20.9%) 11 (40.7%) 3 (7.0%) 9 (33.4%) 43 (61.4%) 27 (38.6%) < 0.0001* Sentinel labour events Present Absent 31 (57.4%) 7 (43.7%) 12 (22.2%) 8 (50.0%) 11 (20.4%) 1 (6.3%) 54 (77.1%) 16 (22.9%) 0.075 *Statistically significant More so, normal vaginal delivery was associated with more adverse outcomes (40.6%) and mortality (21.6%) compared to caesarean delivery, 17.9% adverse outcomes and 14.3% mortality, respectively (Table 3 ). Additionally, mother’s occupation was significantly associated with management outcomes: newborns whose mothers were traders had best outcomes (76.2% no complications, 4.8% mortality), while newborns of unemployed mothers had high adverse outcomes (30%) and the highest mortality (30%). Babies born by mothers in the "others" category- mostly low income earners; showed the highest adverse outcomes (63.6%). Table 3 Maternal characteristics associated with HIE outcomes Parameters No adverse outcomes Adverse outcomes Dead Total P value Maternal age 18- 35 years 22 (55.0%) 9 (47.4%) 7 (63.6%) 10 (25.0%) 8 (42.1%) 2 (18.2%) 8 (20.0%) 2 (10.5%) 2 (18.2%) 40 (57.1%) 19 (27.1%) 11 (15.8%) 0.584 Parity Primiparous Multiparous Grand multiparous 19 (54.3%) 13 (54.2%) 6 (54.5%) 12 (34.3%) 6 (25.0%) 2 (18.2%) 4 (11.4%) 5 (20.8%) 3 (27.3%) 35 (50.0%) 24 (34.3%) 11 (15.7%) 0.656 Mode of delivery Normal vaginal Assisted vaginal Caesarean section 14 (37.8%) 5 (100.0%) 19 (67.8%) 15 (40.6%) 0 5 (17.9%) 8 (21.6%) 0 4 (14.3%) 37 (52.9%) 5 (7.1%) 28 (40.0%) 0.032* Mother’s HEL Primary education Secondary education Tertiary education 3 (75.0%) 20 (48.8%) 15 (60.0%) 1 (25.0%) 14 (34.1%) 5 (20.0%) 0 (0.0%) 7 (17.1%) 5 (20.0%) 4 (5.7%) 41 (58.6%) 25 (35.7%) 0.626 Mother’s occupation Unemployed Trader Civil servant Others 8 (40.0%) 16 (76.2%) 11 (61.1%) 3 (27.3%) 6 (30.0%) 4 (19.0%) 3 (16.7%) 7 (63.6%) 6 (30.0%) 1 (4.8%) 4 (22.2%) 1 (9.1%) 20 (28.9%) 21 (30.0%) 18 (25.7%) 11 (15.7%) 0.020* *Statistically significant In relation to serum biochemical profile (Table 4 ), newborns with hypermagnesemia appeared to have less adverse outcomes and mortality compared to those with normal serum magnesium, although this did not reach statistical significance. Random blood glucose, on the other hand showed significant association with management outcomes as newborns with hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia had significantly poorer outcomes compared to those with normal random blood glucose. Table 4 Role of serum biochemical parameters in predicting short-term outcomes in neonates with HIE Laboratory parameters No adverse outcomes Adverse outcomes Dead Total P value Serum magnesium Normal magnesium High magnesium 26 (54.2%) 12 (54.5%) 14 (29.2%) 6 (27.3%) 8 (16.6%) 4 (18.2%) 48 (68.6%) 22 (31.4%) 0.980 Random blood glucose Normoglycemia Hypoglycemia Hyperglycemia 36 (67.9%) 1 (7.7%) 1 (25.0%) 13 (24.5%) 6 (46.2%) 1 (25.0%) 4 (7.6%) 6 (46.2%) 2 (50.0%) 53 (75.7%) 13 (18.6%) 4 (5.7%) < 0.0001* *Statistically significant Discussion This study revealed an alarming 17.7% case fatality rate among patients diagnosed with hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy, highlighting the critical nature of this condition. Comparable high rates have been documented across other developing countries with Ekwochi et al. documenting 18% in Enugu Nigeria, 1 and Hafsa et al. , reporting 16.4% in Rawalpindi Pakistan. 24 These consistently high fatality rates likely stem from limited access to therapeutic hypothermia; an evidence-based treatment proven effective for moderate to severe HIE. 25 This modality of treatment has been shown to significantly reduce mortality and major disability associated with HIE. 26 However, our findings contrast with several other studies that reported notably lower case fatality rates ranging from 8.5–13.3%. 21,27 The lower case fatality in the aforementioned studies could be due to use of therapeutic hypothermia as a standard treatment for babies with HIE; also two of the studies had a larger sample size. Furthermore, among survivors of HIE in our study, the most common major short-term complications included seizures (80%), absence of nutritive suckling (65%), poor Moro reflex (25%), respiratory distress requiring support (20%), and altered consciousness (15%). This finding compares differently to the observation of Teixeira et al. , who reported that at discharge of their HIE survivors, 14% were on anti-seizure drugs; 23.3% had no feeding skills; 23.3% had abnormal neurological examination; while 2.1% required oxygen support. 27 Additionally, Grass et al. , reported a median seizure prevalence of 32.3% in a large multicentre study. 28 The lower prevalence of short-term adverse outcome noted in the cited studies could be due to use of induced hypothermia as a treatment modality for HIE and probably the availability of better skilled manpower. Our study also revealed that, adverse outcomes in HIE cases were significantly associated with outborn delivery, severity of encephalopathy, and low fifth-minute Apgar scores. These findings likely reflect inadequate infrastructure, poorly planned delivery and limited neonatal resuscitation expertise at referral centers coupled with delayed presentation. This result agrees with the findings of several other researchers who noted that adverse outcome in HIE is significantly associated with outborn delivery status, HIE severity, Apgar scores and mode of delivery. 1 , 21 , 24 The relationship between gender and HIE outcomes remains controversial in literature. One study demonstrated significantly worse outcomes in males; 24 while another reported higher mortality in females. 1 In our study, although males showed a trend toward poorer outcomes, this difference was not statistically significant. The discrepancy in previous findings may be attributed to demographic variations, particularly a higher male-to-female ratio (2:1) and larger sample size in one study; 24 while the increased female mortality in the other study remained unexplained. 1 Furthermore, our study indicated that significant maternal variables that predicated early adverse outcomes in newborns with HIE were normal vaginal delivery and maternal occupation. These findings may be due to the fact that most of the vaginal deliveries occurred outside hospital where trained birth attendants are limited in number and supervision may be inadequate, potentially resulting in more adverse outcomes; also mothers that were unemployed or those from a low socioeconomic background are likely to make poor health choices due poverty, ignorance and poor health seeking behaviours which will certainly predispose them to adverse labour outcomes. Our findings align with previous research showing higher death rates in asphyxiated infants delivered vaginally 1 , 29 . Other studies have also found that mothers' of low socioeconomic status significantly worsens outcomes for these babies. 29 , 30 However, Suppiej et al. , 21 and Devi et al. , 31 reported different results, noting that emergency cesarean deliveries increased the risk of severe outcomes in HIE babies. This contradiction may be explained by the underlying maternal or fetal complications that necessitated the choice of emergency cesarean procedure in the first place and delayed presentation to the hospital. Our study demonstrated a significant association between abnormal blood glucose levels and poor outcomes in neonates with HIE. Infants presenting with either hypoglycemia or hyperglycemia experienced higher rates of complications and mortality compared to those maintaining normoglycemia. These findings align with established pathophysiological mechanisms: hypoglycemia compromises recovery by depriving vulnerable neurons of essential energy, elevating seizure risk, and disrupting cerebral perfusion; while hyperglycemia induces damage through oxidative stress during reperfusion, exacerbates cerebral edema, increases intracranial pressure, and amplifies inflammatory responses. This relationship between glycemic dysregulation and adverse outcomes in HIE is consistently supported by multiple previous investigations, reinforcing the critical importance of glucose homeostasis in the management of these vulnerable neonates. 32 More so, we noted that asphyxiated newborns with hypermagnesemia had less adverse outcomes and mortality compared to those with normal serum magnesium levels; although this was not statistically significant. Many researchers concur with this observation noting that higher serum magnesium in neonates with HIE reduced the risk of abnormal motor examination and seizure; 33 while hypomagnesemia reduced survival rate of the affected neonates. 34 Drawing from our research results, we propose the following actionable interventions to enhance early outcomes for neonates with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy in resource-constrained environments: Community-based interventions and initiatives This approach focuses on strengthening healthcare at the community level through three key strategies: training traditional birth attendants (TBAs) in rural areas to identify feto-maternal danger signs, perform basic neonatal resuscitation and refer early, cases that are beyond their scope, to tertiary health facilities; implementing public education campaigns targeting vulnerable populations about labour danger signs and skilled birth attendance; and developing mobile health initiatives using SMS reminders for antenatal care and emergency transportation coordination for high-risk pregnancies. These approaches, when driven by community ownership and participation, have been proven effective in enhancing perinatal/neonatal health outcomes by many researchers through increased utilization of maternal and child health services; 35 increased skilled birth attendance; 36 reduction in pregnancy complications including poor birth outcomes; 18 improved healthcare seeking behavior and referral of pregnancy related complications to health facilities. 37 Healthcare system improvements for neonatal care This initiative focuses on enhancing healthcare delivery at all levels through three coordinated approaches: implementing standardized referral protocols between primary and tertiary facilities to reduce delays and improve pre-transfer stabilization; developing specialized neonatal transport teams equipped with portable monitoring devices for temperature and blood glucose during patient transfers; and expanding point-of-care glucose testing to all delivery settings with clear management protocols for blood glucose abnormalities. These initiatives when put into action have the potentials to improve outcomes for babies with perinatal asphyxia as demonstrated by previous studies. 38 , 39 Establishing standardized clinical management protocols for neonatal HIE This comprehensive approach addresses the clinical management of hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy through three targeted protocols: implementing strict glucose management guidelines with regular monitoring and prompt intervention for blood glucose abnormalities; developing magnesium sulfate administration protocols for moderate-to-severe HIE based on study findings showing improved outcomes with hypermagnesemia; and establishing evidence-based guidelines for optimal oxygen therapy- CPAP and mechanical ventilation, particularly for neonates experiencing respiratory distress at the tertiary and secondary health facilities. Strict adherence to such management protocol, has resulted to streamlining of care; reducing delays in providing high quality care; enhancing communication among neonatal care providers; and improving overall outcome for asphyxiated babies, as suggested by many studies. 3 , 40 Training and capacity building for HIE management This aims to strengthen healthcare provider capabilities through complementary strategies: implementing regular simulation-based drills for all delivery room personnel to master neonatal resuscitation techniques for asphyxiated newborns; and training diverse healthcare workforce to utilize simplified HIE scoring systems for rapid severity assessment and appropriate clinical decision-making. These interventions ensure consistent, high-quality care across different healthcare settings. Limitations This research was conducted at a single healthcare facility, potentially restricting the applicability of our findings to other clinical environments. Due to resource constraints, we were unable to perform arterial blood gas analysis on cord blood samples- a key method for biochemically confirming asphyxia. Our diagnosis of HIE relied on the Thompson scoring system, which contains subjective elements that may have introduced bias in patient classification. Additionally, as our tertiary care center typically receives complex referrals, our patient population likely included a disproportionate number of severe cases, possibly inflating both the prevalence of severe HIE and the case fatality rate observed in our study. Conclusion Our research demonstrated that birth outside the hospital setting, HIE severity, low Apgar scores at five minutes, blood glucose abnormalities, and specific maternal characteristics significantly influenced early management outcomes in neonates with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy; all contributing to the elevated case fatality rate observed in our study. Declarations Acknowledgement We express our profound appreciation to the parents who placed their newborns in our care, enabling this vital research. Our deepest gratitude goes to the Special Care Baby Unit staff whose exceptional dedication has been instrumental in treating critically ill neonates. This research is dedicated to all families affected by hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, with the sincere hope that our findings will advance clinical practice and ultimately improve outcomes for these vulnerable patients Author’s contributions Conceptualization, OCK, OBT and UC; methodology, OCK, OBT, OUC and EOA; data collection, OCK, OBT, NSC, OUC, UC, ESI, EOA and AOI; statistical analysis and result writing, OCK, OBT, ESI and EES; writing—original draft preparation, OCK, OBT, UC, EES and EOA; writing—review and editing, OCK, OBT, EST, AOI, OUC, ESI and NSC; supervision, EES and EST. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Data Availability The data for this study will be available by the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Funding : this research was funded by the researchers; no grant was received. Conflict of interest : the authors declare no conflict of interest. Ethical Approval/Consent to Participate Ethical clearance was obtained from the Nnamdi Azikiwe University Teaching Hospital Ethics Committee with reference number NAUTH/CS/66/VOL.15/VER.3/100/2022/. A written informed consent was obtained from every mother-newborn dyad following adequate explanation of the research objectives, potential benefits of participation, and assurance that the study posed minimal risk to their newborns. Participation in the study was also entirely voluntary. References Ekwochi U, Asinobi NI, Osuorah CDI, et al. Incidence and Predictors of Mortality Among Newborns With Perinatal Asphyxia: A 4-Year Prospective Study of Newborns Delivered in Health Care Facilities in Enugu, South-East Nigeria. 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Newborn Infant Nurs Rev. 2011;11:125–33. Liu L, Johnson HL, Cousens S, et al. Global, regional, and national causes of child mortality: An updated systematic analysis for 2010 with time trends since 2000. Lancet. 2012;379:2151–61. Moshiro R, Mdoe P, Perlman JM. A Global View of Neonatal Asphyxia and Resuscitation. 2019; 7: 1–6. Li B, Concepcion K, Meng XZL. Brain-immune interactions in perinatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury. Prog Neurobiol. 2018;176:139–48. Mota-Rojas D, Villanueva-García D, Solimano A et al. Pathophysiology of Perinatal Asphyxia in Humans and Animal Models. Biomedicines ; 10. Epub ahead of print 2022. 10.3390/biomedicines10020347 Gorovenko NG, Rossokha ZI, Podolskaya SV et al. The Role of Genetic Determinant in the Development of Severe Perinatal The Role of Genetic Determinant in the Development of Severe Perinatal Asphyxia 1. Epub ahead of print 2010. 10.3103/S0095452710050063 Hao J, Yang L, Wang Y, et al. Mobile Prenatal Education and Its Impact on Reducing Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes: Retrospective Real-World Study. JMIR mHealth uHealth. 2023;11:1–12. Peebles PJ, Duello TM, Eickhoff JC, et al. Antenatal and intrapartum risk factors for neonatal hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy. J Perinatol Off J Calif Perinat Assoc. 2020;40:63–9. Acun C, Karnati S, Padiyar S et al. Trends of neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy prevalence and associated risk factors in the United States, 2010 to 2018. Am J Obstet Gynecol . Epub ahead of print June 2022. 10.1016/j.ajog.2022.06.002 Suppiej A, Vitaliti G, Talenti G et al. Prognostic risk factors for severe outcome in the acute phase of neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy: A prospective cohort study. Children ; 8. Epub ahead of print 2021. 10.3390/children8121103 Shim GH. Which factors predict outcomes of neonates with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy following therapeutic hypothermia? Clin Exp Pediatr. 2021;64:169–71. Seo SY, Shim GH, Chey MJ, et al. Prognostic factors of neurological outcomes in late-preterm and term infants with perinatal asphyxia. Korean J Pediatr. 2016;59:440–5. Hafsa Niaz J, Jalil QU, Zaman, Khan F, Basheer, Shahzad Akhtar NH, CLINICAL PROFILE AND SHORT TERM OUTCOME OF HYPOXIC ISCHEMIC ENCEPHALOPATHY AMONG BIRTH ASPHXIATED BABIES IN A TERTIARY CARE HOSPITAL. Pak Armed Forces Med J. 2021;71:24–8. Lemyre B, Chau V. Hypothermia for newborns with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Paediatr Child Heal. 2018;23:285–91. Laptook AR, Shankaran S, Tyson JE, Munoz B, Bell EF, Goldberg RN, Parikh NA, Ambalavanan N, Pedroza C, Pappas A, Das A, Chaudhary AS, Ehrenkranz RA, Hensman AM, Van Meurs KP, Chalak LF, Khan AM, Hamrick SEG, Sokol GM, Walsh MC, Poindexter BB, Faix RG, Wat HR. Effect of Therapeutic Hypothermia Initiated After 6 Hours of Age on Death or Disability Among Newborns With Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy: A Randomized Clinical Trial. 2018; 318: 1550–60. Teixeira L, Soares H, Flor-de-lima F et al. Perinatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy: severity determinants and outcomes. 2014; 3: 1–9. Grass B, Brotschi B, Hagmann C, et al. Centre-specific differences in short-term outcomes in neonates with hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy. Swiss Med Wkly. 2021;151:w20489. Uleanya ND, Aniwada EC, Ekwochi U. Short term outcome and predictors of survival among birth asphyxiated babies at a tertiary academic hospital in Enugu, South East, Nigeria. Afr Health Sci. 2019;19:1554–62. Adebami OJ. Maternal and fetal determinants of mortality in babies with birth asphyxia at Osogbo. Southwest Nigeria. 2016;4:270–6. Devi K, Sathishkumar K. Factors Influencing Outcome of Neonates with Perinatal Asphyxia in a Tertiary Care Hospital. Wang C, Jiang H, Wu J, et al. Association between glycemia and outcomes of neonates with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Pediatr. 2024;24:699. Gandhi DKchand, Singh DAK, Mehta DA, et al. Association between Serum Magnesium level and outcome in birth asphyxia. Pediatr Rev Int J Pediatr Res. 2020;7:365–74. Kumr DV, Yelamali BC, Pol R. Serum calcium and magnesium levels in predicting short term outcome of term neonates with Hypoxic Ischemic Encephalopathy. Med Innov. 2018;7:44–7. Kassim AB, Newton SK, Dormechele W, et al. Effects of a community-level intervention on maternal health care utilization in a resource-poor setting of Northern Ghana. BMC Public Health. 2023;23:1–12. Ameyaw EK, Amoah PA, Ezezika O. Effectiveness of mHealth Apps for Maternal Health Care Delivery: Systematic Review of Systematic Reviews. J Med Internet Res. 2024;26:1–19. Metwally AM, Abdel-Latif GA, Mohsen A, et al. Strengths of community and health facilities based interventions in improving women and adolescents’ care seeking behaviors as approaches for reducing maternal mortality and improving birth outcome among low income communities of Egypt. BMC Health Serv Res. 2020;20:1–15. Gohiya P, Ubriani N, Dwivedi R. Impact of Early Referral on Immediate Outcome of Asphyxiated Newborns. J Clin Neonatol. 2021;10:1–4. Kanyesigye H, Kabakyenga J, Mulogo E, Fajardo Y, Atwine D, MacDonald NE, Bortolussi R, Migisha RNJ. Improved maternal-fetal outcomes among emergency obstetric referrals following phone call communication at a teaching hospital in south western Uganda: a quasi-experimental study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2022;22:684. Rahman A, Ray M, Madewell ZJ, Igunza KA, Akelo V, Onyango D, Murila F, Mwebia W, Ogbuanu IU, Ojulong J, Kowuor D, Kaluma E, Samura S, El Arifeen S, Gurley ES, Hossain MZ, Islam KM, Biswas R, Assefa N, Teferi T, Eshetu K, Madrid L, Kotloff KL, Tapia MD, Ke RC. Adherence to Perinatal Asphyxia or Sepsis Management Guidelines in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. jama Netw open; 8. Epub ahead of print 2025. 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2025.10790 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":44966,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe Thompson Score; \u003c/strong\u003eLOC: loss of consciousness; IPPV: intermittent positive\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003epressure ventilation\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7490677/v1/93a65b4a94c20519d82dcf08.png"},{"id":94205038,"identity":"3b821c23-26ae-4785-ba49-9304f92ba2c0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-23 14:31:11","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":52781,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFlow-chart of study group selection\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7490677/v1/35e3aa1949fce59c1f40a8b6.png"},{"id":100406122,"identity":"919e5633-9c34-428d-92e0-a1c114154f4f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 12:42:22","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1167601,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7490677/v1/1b74336a-256b-4fc8-81e6-e4f924e7a5fd.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Demographic, Maternal and Biochemical Predictors of Early Management Outcomes in Newborns with Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy in a Resource-Limited Setting","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003ePerinatal asphyxia remains a major cause of neonatal death globally, disproportionately affecting developing regions like Sub-Saharan Africa where survivors often face long-term health challenges. Babies who survive perinatal asphyxia often develop multiple disabilities that impact their future quality of life and productivity.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e These long-term sequelae include cerebral palsy, seizures, mental disorders, vision and hearing impairment, and cognitive and learning disabilities.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) is a syndrome of neurologic dysfunction which complicates perinatal asphyxia.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e It is the commonest cause of neonatal encephalopathy.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy develops in a predictable pattern with initial signs observed within the first 12 hours of birth followed by the classical symptoms appearing between 12 and 48 hours post delivery. The timing of onset and features depend on the degree of cerebral insult.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Survival rates in babies with HIE depend not just on severity, but also on factors like place of birth, quality of prenatal care, underlying cause, gestational age, maternal health and age, economic status, and access to timely specialized care.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR6\" citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Factors predisposing to HIE can be antenatal, perinatal, or a combination of both.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e HIE is a major cause of neurologic disability in term neonates despite widespread use of hypothermia therapy\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and its severe form is associated with multi-organ dysfunction. During hypoxic-ischaemic injury, excessive glutamate released results in overstimulation of glutamate receptors on nerve cells. This excitotoxicity triggers enzyme cascades that destroy neuronal membranes and cellular processes, leading to HIE symptoms.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Using the modified Sarnat and Sarnat staging system, HIE is categorized into three levels of increasing severity: mild (Stage I), moderate (Stage II), and severe (Stage III), each with distinct clinical parameters.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Approximately 20\u0026ndash;30% of infants with HIE die in the neonatal period, with about 33\u0026ndash;50% of survivors left with permanent neuro-developmental abnormalities.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e HIE accounts for 6\u0026ndash;9% of all neonatal deaths and 21\u0026ndash;23% of deaths in term infants. While HIE affects 1.5\u0026ndash;2.5 per 1000 births in developed countries,\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e rates increase dramatically to over 26 per 1000 births in resource-limited settings,\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e with one hospital-based study in Sagamu, Ogun State Nigeria reporting an even higher prevalence of 35.9%.\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e It is still a scientific puzzle why some asphyxiated newborns develop HIE while others do not. However, some researchers have suggested variation in newborns\u0026rsquo; compensatory thresholds and intrinsic resistance of the brain to severe asphyxia;\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e complex relationship between the neonatal brain and the immune system during the perinatal period;\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e developmental maturity of the brain\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and possibly intrinsic genetic factors of the neonates,\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e as plausible explanations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumerous risk factors have been implicated to predispose asphyxiated newborns to HIE; including severe acidosis, thick meconium stained liquor, abnormal fetal heart patterns, chorioamnionitis, and acute obstetric events.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Similarly, other maternal and obstetric factors such as maternal age, primigravida, previous fetal death/stillbirth, smoking, diabetes, and peripartum fever might affect fetal brain adaptation to acidosis,\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e thus increasing risk for HIE. The occurrence of multiple risk factors may likely increase the odds for HIE. Identifying neonates with HIE at higher risk of severe neurological impairment or death is a major focus of research, as this will set the tune for determining management modalities including neuro-protective therapies, prognostication and anticipatory counseling of caregivers.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Management outcomes in HIE depends on several factors including; need for advanced resuscitation and abnormal neurological examination;\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e presence of seizures- clinical or electrophysiological, low APGAR scores, poor electroencephalogram background activity, severity of HIE and the clinical status of the neonate at birth.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e A hospital-based retrospective study done in Nigeria found that place of delivery, booking status of mother, gestational age at birth, age of infant at presentation and severity of HIE significantly predict in-hospital mortality in babies with HIE.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe studied the interplay between some identified risk factors and clinical findings at presentation in predicting early management outcomes in newborns with HIE in a tertiary health institution in Nigeria. Understanding these factors will not only guide clinicians in predicting outcomes but also in deciding which interventions are most urgent for affected newborns.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe objectives of the study therefore include:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eto determine case fatality rate and prevalence of major short-term adverse outcomes among newborns with HIE;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eto investigate newborn\u0026rsquo;s demographic and clinical characteristics (age, gender, place of delivery, sentinel events in labour, 5th minute Apgar score, HIE severity) associated with adverse outcomes among newborns with HIE;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eto evaluate the influence of maternal characteristics (age, parity, mother\u0026rsquo;s educational level and occupation and mode of delivery) on early outcomes of newborns with HIE;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eto assess the role of serum biochemical parameters including magnesium and random blood glucose levels, in predicting short-term outcomes in neonates with HIE;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo propose actionable interventions based on study findings to improve early management outcomes among newborns with HIE in resource-limited settings\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eStudy area\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis was a hospital-based prospective study conducted at the Special Care Baby unit (SCBU) of the Nnamdi Azikiwe University Teaching Hospital (NAUTH), Nnewi, Anambra State. NAUTH is a Federal tertiary health institution located in the commercial city of Nnewi, Anambra State. The facility offers specialized healthcare while serving as a referral center for primary and secondary health facilities in the state and neighboring regions. The neonatal unit at NAUTH provides a 24-hours service, can accommodate 45 babies, and is conveniently located next to the labour ward. About 1,092 newborns are admitted annually; an average of 3 neonates per day. The SCBU is equipped with 15 incubators, four resuscitaire, two handheld pulse oximeters, four phototherapy units, four apnea monitors, three bubble CPAP machines and different oxygen delivery systems with piped oxygen supply. The SCBU is supervised by seven neonatologists. Other clinical personnel in the unit include eight resident doctors (four senior and four junior registrars, rotating through the unit on 3-6monthly basis), five interns and twenty nurses of different cadres. The SCBU Protocol for management of HIE involves respiratory support with free flow intranasal oxygen or continuous positive airway pressure; anti-seizure drugs; prophylactic antibiotics; dextrose-containing intravenous fluid for caloric support and nasogastric tube feeding when appropriate.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eNewborn participation and enrolment\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study population comprised of seventy term newborns with HIE (both in-born and out-born) admitted into the SCBU within 72hours of delivery, who met the inclusion criteria. The study duration spanned nine months from September, 2023 to May, 2024. In the present study, a diagnosis of HIE was based on abnormal neurologic examination during the first 72hours of life as judged by application of the Thompson score (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) and any one of the following:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWeak/poor cry at birth.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNeed for assisted ventilation initiated at birth and continued for at least 5minutes\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEligible newborns with HIE received comprehensive evaluation including medical history and clinical examination, then were classified using the Thompson score (Fig.\u0026nbsp;1).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExclusion Criteria\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll newborns with evidence of septicemia (e.g. temperature instability, abdominal swelling, abnormal bleeding, petechiae rash), intrauterine infection, congenital anomalies, necrotizing enterocolitis\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNewborns who were clinically anaemic\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNewborns of diabetic mothers\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNewborn babies of mothers who received opioids and other depressant medications.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter obtaining written informed consent from each participating mother in her preferred language and voluntariness assured, eligible newborns were enrolled consecutively into the study and monitored daily until discharge or death.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eResearch variable\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe following information was obtained on admission or at subsequent reviews using a structured researcher administered questionnaire. These include the outcome and predictor variables. \u003cstrong\u003eOutcome variables\u003c/strong\u003e \u0026ndash; this is the final outcome of newborns admitted for HIE in the special care baby unit during the study period. This includes death; survived without complications; or survived with complications such as respiratory distress, absence of a nutritive suckling reflex, altered level of consciousness, seizures and poor Moro reflex.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePredictor variables\u003c/strong\u003e \u0026ndash; these are independent variables that are related to newborn management outcomes. They include birth and demographic variables, clinical parameters, laboratory parameters, and HIE scores categorized as shown below:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBirth and demographic variables: (a) age of patient at presentation categorized into \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;24, 24- \u0026lt;48, and 48\u0026ndash;72 hours of life; (b) sex \u0026ndash; categorized into male and female; (c) birth weight (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2.5, 2.5-4, and \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;4.0 kg); (d) place of birth (inborn or outborn); (e) mode of delivery which could be- normal vaginal, assisted vaginal or cesarean section; (f) sentinel events in labour which could be present or absent (events like cord prolapsed, meconium-stained liquor, abruptio placenta, etc); (g) maternal age categorized into 18-\u0026lt;30, 30\u0026ndash;35 and \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;35 years; (h) parity grouped into primiparous, multiparous and grand multiparous; (i) mother\u0026rsquo;s highest educational attainment categorized into primary, secondary and tertiary; (j) mother\u0026rsquo;s occupation categorized into unemployed, civil servant, trader and others\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClinical data: Apgar score in the 5th minute grouped into \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;7 and \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;7.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHIE staging: the degree of hypoxic encephalopathy in newborns enrolled for this study was measured using the Thompson HIE score (Fig.\u0026nbsp;1) and the babies were categorized into mild (HIE I), moderate (HIE II) and severe (HIE III).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLaboratory parameters include random blood glucose using capillary blood obtained by heel prick and read using a glucometer (Fine test auto-coding premium, OSANG Healthcare Co., Ltd., Korea), normal range 73-109mg/dl. Serum magnesium- estimated using the xylidyl blue spectrophotometric method, normal range 1.50-2.30mg/dl.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTreatment protocol for asphyxiated neonates with HIE\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePerinatal asphyxia is a neonatal emergency condition. Upon admission, affected newborns are resuscitated as required including giving intermittent positive pressure ventilation using a bag-valve-mask device. Once regular breathing is achieved, other components of care include:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRandom blood glucose assay to correct hypoglycemia if present\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eVenous blood sample collected for necessary investigations including serum magnesium\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSupplemental oxygen (using a concentrator of bubble CPAP) if oxygen saturation (SPO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) was less than 90%\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIntravenous dextrose water infusion for the first day on admission with subsequent addition of electrolytes (sodium) after 48 hours, and potassium after adequate urine output has been established\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnticonvulsants such as diazepam and phenobarbitone were used in cases with seizure\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIntravenous phenobarbitone was given for all cases with severe HIE\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEmpirical antibiotic using broad-spectrum antibiotics as prophylaxis for neonatal infections\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCerebral decongestants such as intravenous mannitol were used in cases where cerebral oedema was suspected\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNasogastric tube feeding where applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAffected newborn were followed up by a daily clinical examination (mainly with the Thompson score parameters recorded at presentation, 24 hours and 48 hour later) and short-term outcomes recorded on day 7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe collected data were initially entered into Microsoft Excel, cleaned and subsequently exported and analyzed using statistical package for social science (SPSS) version 25 (IBM Corp., Armonk, New York, USA). Descriptive statistics of frequency count, percentages, mean and standard deviation was used to summarize demographic characteristics. Variables which had missing values were excluded from the analysis. The Fisher\u0026rsquo;s exact test and Chi-square (\u0026chi;2) analysis was used to determine association between variables. P values\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 was considered as statistically significant.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEthical Consideration\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eApproval for this study was obtained from the NAUTH Ethics Committee with reference number NAUTH/CS/66/VOL.15/VER.3/100/2022/057. A written informed consent was obtained from every mother-newborn dyad following adequate explanation of the research objectives, potential benefits of participation, and assurance that the study posed minimal risk to their newborns. Participation in the study was entirely voluntary and no form of financial inducement was involved. Voluntary withdrawal at any stage of interaction was guaranteed for all subjects without any adverse effect for the newborns. All information was handled with strict confidentiality.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eAmong the 603 neonates admitted into the SCBU during the study period, 200 were diagnosed with perinatal asphyxia; however, 100 of them were excluded based on the eligibility criteria (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). A further 30 babies were excluded as they did not meet the criteria for diagnosis of HIE; thus, a final analysis included 70 newborns. Thirty-two out of 70 (45.7%) had short-term adverse outcome; among these 37.5% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12) died within seven days of admission given a case fatality rate of 17.1%, while 62.5% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;20) developed at least one adverse complication. The prevalence of major short-term adverse outcomes include: seizure- 80% (16/20), absent nutritive suckling \u0026ndash; 65% (13/20), poor Moro reflex- 25% (5/20), respiratory distress- 20% (4/20) and altered consciousness- 15% (3/20).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1 shows that most newborns in our study presented to the hospital within the first 24 hours of life (58.6%, n=41), with a mean presentation age of 27.1 \u0026plusmn; 23.3 hours. The study population showed a slight male predominance (male to female ratio 1.2:1). Majority of the deliveries (75.7%, n=53) occurred outside the study facility. Regarding labour characteristics, sentinel events were documented in a substantial proportion of cases (77.1%). Vaginal delivery was the most common mode of delivery (52.9%, n=37), and half of the mothers were first-time mothers (primiparous, 50%, n=35). The maternal demographic profile showed that most mothers were under 35 years of age (84.3%, n=59), had received some form of education and were employed in various occupations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDemographic profile of Neonates with HIE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParameters\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrequency n (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean(x̄)\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAge at presentation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;24 hours\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24-\u0026lt;48 hour\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48\u0026ndash;72 hours\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41 (58.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14 (20.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15 (21.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.1\u0026thinsp;\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026thinsp;23.3 hours\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBirth weight\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2.5kg)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNormal (2.5-4.0kg)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLarge (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;4.0kg)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9 (12.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58 (82.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 (4.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.09\u0026thinsp;\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.5kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38 (54.3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32 (45.7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePlace of delivery\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInborn\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOutborn\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17 (24.3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53 (75.7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMode of delivery\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNormal vaginal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAssisted vaginal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCaesarean section\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37 (52.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (7.1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28 (40.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSentinel events in labour\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePresent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbsent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54 (77.1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16 (22.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaternal age\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18- \u0026lt;30 years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;35 years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;35 years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40 (57.1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19 (27.1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11 (15.8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.7\u0026thinsp;\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026thinsp;5.7 years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrimiparous\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMultiparous\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGrand multiparous\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35 (50.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24 (34.3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11 (15.7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMother\u0026rsquo;s HEA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTertiary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (5.7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41 (58.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25 (35.7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMother\u0026rsquo;s occupation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTrader\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCivil servant\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOthers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20 (28.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21 (30.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18 (25.7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11 (15.7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eHEA: highest educational attainment\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, shows that inborn babies had significantly better outcomes (88.2% no adverse outcomes) compared to outborn babies who had higher rates of adverse outcomes (35.8%) and death (20.8%). Similarly, the severity of HIE was significantly associated with outcomes as 76.3% of newborns with mild HIE had no adverse outcomes, 50% of those with moderate HIE had adverse outcomes while 50% of those with severe HIE died. Furthermore, the 5th minute Apgar score was a strong predictor of outcome; 72.1% of newborns with scores greater than seven had no adverse outcomes; while those with scores less than seven, 40.7% had adverse outcome and 33.4% died. In addition, with regards to occurrence of sentinel events in labour, 20.4% of babies with sentinel events during labour died compared to 6.3% who did not have such events. However, age at presentation and gender were not significantly associated with outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNewborn\u0026rsquo;s demographic and clinical characteristics associated with adverse outcomes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParameters\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo adverse outcomes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdverse outcomes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDead\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAge at presentation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;24 hours\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24-\u0026lt;48 hour\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48\u0026ndash;72 hours\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22 (53.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7 (50.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9 (60.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10 (24.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (35.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (33.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9 (22.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (14.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (6.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41 (58.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14 (20.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15 (21.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.673\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18 (47.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20 (62.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12 (31.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8 (25.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8 (21.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (12.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38 (54.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32 (45.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.420\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePlace of delivery\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInborn\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOutborn\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15 (88.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23 (43.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (5.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19 (35.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (5.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11 (20.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17 (24.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53 (75.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.005*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHIE severity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMild HIE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModerate HIE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSevere HIE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29 (76.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7 (43.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (12.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6 (15.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8 (50.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6 (37.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 (7.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (6.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8 (50.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38 (54.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16 (22.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16 (22.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5th minute Apgar score\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31 (72.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7 (25.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9 (20.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11 (40.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 (7.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9 (33.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43 (61.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27 (38.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSentinel labour events\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePresent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbsent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31 (57.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7 (43.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12 (22.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8 (50.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11 (20.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (6.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54 (77.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16 (22.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.075\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*Statistically significant\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMore so, normal vaginal delivery was associated with more adverse outcomes (40.6%) and mortality (21.6%) compared to caesarean delivery, 17.9% adverse outcomes and 14.3% mortality, respectively (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, mother\u0026rsquo;s occupation was significantly associated with management outcomes: newborns whose mothers were traders had best outcomes (76.2% no complications, 4.8% mortality), while newborns of unemployed mothers had high adverse outcomes (30%) and the highest mortality (30%). Babies born by mothers in the \u0026quot;others\u0026quot; category- mostly low income earners; showed the highest adverse outcomes (63.6%).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaternal characteristics associated with HIE outcomes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParameters\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo adverse outcomes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdverse outcomes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDead\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaternal age\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18-\u0026lt;30 year\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;35 year\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;35 years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22 (55.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9 (47.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7 (63.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10 (25.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8 (42.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (18.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8 (20.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (10.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (18.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40 (57.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19 (27.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11 (15.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.584\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrimiparous\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMultiparous\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGrand multiparous\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19 (54.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13 (54.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6 (54.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12 (34.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6 (25.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (18.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (11.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (20.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 (27.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35 (50.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24 (34.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11 (15.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.656\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMode of delivery\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNormal vaginal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAssisted vaginal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCaesarean section\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14 (37.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (100.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19 (67.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15 (40.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (17.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8 (21.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (14.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37 (52.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (7.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28 (40.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.032*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMother\u0026rsquo;s HEL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrimary education\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSecondary education\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTertiary education\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 (75.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20 (48.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15 (60.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (25.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14 (34.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (20.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0 (0.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7 (17.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (20.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (5.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41 (58.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25 (35.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.626\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMother\u0026rsquo;s occupation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTrader\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCivil servant\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOthers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8 (40.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16 (76.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11 (61.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 (27.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6 (30.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (19.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 (16.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7 (63.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6 (30.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (4.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (22.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (9.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20 (28.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21 (30.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18 (25.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11 (15.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.020*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e*Statistically significant\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn relation to serum biochemical profile (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e), newborns with hypermagnesemia appeared to have less adverse outcomes and mortality compared to those with normal serum magnesium, although this did not reach statistical significance. Random blood glucose, on the other hand showed significant association with management outcomes as newborns with hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia had significantly poorer outcomes compared to those with normal random blood glucose.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRole of serum biochemical parameters in predicting short-term outcomes in neonates with HIE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr style=\"height: 35px;\"\u003e\n \u003cth style=\"height: 35px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLaboratory parameters\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth style=\"height: 35px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo adverse outcomes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth style=\"height: 35px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdverse outcomes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth style=\"height: 35px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDead\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth style=\"height: 35px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth style=\"height: 35px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr style=\"height: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 83px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSerum magnesium\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNormal magnesium\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh magnesium\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 83px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26 (54.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12 (54.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 83px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14 (29.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6 (27.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 83px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8 (16.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (18.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 83px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48 (68.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22 (31.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 83px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.980\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr style=\"height: 108.579px;\"\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 108.579px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRandom blood glucose\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNormoglycemia\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHypoglycemia\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHyperglycemia\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 108.579px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36 (67.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (7.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (25.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 108.579px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13 (24.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6 (46.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (25.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 108.579px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (7.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6 (46.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (50.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 108.579px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53 (75.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13 (18.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (5.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 108.579px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e*Statistically significant\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study revealed an alarming 17.7% case fatality rate among patients diagnosed with hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy, highlighting the critical nature of this condition. Comparable high rates have been documented across other developing countries with Ekwochi \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e documenting 18% in Enugu Nigeria,\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and Hafsa \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, reporting 16.4% in Rawalpindi Pakistan.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003eThese consistently high fatality rates likely stem from limited access to therapeutic hypothermia; an evidence-based treatment proven effective for moderate to severe HIE.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e This modality of treatment has been shown to significantly reduce mortality and major disability associated with HIE.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e However, our findings contrast with several other studies that reported notably lower case fatality rates ranging from 8.5\u0026ndash;13.3%.\u003csup\u003e21,27\u003c/sup\u003e The lower case fatality in the aforementioned studies could be due to use of therapeutic hypothermia as a standard treatment for babies with HIE; also two of the studies had a larger sample size. Furthermore, among survivors of HIE in our study, the most common major short-term complications included seizures (80%), absence of nutritive suckling (65%), poor Moro reflex (25%), respiratory distress requiring support (20%), and altered consciousness (15%). This finding compares differently to the observation of Teixeira \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, who reported that at discharge of their HIE survivors, 14% were on anti-seizure drugs; 23.3% had no feeding skills; 23.3% had abnormal neurological examination; while 2.1% required oxygen support.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Additionally, Grass \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, reported a median seizure prevalence of 32.3% in a large multicentre study.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e The lower prevalence of short-term adverse outcome noted in the cited studies could be due to use of induced hypothermia as a treatment modality for HIE and probably the availability of better skilled manpower.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur study also revealed that, adverse outcomes in HIE cases were significantly associated with outborn delivery, severity of encephalopathy, and low fifth-minute Apgar scores. These findings likely reflect inadequate infrastructure, poorly planned delivery and limited neonatal resuscitation expertise at referral centers coupled with delayed presentation. This result agrees with the findings of several other researchers who noted that adverse outcome in HIE is significantly associated with outborn delivery status, HIE severity, Apgar scores and mode of delivery.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e The relationship between gender and HIE outcomes remains controversial in literature. One study demonstrated significantly worse outcomes in males;\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e while another reported higher mortality in females.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003eIn our study, although males showed a trend toward poorer outcomes, this difference was not statistically significant. The discrepancy in previous findings may be attributed to demographic variations, particularly a higher male-to-female ratio (2:1) and larger sample size in one study;\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e while the increased female mortality in the other study remained unexplained.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, our study indicated that significant maternal variables that predicated early adverse outcomes in newborns with HIE were normal vaginal delivery and maternal occupation. These findings may be due to the fact that most of the vaginal deliveries occurred outside hospital where trained birth attendants are limited in number and supervision may be inadequate, potentially resulting in more adverse outcomes; also mothers that were unemployed or those from a low socioeconomic background are likely to make poor health choices due poverty, ignorance and poor health seeking behaviours which will certainly predispose them to adverse labour outcomes. Our findings align with previous research showing higher death rates in asphyxiated infants delivered vaginally\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Other studies have also found that mothers' of low socioeconomic status significantly worsens outcomes for these babies.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e However, Suppiej \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e,\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and Devi \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e,\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e reported different results, noting that emergency cesarean deliveries increased the risk of severe outcomes in HIE babies. This contradiction may be explained by the underlying maternal or fetal complications that necessitated the choice of emergency cesarean procedure in the first place and delayed presentation to the hospital.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur study demonstrated a significant association between abnormal blood glucose levels and poor outcomes in neonates with HIE. Infants presenting with either hypoglycemia or hyperglycemia experienced higher rates of complications and mortality compared to those maintaining normoglycemia. These findings align with established pathophysiological mechanisms: hypoglycemia compromises recovery by depriving vulnerable neurons of essential energy, elevating seizure risk, and disrupting cerebral perfusion; while hyperglycemia induces damage through oxidative stress during reperfusion, exacerbates cerebral edema, increases intracranial pressure, and amplifies inflammatory responses. This relationship between glycemic dysregulation and adverse outcomes in HIE is consistently supported by multiple previous investigations, reinforcing the critical importance of glucose homeostasis in the management of these vulnerable neonates.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e More so, we noted that asphyxiated newborns with hypermagnesemia had less adverse outcomes and mortality compared to those with normal serum magnesium levels; although this was not statistically significant. Many researchers concur with this observation noting that higher serum magnesium in neonates with HIE reduced the risk of abnormal motor examination and seizure;\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e while hypomagnesemia reduced survival rate of the affected neonates.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDrawing from our research results, we propose the following actionable interventions to enhance early outcomes for neonates with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy in resource-constrained environments:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCommunity-based interventions and initiatives\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis approach focuses on strengthening healthcare at the community level through three key strategies: training traditional birth attendants (TBAs) in rural areas to identify feto-maternal danger signs, perform basic neonatal resuscitation and refer early, cases that are beyond their scope, to tertiary health facilities; implementing public education campaigns targeting vulnerable populations about labour danger signs and skilled birth attendance; and developing mobile health initiatives using SMS reminders for antenatal care and emergency transportation coordination for high-risk pregnancies. These approaches, when driven by community ownership and participation, have been proven effective in enhancing perinatal/neonatal health outcomes by many researchers through increased utilization of maternal and child health services;\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e increased skilled birth attendance;\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e reduction in pregnancy complications including poor birth outcomes;\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e improved healthcare seeking behavior and referral of pregnancy related complications to health facilities.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHealthcare system improvements for neonatal care\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis initiative focuses on enhancing healthcare delivery at all levels through three coordinated approaches: implementing standardized referral protocols between primary and tertiary facilities to reduce delays and improve pre-transfer stabilization; developing specialized neonatal transport teams equipped with portable monitoring devices for temperature and blood glucose during patient transfers; and expanding point-of-care glucose testing to all delivery settings with clear management protocols for blood glucose abnormalities. These initiatives when put into action have the potentials to improve outcomes for babies with perinatal asphyxia as demonstrated by previous studies.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEstablishing standardized clinical management protocols for neonatal HIE\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis comprehensive approach addresses the clinical management of hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy through three targeted protocols: implementing strict glucose management guidelines with regular monitoring and prompt intervention for blood glucose abnormalities; developing magnesium sulfate administration protocols for moderate-to-severe HIE based on study findings showing improved outcomes with hypermagnesemia; and establishing evidence-based guidelines for optimal oxygen therapy- CPAP and mechanical ventilation, particularly for neonates experiencing respiratory distress at the tertiary and secondary health facilities. Strict adherence to such management protocol, has resulted to streamlining of care; reducing delays in providing high quality care; enhancing communication among neonatal care providers; and improving overall outcome for asphyxiated babies, as suggested by many studies.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTraining and capacity building for HIE management\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis aims to strengthen healthcare provider capabilities through complementary strategies: implementing regular simulation-based drills for all delivery room personnel to master neonatal resuscitation techniques for asphyxiated newborns; and training diverse healthcare workforce to utilize simplified HIE scoring systems for rapid severity assessment and appropriate clinical decision-making. These interventions ensure consistent, high-quality care across different healthcare settings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis research was conducted at a single healthcare facility, potentially restricting the applicability of our findings to other clinical environments. Due to resource constraints, we were unable to perform arterial blood gas analysis on cord blood samples- a key method for biochemically confirming asphyxia. Our diagnosis of HIE relied on the Thompson scoring system, which contains subjective elements that may have introduced bias in patient classification. Additionally, as our tertiary care center typically receives complex referrals, our patient population likely included a disproportionate number of severe cases, possibly inflating both the prevalence of severe HIE and the case fatality rate observed in our study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eOur research demonstrated that birth outside the hospital setting, HIE severity, low Apgar scores at five minutes, blood glucose abnormalities, and specific maternal characteristics significantly influenced early management outcomes in neonates with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy; all contributing to the elevated case fatality rate observed in our study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe express our profound appreciation to the parents who placed their newborns in our care, enabling this vital research. Our deepest gratitude goes to the Special Care Baby Unit staff whose exceptional dedication has been instrumental in treating critically ill neonates. This research is dedicated to all families affected by hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, with the sincere hope that our findings will advance clinical practice and ultimately improve outcomes for these vulnerable patients\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor’s contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConceptualization, OCK, OBT and UC; methodology, OCK, OBT, OUC and EOA; data collection, OCK, OBT, NSC, OUC, UC, ESI, EOA and AOI; statistical analysis and result writing, OCK, OBT, ESI and EES; writing—original draft preparation, OCK, OBT, UC, EES and EOA; writing—review and editing, OCK, OBT, EST, AOI, OUC, ESI and NSC; supervision, EES and EST. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data for this study will be available by the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e: this research was funded by the researchers; no grant was received.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e: the authors declare no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval/Consent to Participate\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical clearance was obtained from the Nnamdi Azikiwe University Teaching Hospital Ethics Committee with reference number NAUTH/CS/66/VOL.15/VER.3/100/2022/. A written informed consent was obtained from every mother-newborn dyad following adequate explanation of the research objectives, potential benefits of participation, and assurance that the study posed minimal risk to their newborns. Participation in the study was also entirely voluntary.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEkwochi U, Asinobi NI, Osuorah CDI, et al. Incidence and Predictors of Mortality Among Newborns With Perinatal Asphyxia: A 4-Year Prospective Study of Newborns Delivered in Health Care Facilities in Enugu, South-East Nigeria. Clin Med Insights Pediatr. 2017;11:117955651774664.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOgunkunle TO, Odiachi H, Chuma JR, et al. Postnatal Outcomes and Risk Factors for In-Hospital Mortality among Asphyxiated Newborns in a Low-Resource Hospital Setting: Experience from North-Central Nigeria. 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J Med Internet Res. 2024;26:1\u0026ndash;19.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMetwally AM, Abdel-Latif GA, Mohsen A, et al. Strengths of community and health facilities based interventions in improving women and adolescents\u0026rsquo; care seeking behaviors as approaches for reducing maternal mortality and improving birth outcome among low income communities of Egypt. BMC Health Serv Res. 2020;20:1\u0026ndash;15.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGohiya P, Ubriani N, Dwivedi R. Impact of Early Referral on Immediate Outcome of Asphyxiated Newborns. J Clin Neonatol. 2021;10:1\u0026ndash;4.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKanyesigye H, Kabakyenga J, Mulogo E, Fajardo Y, Atwine D, MacDonald NE, Bortolussi R, Migisha RNJ. Improved maternal-fetal outcomes among emergency obstetric referrals following phone call communication at a teaching hospital in south western Uganda: a quasi-experimental study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2022;22:684.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRahman A, Ray M, Madewell ZJ, Igunza KA, Akelo V, Onyango D, Murila F, Mwebia W, Ogbuanu IU, Ojulong J, Kowuor D, Kaluma E, Samura S, El Arifeen S, Gurley ES, Hossain MZ, Islam KM, Biswas R, Assefa N, Teferi T, Eshetu K, Madrid L, Kotloff KL, Tapia MD, Ke RC. Adherence to Perinatal Asphyxia or Sepsis Management Guidelines in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. jama Netw open; 8. Epub ahead of print 2025. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2025.10790\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2025.10790\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, neonatal outcomes, predictors, resource-limited setting, Nigeria","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7490677/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7490677/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground:\u003c/strong\u003e Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) remains a leading cause of neonatal mortality and long-term neurological disability, particularly in resource-limited settings. Understanding predictive factors for early outcomes is crucial for optimizing management strategies.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eObjective:\u003c/strong\u003e To identify demographic, maternal, and biochemical predictors of early management outcomes in newborns with HIE in a Nigerian tertiary health institution.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods:\u003c/strong\u003e A prospective hospital-based study was conducted at Nnamdi Azikiwe University Teaching Hospital, Nnewi, from September 2023 to May 2024. Seventy term newborns with HIE admitted within 72 hours of delivery were enrolled. HIE diagnosis was based on abnormal neurological examination using the Thompson score. Data on demographic characteristics, maternal factors, and biochemical parameters were collected and analyzed using SPSS version 25. Fisher's exact test and Chi-square analysis was used to determine associations between variables, with p\u0026lt;0.05 considered significant.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults:\u003c/strong\u003e Among 70 newborns, 45.7% (32/70) experienced short-term adverse outcomes. The case fatality rate was 17.1% (12/70), while 28.6% (20/70) developed complications including seizures (80%), absent nutritive suckling (65%), poor Moro reflex (25%), respiratory distress (20%), and altered consciousness (15%). Significant predictors of adverse outcomes included place of delivery (p=0.005), with outborn babies showing higher risk than inborn deliveries. HIE severity was strongly associated with outcomes (p\u0026lt;0.001), as was 5\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e minute Apgar score \u0026lt;7 (p\u0026lt;0.001). Maternal factors significantly associated with adverse outcomes included mode of delivery (p=0.032) and maternal occupation (p=0.020). Random blood glucose levels showed significant association with outcomes (p\u0026lt;0.001), while serum magnesium levels did not (p=0.980).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusion:\u003c/strong\u003e HIE severity, low Apgar scores, outborn delivery status, and abnormal blood glucose levels were significant predictors of early adverse outcomes in newborns with HIE. These findings emphasize the importance of skilled birth attendance, early recognition, and prompt glucose monitoring in improving outcomes for affected newborns in resource-limited settings.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Demographic, Maternal and Biochemical Predictors of Early Management Outcomes in Newborns with Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy in a Resource-Limited Setting","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-23 14:23:06","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7490677/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"94234e64-039c-4674-8eb8-d054b736172d","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 23rd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-11T10:23:44+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-23 14:23:06","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7490677","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7490677","identity":"rs-7490677","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}