Volcanic stratigraphy offshore East Montserrat: Selective preservation and subaqueous remobilisation in marine records

Volcanic stratigraphy offshore East Montserrat: Selective preservation and subaqueous remobilisation in marine records | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Volcanic stratigraphy offshore East Montserrat: Selective preservation and subaqueous remobilisation in marine records Dina Hanifah, Steffen Kutterolf, Katrin Huhn This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9467511/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 6 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract In tectonically active regions, volcanic eruptions generate large volumes of material that are transported offshore through processes such as pyroclastic density currents, turbidity currents, and secondary sediment remobilisation. These deposits form key stratigraphic markers for reconstructing eruptive histories, yet their preservation, correlation with onshore events, and modification by mass wasting remain insufficiently understood. This study examines the effectiveness of marine sedimentary sequences in recording eruptive and mass-transport events from Soufrière Hills Volcano offshore Montserrat, related and compared to its well-known last eruptive phase between 1995 and 2010, evident by eye-witness and monitoring data. We focus on spatial and temporal variations in facies, evaluating how offshore deposits reflect transport mechanisms, depositional settings, and post-depositional reworking. Two gravity cores (~ 1.7 m in total) from the eastern offshore sector provide contrasting perspectives: one retrieved in a depression and close to a mass-transport deposit contains ~ 30 cm of volcaniclastic layers underlain by debrites, whereas the other, from a more stable setting higher at the slope, preserves only a thin (~ 1 cm) ash horizon. A multi-proxy approach, including X-ray fluorescence (XRF) geochemistry, multi-sensor core logging (MSCL), and computed tomography (CT) imaging, was applied to characterise volcanic facies, assess ash preservation, and evaluate the development of mechanically weak layers that may act as failure planes for eruption-induced remobilisation or slope instability. Results demonstrate significant challenges in correlating terrestrial and submarine records regarding smaller eruptive events and in the temporal order of years. Offshore sequences show selective preservation, with simple, thin ash deposits in undisturbed areas contrasting with complex, remobilised successions near disturbed settings. These findings underline the critical role of post-depositional processes in shaping proximal marine volcanic archives and highlight the value of integrated sedimentological and physical property analyses for reconstructing eruptive processes and improving hazard assessments in proximal volcanic island settings. Volcanic sedimentation Marine stratigraphy Mass-transport deposits Facies variability Eruption archives Slope stability Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Introduction Volcanic island arcs are dynamic environments where eruptive activity, steep topography, and rapid sedimentation interact to produce complex stratigraphic records. During eruptions, volcanic material is released both subaerially and submarine, through fallout, pyroclastic density currents (PDCs), vertical density currents, slope failures, or secondary remobilisation processes (Freundt et al., 2022 ). In proximal offshore settings, volcaniclastic materials can be redistributed by sediment gravity flows, locally transporting and reworking erupted material across the basin floor (Le Friant et al., 2004 , 2008 ; Masson et al., 2002 ; Watt et al., 2012 a). Offshore volcaniclastic deposits commonly archive eruptive history and a spectrum of gravity-driven emplacement processes such as PDCs, turbidity currents, and debris avalanches (Carey, 1997 ; Cas & Wright, 1991 ; Manville et al., 2009 ; Masson et al., 2006 ). These deposits form key records of eruption dynamics, land–sea connectivity, and long-term volcanic margin evolution (Le Friant et al., 2008 ; J. G. Moore et al., 1994 ). Submarine slope failures are among the largest mass movements on Earth and are common around volcanic islands ((Boudon et al., 2007 ; Coombs et al., 2007 ; Masson et al., 2006 ; Oehler et al., 2008 ). More than 40 major events have been identified within the Lesser Antilles arc (Deplus et al., 2001 ; Le Friant et al., 2004 ), with several linked to volcanic collapses and heightened eruptive activity. These failures redistribute large volumes of volcaniclastic material and may trigger tsunamis (Herd et al., 2005 ; Wynn & Masson, 2003 ). For instance, PDCs entering the sea during the Soufrière Hills Volcano (SHV) eruption generated localised tsunamis around Montserrat (Herd et al., 2005 ; Mattioli et al., 2007 ). Marine sedimentary sequences thus orm natural archives of eruptive and mass-transport processes, often preserving longer and more continuous records than subaerial successions, which are frequently eroded or buried (Larsen et al., 2014 ; Le Friant et al., 2008 ; Wetzel, 2009 ; Wiesner et al., 1995 ). However, establishing direct correlation between subaerial eruptions and submarine deposits in proximal settings (< 10km; e.g. Eychenne & Engwell, 2022 ) to the volcanic sources remains challenging. Post-depositional reworking, selective sediment focusing, and seafloor morphology, can modify marine successions and obscure discrimination between eruptive products and reworked successions (Boudon et al., 2007 ; Le Friant et al., 2008 ). Flow confinement, slope gradients, and topographic lows exert first-order control on sediment accumulation and flow energy dissipation (Trofimovs et al., 2006 , 2008 ), producing significant spatial variability in volcanic signal preservation over short distances. In contrast, distal settings typically preserve thinner, finer-grained ash veneers with limited internal structure (Larsen et al., 2014 ; Le Friant et al., 2008 ; Wetzel, 2009 ). The Lesser Antilles arc provides a natural laboratory to investigate how volcanic signals are transferred, transformed, and archived offshore. Formed by oblique subduction of the Atlantic Plate beneath the Caribbean Plate, the arc hosts numerous active volcanoes, steep submarine slopes, narrow shelves, and deep submarine basins favourable for volcaniclastic preservation (Deplus et al., 2001 ; Le Friant et al., 2004 ). Within this arc, the SHV on Montserrat is among the most intensively studied due to its prolonged activity since 1995 (Cole et al., 2002 ; Le Friant et al., 2008 ; A. L. Smith et al., 2007 ; Voight et al., 2006 ). Repeated cycles of lava-dome growth and collapse have delivered over 90% of erupted material offshore (Cole et al., 2002 ; Edmonds & Herd, 2005 ; Herd et al., 2005 ; Le Friant et al., 2010 ; Trofimovs et al., 2010 ). This study focuses on the eastern offshore sector of Montserrat, downslope of the Tar River Valley, where gravity cores GeoB23710-1 and GeoB23711-1 were recovered during the METEOR M154-2 expedition (Huhn et al., 2019) (Fig. 1 ). This region is characterised by channels, scarps, and ponded depocentres that act as traps for volcaniclastic material (Crutchley et al., 2013 ; Le Friant et al., 2004 , 2008 , 2010 ). Although this area has received sustained inputs from successive eruptive phases, the internal architecture, flow organisation, and extent of post-depositional modification within proximal offshore successions remain insufficiently resolved. Recent advances in high-resolution core analysis enable detailed examination of such complex deposits. Multi-sensor core logging (MSCL) provides continuous measurements of gamma density, magnetic susceptibility, and P-wave velocity linked to sediment composition and texture Computed tomography (CT) imaging enables three-dimensional visualisation of internal structures and density contrasts, revealing erosional contacts, grading patterns, and subtle fabrics often unresolved in visual core descriptions (Ashi, 1995 ; Bendle et al., 2015 ; Capowiez et al., 2011 ; Cnudde et al., 2006 ; Evans et al., 2017 ; Griggs et al., 2015 ; Ketcham & Carlson, 2001 ; Loame et al., 2018 ). Integrated with X-ray fluorescence (XRF) core scanning and microscopic observations, these non-destructive techniques allow reconstruction of depositional processes and multi-stage flow dynamics at millimetre to centimetre scale (Croudace & Rothwell, 2015 ; Emmanouilidis et al., 2019 , 2020 ). This study investigates volcaniclastic deposits from the eastern offshore sector of Montserrat to evaluate how eruptive signals are recorded, preserved, and modified in proximal area. Specifically, we (1) characterise the physical and geochemical signatures of a distinctive three-stage deposit using computed tomography (CT), multi-sensor core logging (MSCL), and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analyses; (2) reconstruct the evolution of flow energy and depositional phases by integrating CT intensity patterns, grading trends, and microscopic fabrics; and (3) assess selective preservation and land–sea correlation with the 1995–2010 eruptive sequence of the SHV. By integrating multi-proxy datasets from GeoB23710-1 and GeoB23711-1, this study builds upon previous studies (Le Friant et al., 2008 , 2009 , 2010 ; Trofimovs et al., 2006 , 2008 ; Watt et al., 2012 a) and advances understanding of volcanic signal fidelity, post-depositional modification, and the development of mechanically weak layers in proximal volcanic settings, with implications for slope stability and offshore hazard assessment. Regional setting Montserrat is a volcanic island within the northern Lesser Antilles arc, formed by oblique oceanic-oceanic subduction of the Atlantic Plate beneath the Caribbean Plate at a convergence rate of ~ 2–4 cm yr⁻¹ (Bouysse et al., 1990 ; Bouysse & Westercamp, 1990 ; DeMets et al., 2010 ; Grindlay et al., 2005 ; Wadge, 1984 ; Wadge et al., 2014 ). The island lies along the western margin of the NNW-SSE striking Bouillante–Montserrat Graben, a fault-controlled back-arc depression that accommodates extensional deformation and serves as a principal depocentre for volcaniclastic and hemipelagic sedimentation (Boudon et al., 2007 ; Crutchley et al., 2013 ; Feuillet et al., 2010 ; Le Friant et al., 2004 ) (Fig. 1 ). Volcanism has migrated southward along the arc from the Silver Hills (> 2.5 Ma) to the Centre Hills (~ 0.95–0.55 Ma) and the active SHV (< 0.17 Ma; Coussens et al., 2016 ; Harford et al., 2002 ). The SHV is a composite andesitic stratovolcano characterised by repeated dome growth, collapse, and pyroclastic activity that have constructed and reshaped the southern part of the island (Harford et al., 2002 ; Wadge et al., 2014 ). The eastern offshore sector of Montserrat lies within the Bouillante–Montserrat Graben, where a steep, fault-bounded depocenter captures volcaniclastic and hemipelagic sediment derived from both subaerial eruptions and mass-wasting events (Crutchley et al., 2013 ; Le Friant et al., 2004 , 2008 ; Trofimovs et al., 2006 ). Bathymetric and seismic surveys reveal a series of coalescing channels and depositional lobes extending several kilometres east of the Tar River Valley, the main pathway for PDCs and sediment gravity flows (Le Friant et al., 2004 , 2008 ; Trofimovs et al., 2006 ). These geomorphic features act as primary transport conduits and depocenters for remobilised volcaniclastic sediment. Sediment supply pathways are strongly aligned with subaerial drainage systems such as the Tar River Valley, channelling eruptive material and secondary flows offshore (Le Friant et al., 2004 ; Trofimovs et al., 2006 ). Repeated volcanic collapses and associated mass-transport processes from Montserrat, complemented by ash fall out events, have constructed a complex stratigraphic succession comprising debris-avalanche, debris-flow, and turbidite units that archive eruptive and remobilisation events since the late Quaternary (Masson et al., 2002 ; Talling, 2014 ; Watt et al., 2012 a, 2012 b). Seismic, bathymetric, and core data indicate multiple stacked mass-transport deposits, notably Deposits 1 and 2, emplaced within the Montserrat–Bouillante Graben (Le Friant et al., 2004 , 2009 ; Lebas et al., 2011 ; Watt et al., 2012 a, 2012 b). Deposit 1 represents a chaotic block-rich avalanche formed by sector collapse around 2 ka, while Deposit 2 forms a smoother, more laterally continuous unit associated with subsequent flank remobilisation and sediment drape (Le Friant et al., 2004 ; Lebas et al., 2011 ; Watt et al., 2012 a). Deposit 2 extends ~ 30 km from the eastern flank of SHV, covering ~ 200 km², and is subdivided into two subunits (2a and 2b) (Coussens et al., 2016 ; Le Friant et al., 2004 ; Watt et al., 2012 b). Material recovered during IODP Expedition 340 confirms interbedding of volcaniclastic and hemipelagic sediments, reflecting combined volcanic collapse and seafloor sediment failure processes (Coussens et al., 2016 ; Le Friant et al., 2015 ). Volcanic activity at SHV resumed in 1995 following a prolonged dormancy, initiating a new eruptive cycle characterised by andesitic dome growth, collapse, and associated pyroclastic and sedimentary processes (Druitt et al., 2002 ; Young, 1998 ). The 1995 onset phase produced widespread tephra fallout, block-and-ash flows, and pyroclastic flows as the lava dome grew and periodically collapsed within the English’s Crater (Fig. 1 ). A major dome-collapse event in June 1997 mobilised > 210 × 10⁶ m³ of material, producing high-energy PDCs that entered the Tar River Valley and extended several kilometres offshore (Calder et al., 2002 ; Cole et al., 2002 ; Herd et al., 2005 ; Le Friant et al., 2008 ). These PDCs triggered secondary turbidity currents and debris-flow remobilisation on the steep submarine slopes (Cassidy et al., 2014 ; Hart et al., 2004 ), producing thick multi-unit volcaniclastic turbidites (Le Friant et al., 2004 , 2008 ; Trofimovs et al., 2006 ). Subsequent eruptive phases between 2003 and 2010 were characterised by cyclic dome growth and gravitational collapse, accompanied by minor Vulcanian explosions (Wadge et al., 2014 ). Alternating inputs of coarse and fine volcaniclastic material offshore produced stratigraphically variable deposits recording both primary eruptive pulses and secondary remobilisation (Le Friant et al., 2010 ; Trofimovs et al., 2008 ). Periods of intense dome growth and collapse correspond to increased volcaniclastic flux, while quiescent intervals promote hemipelagic settling and carbonate input (Le Friant et al., 2008 ; Trofimovs et al., 2006 , 2012 ). As a result, the stratigraphic record offshore Montserrat captures a near-continuous history of eruption, remobilisation, and sediment redistribution (Hart et al., 2004 ), providing a framework for assessing the link between volcanic activity and submarine depositional processes. The recent eruptive cycles (1995–2010) provides a modern analogue for reconstructing ancient submarine records, emphasising the role of proximal eastern basin in archiving volcanic activity and associated mass-wasting events. Materials and Methods Core recovery and sampling Two short gravity cores (GeoB23710-1 and GeoB23711-1) were collected from the eastern offshore sector of Montserrat during RV Meteor cruise M154-2 in 2019 (Berndt et al., 2019 ; Huhn et al., 2019). Coring was conducted using a 12 cm-diameter gravity corer at within the Bouillante–Montserrat Graben, a proximal depocentre east of the SHV. GeoB23710-1 (16°23.26′ N, 61°26.02′ W; 946 m water depth) was recovered near the margin of Deposit 1 and 2a in a disturbed setting, while GeoB23711-1 (16°23.89′ N, 61°25.99′ W; 854 m water depth) was obtained farther north in a relatively undisturbed slope. Recovered sediment lengths of GeoB23710-1 and GeoB23711-1 are 88 cm and 86 cm, respectively. Cores were stored at 4°C at the MARUM Core Repository (University of Bremen, Germany), where subsequent re-examination and laboratory analyses were conducted in 2025. Visual core description (VCD) Initial visual core descriptions (VCDs) were conducted onboard RV Meteor during Cruise M154/2 immediately after core splitting, following IODP lithostratigraphic (Huhn et al., 2019). Both working and archive halves were scanned using a Geotek Multi-Sensor Core Logger with integrated line-scan camera (MSCL-C). In 2025, archive halves were re-examined at MARUM – Center for Marine Environmental Sciences, University of Bremen, to refine shipboard observations and enhance the lithostratigraphic framework through integrated visual, microscopic, and chronological analyses. VCDs were re-conducted at 1-cm resolution, documenting lithology, sedimentary structures, colour, grading, sorting, and bioturbation intensity. The descriptions emphasised the recognition of facies transitions, depositional contacts, and reworking indicators to improve differentiation between primary volcanic deposits and secondary mass-transport or hemipelagic intervals (Fig. 2 ). To enhance subtle lithological contrasts, archived core photographs were reprocessed using histogram equalisation in Corel PHOTO-PAINT® (2025 improving visibility of internal layering and faint lamination while preserving stratigraphic fidelity. Bioturbation intensity was assessed using a five-point visual scale, and macrofossil, lithic, and volcanic fragments were systematically recorded. Multi-Sensor Core Logging (MSCL) Physical properties were measured using a Geotek Standard Multi-Sensor Core Logger (MSCL-S), following established MARUM protocols to ensure consistency with other geophysical datasets. Gamma-ray attenuation (wet bulk density), magnetic susceptibility (MS), and P-wave velocity were measured continuously at 1-cm resolution. Bulk density provides constraints on sediment compaction and distinguishes coarse-grained volcaniclastic layers from finer hemipelagic intervals. MS was measured using a Bartington MS2E loop sensor and serves as a proxy for variations in magnetite-bearing volcanic material. P-wave velocity reflects sediment stiffness, consolidation, and acoustic properties related to lithology, water content, and diagenetic alteration. All measurements were acquired automatically along the core track using a GEOTEK MST system with real-time temperature compensation. Data were quality-controlled to remove artefacts from surface irregularities or core gaps. The resulting physical property profiles were integrated with VCD and XRF datasets to refine facies boundaries, grading trends, and stratigraphic depositional stages (Fig. 3 ). X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) Core Scanning High-resolution geochemical profiles were acquired at MARUM using an AVAATECH XRF Core Scanner on split archive halves at 10 mm resolution. The instrument is equipped with a SiriusSD D65133BE-INF Silicon Drift Detector (SGX Sensortech) and an Oxford Instruments 100 W Neptune Rh X-ray tube. Measurements were performed at 10, 30, and 50 kV with respective currents of 0.4, 0.65, and 0.55 mA and a count time of 7 s per analysis, using a 10 mm down-core and 12 mm cross-core slit size. Core surfaces were covered with 4 µm SPEXCertiPrep TF-240 film to minimise contamination and desiccation during scanning. Raw spectra were processed using WIN AXIL (Batch) software (Canberra Eurisys, Benelux) with an iterative least-squares approach. Elemental intensities were normalised to total counts to correct for surface roughness and water-content variability. Elements retained for interpretation included Al, Si, K, Ca, Ti, Mn, Fe, Sr, Zr, Ba, and Rb; elements affected by spectral overlap or low counts (e.g. Mo, Ag, Cd, Sn, Te, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Nb, Pb, Bi, Mg, P, Cl, and Cr) were excluded. Following Croudace & Rothwell ( 2015 ), elemental ratios (Zr/Sr, Si/Ti, K/Ti, Zr/Rb) were used to characterise compositional trends, sediment provenance, and depositional processes Zr/Sr distinguishes volcaniclastic units from background hemipelagic sediments, Si/Ti and K/Ti reflect relative detrital input, and Zr/Rb serves as a grain-size proxy (Fig. 3 ). XRF data were interpreted semi-quantitatively alongside MSCL, CT, and smear-slide observations (Fig. 3 ). High-resolution computed tomography (CT) imaging High-resolution CT imaging was conducted on the split archive half of Core GeoB23710-1, using a Philips Brilliance iCT Elite 256 clinical computer tomograph housed at Klinikum Bremen-Mitte, Germany. Scanning was conducted at 120 kV and 300 mA, yielding a voxel resolution of 0.3 mm. GeoB23710-1 was scanned in its original liner and carefully wrapped to preserve sediment integrity and prevent deformation during imaging. Image reconstruction employed Philips’ proprietary iterative cone-beam algorithm, correcting for beam hardening, geometric distortion, and scattered radiation to enhance density contrasts. Data were reconstructed into 512 × 512 pixel slices and exported in DICOM format. CT datasets were processed at MARUM, following workflows adapted from Titschack et al. ( 2015 , 2016 ). DICOM files were imported into Amira (version 2022.31, Thermo Fisher Scientific, ZIB Edition), where consecutive scan segments were merged to reconstruct continuous depth intervals. The outer ~ 2 mm of the core liner was removed using the Segmentation Editor and Arithmetic modules to minimise artefacts. Pre-processing included beam-hardening correction, Gaussian noise filtering, and histogram normalisation to optimise contrast between volcaniclastic clasts, bioclasts, and fine-grained matrix. Three-dimensional reconstruction and segmentation were performed using IsoSurface rendering, Watershed Thresholding, and the MaterialStatistics module to isolate constituents > 1 mm. Density-based segmentation was refined using ContourTreeSegmentation (threshold 1700; persistence 990–1630), determined through iterative testing to best resolve density contrasts within the limits of medical-grade CT resolution. Individual clasts and high-density regions were delineated using a hierarchical, topology-based algorithm. It should be emphasised that applying medical-grade CT systems to geological materials introduces an inherent resolution bias. Individual laminae may comprise multiple unresolved sub-layers with similar attenuation values. Segmentation boundaries therefore represent operational rather than absolute clast limits, and fine-scale mineralogical variations, particle splitting, and true clast orientation may not be fully resolved. Despite these limitations, CT imaging visualisation using the SurfaceGen and SurfaceView modules enabled qualitative assessment of segmentation quality, volumetric continuity, fabric organisation, and zones of internal disruption. CT-derived metrics are therefore treated as qualitative to semi-quantitative representations of clast-scale fabric rather than exact reconstructions of particle geometry. Following CT segmentation, morphometric properties, including clast size, volume, elongation, orientation, and grain-angle distribution, were quantified using the ShapeAnalysis module. Grain angles were referenced to the vertical axis (0° = horizontal; 90° = vertical), and grain sizes were binned into 16 classes based on equivalent spherical diameter. Mean X-ray attenuation (Hounsfield Units; HU), variability, and orientation statistics were extracted at 0.3-mm intervals and integrated with MSCL, XRF, and smear-slide datasets. Clast component analysis Smear slides were prepared from representative stratigraphic intervals selected individually for each core based on lithological transitions identified VCD and CT imagery. Sampling targeted the base, middle, and top of key stratigraphic units to capture vertical variability in clast composition. From each selected interval, approximately 0.5 cm³ of sediment was collected, oven-dried at 60°C, gently disaggregated, and homogenised prior to slide preparation. The material was mounted in optical adhesive on glass slides under transmitted light. Microscopic inspection was performed using a Zeiss transmitted light microscope at 10× magnification. An average of 200 grains per smear slide were point-counted using a step counter following the general approach of Cassidy et al. ( 2014 ), and classification criteria adapted for marine volcaniclastic sediments (cf. Gudmundsdóttir et al., 2011 ; Schindlbeck et al., 2013 ). Clasts were subdivided into six main categories according to their textural, compositional, and genetic characteristics: (1) Volcaniclasts, comprising altered volcanic rock fragments and subangular detritus derived from volcanic sources; (2) Dome fragments, representing dense, non-vesicular lava clasts sourced from dome-collapse or effusive extrusion; (3) Pyroclasts, including vesicular pumice, glass shards, and crystal fragments produced during explosive magma fragmentation; (4) Dense minerals, encompassing heavy mineral grains such as magnetite, pyroxene, and amphibole; (5) Bioclasts, comprising mainly calcareous skeletal fragments and shell debris; and (6) Sediment clasts, representing reworked lithic or detrital grains of sedimentary or metamorphic origin. Relative abundances of each clast type were expressed as percentages of the total counted grains, providing semiquantitative estimates of compositional variability and sediment provenance across the studied intervals. Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) Radiocarbon Dating Two samples from GeoB23710-1 were selected for Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) ¹⁴C dating (Fig. 2 ) from hemipelagic intervals: one immediately underlying a volcaniclastic unit and the other separating two volcaniclastic units. Analyses were performed on mixed assemblages of planktonic foraminifera (> 63 µm and > 150 µm), comprising Orbulina universa , Globigerinoides ruber , and Globigerinoides sacculifer . For each AMS ¹⁴C analysis, 9–27 mg of foraminiferal carbonate was picked per sample. Samples were ultrasonically cleaned in deionised water and examined under a binocular microscope to remove reworked or contaminated individuals. Each sample underwent a 10% acid-leaching pretreatment following the CHS-AGE protocol to eliminate surface contamination. Table 1 AMS radiocarbon results and CALIBomb-calibrated ages for planktonic foraminifera from Core GeoB23710-1. Core ID Sample number Depth (cm) Material F¹⁴C (± 1σ) Calibration Curve Calibrated 14C age (95%, 2σ) Probability (%) GeoB23710-1 16546.1.1 34–35 Planktonic foraminiferas ( Orbulina universa, Globigerinoides ruber , and Globigerinoides sacculifer ) 0,7936 ± 0,0025 NHZ2/ intcal20 AD 181 ± 57 100 16547.1.1 43–44 0,6295 ± 0,0020 2131 ± 30 cal BC 20 2061 ± 30 cal BC 80 Radiocarbon analyses were conducted at the Alfred Wegener Institute (AWI) Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany, using a MICADAS (Mini Carbon Dating System; Ionplus AG) equipped with a hybrid cesium sputter ion source. Foraminiferal carbonate samples were hydrolysed to CO₂ in the automated carbonate handling system (CHS; Ionplus AG) at 70°C using phosphoric acid and subsequently graphitised with an AGE-3 system, yielding. approximately 640–720 µgC per sample. Resulting graphite targets were pressed into cathodes and measured for ¹⁴C/¹²C and ¹³C/¹²C ratios, with isotopic fractionation corrected using measured δ¹³C and normalised to δ¹³C = − 25‰ (VPDB). Conventional radiocarbon ages (years BP) and associated 1σ analytical uncertainties were calculated at AWI from the resulting F¹⁴C values. Calibration of the conventional radiocarbon ages was performed using CALIBomb (Reimer & Reimer 2026) with the Northern Hemisphere Zone 2 (NHZ2) atmospheric calibration dataset, appropriate for the Lesser Antilles. The measured F¹⁴C values were 0.7936 ± 0.0025 and 0.6295 ± 0.0020 for depths of 34–35 cm and 43–44 cm, respectively. The resulting calibrated ages (95% probability, 2σ) correspond to AD 181 ± 57 (1769 ± 57 cal BP) and 2131 ± 30 cal BC (4041–4129 ± 60 cal BP) (Table 1 ). All ages are reported relative to AD 1950. Results Sediment characterisation In the eastern offshore of Montserrat (Fig. 1 ), the two studied gravity cores show strongly contrasting expressions of volcaniclastic deposition, ranging from a thick, multi-unit succession in GeoB23710-1 to a thin ash veneer in GeoB23711-1 (Fig. 2 ). Both sequences comprise interbedded volcaniclastic and hemipelagic units with variable thicknesses, textures, physical, and compositional signatures (Fig. 2 ). GeoB23710-1 was retrieved from a topographically confined slope depression near the outer edge of Deposit 1. Its basal section comprises a grey, structureless debrite (Unit I) composed of muddy-sandy material with scattered volcanic clasts, shell fragments, and bioclasts. Overlying this, between 0 and 42 cm core depth, is Unit II, representing a composite volcaniclastic sequence consisting of five stratigraphic subunits (IIa - IIe). The lowermost volcaniclastic subunit (IIa; V1) forms a ~ 5 cm thick layer of coarse ash to fine lapilli with a sharp erosional base and an irregular slurry to wavy upper contact (Fig. 2 ). Clasts are dominantly in the ash to fine lapilli size range (< 2–4 mm; after White & Houghton, 2006) and display faint, laterally variable lamination. Subunit IIb consists of olive-brown hemipelagic silty muds containing dispersed volcanic shards and bioclasts, defining the upper boundary of V1 (Fig. 2 ). Overlying this, a ~ 33 cm interval appears visually homogeneous but was resolved by CT and MSCL data (Fig. 3 ) into two distinct intervals. The lower (Subunit IIc; V2a) consists of coarse to medium-grained ash with subtle internal lamination and grain-size alternations. This unit is gradually capped by a thin carbonate-rich layer (Subunit IId; V2b) marking the transition to the overlying Subunit IIe (V3). The contact to Subunit IIe (V3) is sharp, separating the lighter-toned carbonate layer from a darker, very coarse volcanic deposit dominated by angular to subangular grains. Subunit IIe forms the uppermost ~ 11 cm and exhibits weak internal stratification and packing relative to the underlying unit. Unit and subunit boundaries across this core vary from sharp to gradational, consistent with alternating depositional and transitional interfaces confirmed through CT-based density contrasts (Fig. 2 ). GeoB23711-1, recovered approximately 90 m higher on the adjacent slope, is dominated by hemipelagic mud interbedded with a single thin volcaniclastic layer (Fig. 2 ). The basal interval consists of fine, light-grey silty mud with dispersed volcanic clasts and minor bioclasts (Unit I; S). A distinct 1–2 cm thick volcanic layer (Unit II; V) occurs near the top of the sequence, representing the only clearly defined volcaniclastic horizon. This layer contains fine ash-sized particles and minor inclusions of volcaniclasts that locally intercept the underlying sediments, producing a subtle irregular contact (Fig. 2 ). The overall core is homogeneous, lacking the coarse, multi-stage volcaniclastic successions observed in GeoB23710-1, indicating a substantially thinner volcaniclastic record within this higher slope position (Figs. 1 – 2 ). The volcaniclastic succession in Core GeoB23710-1 is subdivided into three internally defined depositional stages (Stages 1–3), corresponding to lithofacies V1–V3 identified from visual core description and CT-based stratigraphic segmentation (Figs. 2 – 4 ). Stage 1 (V1) forms the basal unit and is characterised by a sharp density increase at its base, with gamma-ray attenuation density of ~ 1.9 g cm⁻³, increasing upward into Stage 2 (V2) where basal densities reach ~ 2.0 g cm⁻³, and peaking at ~ 2.1 g cm⁻³ at the base of Stage 3 (V3), where coarse volcanic clasts dominate (Fig. 3 ). These sharp basal density peaks correspond closely with CT-derived mean density variations. Density signals are most pronounced within coarse-grained volcaniclastic beds and become subdued within fine-grained hemipelagic intervals. MS exceeds 1250 × 10⁻⁵ SI in coarse ash layers and progressively declines upward, mirroring fining-upward trends observed in CT imagery (Fig. 4 ). P-wave velocities average around ~ 1700 m s⁻¹ across compacted coarse-grained units and finer hemipelagic muds alike, indicating a primary control by texture and partial compaction. However, distinct velocity troughs occur within Stage 1 and the base of Stage 2, coinciding with CT-resolved bioturbation in Stage 1 and a normal-graded basal layer overlain by fine laminae in Stage 2. These fine-laminated intervals correspond to reduced P-wave velocities (~ 1500 m s⁻¹) and elevated CT density, reflecting alternating compact and more porous laminae. High-resolution XRF core-scanning data further constrain compositional variability and corroborate lithological and physical-property observations (Fig. 3 ). In GeoB23710-1, Zr/Sr in combination with Ca/Al effectively distinguishes volcaniclastic units from hemipelagic background sediments, with elevated values occur in Stage 1 and the combined Stage 2–3 interval, marking a clear compositional boundary between eruptive and non-eruptive intervals. However, neither ratios resolve individual stages within the volcaniclastic sequence (Fig. 3 ). Elemental ratios normalised to Ti (e.g., Si/Ti, K/Ti) and Ca/Al highlight variations in material input and diagenetic overprinting (Fig. 3 ). Si/Ti shows two broad enrichment trends, with lower values in Stage 1, inferred to reflect primary detrital input, and higher values in Stage 2–3, suggesting remobilised detrital components. K/Ti follows a comparable pattern, with low values indicating volcanic-derived input and higher values corresponding to land-derived detritus, though neither ratio differentiates individual stages. Ca/Al remains consistently low across all volcaniclastic intervals compared to Unit I, indicating limited carbonate input, but displays a distinct peak at the top of Stage 2, corresponding to a thin carbonate layer identified in the VCD and density log, as well as for subunit IIb. Zr/Rb provides the clearest distinction among the three depositional stages, defining three compositional trends that coincide with MSCL- and CT-based grain-size variability (Fig. 3 – 5 ). Elevated Zr/Rb values at the base of each subunit correspond to coarser layers and higher CT intensity, acting as a grain-size proxy for distinguishing Stages 1, 2, and 3. Internal sedimentary structures and physical properties CT imaging reveals a well-defined three-stage volcaniclastic succession (Stages 1–3) within the upper 42 cm of Core GeoB23710-1, consistent with stratigraphic trends observed in the MSCL and XRF datasets (Figs. 3 – 5 ). Mean CT intensity ranges from ~ 1000 HU in fine-grained intervals to > 1450 HU in coarse, clast-rich layers, defining pronounced vertical density contrasts that correspond closely with MSCL and XRF trends. Stage 1, the lowermost subunit, sharply overlies hemipelagic muds and exhibits a distinct basal density increase, with discrete high-HU clasts embedded in a moderately dense matrix (~ 1300–1400 HU) (Fig. 3 ). Internal textures show subtle normal grading and scattered low-density features, producing a slightly irregular upper boundary (Fig. 4 a). The HU variability within Stage 1 suggests heterogeneous packing and partial bioturbation within a coarse ash to lapilli-sized volcaniclastic layer. Stage 2 represents the thickest subunit, beginning with an abrupt rise in CT intensity to > 1400 HU, marking a coarse, clast-supported basal layer (Fig. 3 ). CT intensity decreases gradually and becomes rhythmically modulated between 1000–1300 HU, reflecting finely interbedded dense and porous laminae (Fig. 4 b). Orthogonal CT slices reveal small-scale loading, cross-lamination, and lamina bending indicative of internal textural transitions. The upper boundary of Stage 2 is gradational and coincides with a narrow low-HU band corresponding to a carbonate-bearing layer identified by a subtle Ca/Al peak in XRF data (Fig. 3 ). Stage 3 sharply overlies the carbonate-rich layer and is characterised by lower mean CT intensities (~ 1000–1150 HU) and a comparatively homogeneous internal texture (Fig. 3 ). Faint high-HU laminae occur near the base, while the upper part becomes increasingly structureless. The uppermost ~ 5 cm are affected by coring disturbance, evident from smeared CT textures and an anomalously low P-wave velocity of ~ 1550 m s⁻¹ (Fig. 3 , Fig. 4 c). CT-derived textural metrics, including standard deviation (CT-SD) and grain-orientation analyses (Fig. 5 ), quantify internal heterogeneity across the succession. Elevated CT-SD values and preferred grain alignments occur at the base of Stages 2 and 3, whereas upper portions show reduced variability. Integrated with MSCL and XRF data, these observations document systematic vertical changes in physical properties that provide the empirical basis for subsequent interpretation. Flow energy structure and clast component characteristics High-resolution CT-based textural analysis, supported by grain-scale imaging and component quantification, reveals a three-stage internal organisation within the volcaniclastic deposit (Figs. 5 – 7 ). Stage 1 shows the strongest CT-SD peak at its base, indicating internal heterogeneity associated with coarse-grained material (Fig. 5 ). In Stage 2, CT-SD values decrease from the basal peak but show a secondary increase in the middle of the unit, producing a broad, moderate-amplitude profile that reflects alternating intervals of reduced and enhanced internal heterogeneity (Fig. 5 ). Stage 3 shows a renewed increase in CT-SD at its base, followed by a progressive upward decrease in variability. The upper part of Stage 3 is characterised by low CT-SD values and disrupted internal structure, consistent with reduced textural variability and the influence of coring disturbance (Fig. 5 ). Grain-angle and grain-size distribution heatmaps (Fig. 5 ) further resolve internal organisation within each stage. Intervals of strong grain alignment and coarse-grained distribution coincide with high CT-SD intervals, whereas finer-grained intervals exhibit weaker alignment and lower variability. Stage 1 shows strongest grain alignment at the base and decreases upward. Stage 2 exhibits two zones of enhanced grain alignment (e.g., one at the base and another in the middle of the sequence) both associated with local CT-density highs visible in CT visualisations (Fig. 4 ). Upsection, grain alignment weakens and grain-size distributions become progressively finer. Stage 3 displays limited grain alignment overall, with internal signals partly obscured in the uppermost section by coring disturbance. Smear-slide point counting documents systematic compositional evolution across the sequence that parallels CT-derived textural variability (Fig. 6 – 7 ). Stage 1 contains a mixed assemblage dominated by volcaniclasts (30–40%), dense minerals (25–30%), and pyroclasts (10–15%), with minor bioclasts and sediment clasts (< 10%). Stage 2 and 3, containing high proportions of volcaniclasts (30–40%), pyroclasts (10–15%), and dome fragments (20–25%), together forming a heterogeneous assemblage with significant juvenile and lithic input. In contrast, Stages 2 and 3 display a more consistent trend, both characterised by a dominance of dense minerals (> 40%) and dome fragments (20–25%), while volcaniclasts and pyroclasts are initially scarce at the base and gradually increase upward. Within Stage 2, this increase coincides cross-laminated structures visualised in CT. During this interval, volcaniclasts remain low, dome fragments persist at high abundance, and pyroclasts become more pronounced, although still limited to proportions comparable to those in Stage 1. This difference in clast composition and textural evolution between Stage 1 and Stages 2–3 is further examined in the discussion section in relation to their contrasting eruptive and sedimentary dynamics. Discussion Topographic control and selective preservation of volcaniclastic signals The preservation of eruptive and mass-transport signals in marine sedimentary archives is fundamentally controlled by seafloor morphology, sediment-routing pathways, and local depositional energy (Cassidy et al., 2014 ; Le Friant et al., 2004 ; Trofimovs et al., 2006 ). In the eastern region offshore Montserrat, steep slopes, confined channels, and local depressions within the Bouillante–Montserrat Graben impose strong spatial filtering on volcaniclastic deposition (Fig. 1 , Fig. 8 ). These sites occupy distinct bathymetric and geomorphic domains, separated by a marked bathymetric offset of ~ 90 m. This offset reflects differences in flow confinement, sediment focusing, and stratigraphic completeness within proximal depositional environments. The proximal channel-axis site (GeoB23710-1) captures a thick, laterally confined, and internally structured volcaniclastic unit, comprising three discrete stages (Figs. 2 – 7 ). CT visualisations reveal sharp erosional bases, internal truncations, and alternating high- and low-density lamination, indicative of energetic waxing–waning flow behaviour (Le Friant et al., 2015 ). Elevated CT-SD variability and cyclic changes in flow discharge reflect repeated reactivation within a confined transport corridor, promoting efficient sediment focusing and amalgamation of multiple depositional stages into a composite unit. This setting favours high stratigraphic completeness along the channel axis, albeit with localised erosional overprinting at stage boundaries. In contrast, the off-axis site (GeoB23711-1), located ~ 90 m shallower and outside the main sediment conduit, preserves a thin (1–2 cm) ash veneer with minor volcanoclastic inclusions (Figs. 2 , 8 ). This stratigraphy reflects deposition at the fringe of the proximal channel system, where flows were thinner, less confined, and increasingly prone to deceleration, bypass, or dilution. Reduced flow competence at position limited both erosional capacity and depositional thickness, resulting in strong filtering of the eruptive signal relative to the channel-axis record (Feuillet et al., 2010 ; Lebas et al., 2011 ). Only the most dilute, upper portions of the flows were preserved, while earlier or more energetic phases failed to deposit. High-resolution CT imaging highlights the trade-off between stratigraphic completeness and erosional overprinting across these domains. The sharply erosional base of Stage 1 reflects intense scouring during the waxing stage, which may have partially removed pre-existing material. The gradational top of Stage 2 marks a transition toward quiescent sedimentation piper before the renewed influx that formed Stage 3. Similar patterns of selective preservation linked to flow confinement and geomorphic position have been observed in other arc systems, such as the Izu–Bonin (Fiske et al., 2001 ; Robertson et al., 2018 ), the Valparaiso (Laursen & Normark, 2003 ), and the Shikoku basins (Tilley et al., 2021 ). Table 2 Chronology of eruptive, collapse, and mass-flow events at Soufrière Hills Volcano (SHV; Montserrat), based on Montserrat Volcano Observatory reports Date(s) Sector(s) affected (N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, NW) Dominant process(es) Key observation / remarks 11 February 2010 NE Partial dome collapse; PDCs Large partial dome collapse with extensive pyroclastic flows 05 February 2010 E, NE, N, NW, W Explosive dome destruction; PDCs Explosion destroyed dome; fountain collapse generated PDCs in all sectors 09–30 October 2009 NE Dome growth and collapse Repeated growth–collapse cycles 24 May, 9 June, 20 June 2009 E PDCs Small pyroclastic flows 24 April 2009 E PDC Small pyroclastic flow 06 March 2009 E PDC Large PDC reached the sea; low seismicity 24 February 2009 E PDC Far-travelled pyroclastic flow 26 October 2008 E, SE PDCs; erosion Small PDCs with ongoing erosion 20 October 2008 E PDCs; seismicity Three small PDCs associated with seismic events 15–16 October 2008 E Erosion Rainfall-induced erosion of dome talus 01 August 2006 E PDCs; lahars; tsunami PDCs and mudflows reached sea, generating small tsunami 28 June 2005 E Explosion; PDCs Moderate explosion, 7 km plume; PDCs reached sea 03 March 2004 E Explosion; dome collapse; PDCs Dome collapse and explosion; 7 km ash plume; tremor and ash venting 12–13 July 2003 E (PDCs), NW (ash) Large dome collapse; PDCs Third major dome collapse; island-wide ashfall June–July 2003 E Shear lobe; PDCs Shear lobe followed by weeks of PDCs, seismic swarms April–May 2003 SE PDCs Pyroclastic flows confined to Tar River January–March 2003 NE (growth), E (PDCs) Dome growth; PDCs Dome growth in NE; PDCs and rockfalls to E December 2002 NE, W, NW Dome collapse; ash clouds Collapse in NE; ash dispersed W/NW October 2002 E (collapse), NW (lahars) Rainfall-induced collapse; mudflows ~ 4 million m³ dome collapse; large mudflows 01 September 2002 W, NE PDCs; dome collapse PDCs to W; minor collapse-generated PDC to NE reached sea 21 August 2002 E Small collapse Rainfall-induced talus collapse July–August 2002 N, NE Dome growth; PDCs New lobe and small PDCs April–May 2002 SE, E Dome growth; PDCs; seismicity Lobe formation, talus accumulation, declining activity March 2002 E Rockfalls; PDCs Large spine extension; PDCs reached sea August–October 2001 SE Collapse; tremor Small collapse; prolonged tremor and PDCs 29 July 2001 E Major dome collapse; PDCs 45 million m³ removed; sustained PDCs and surges May–July 2001 E, N Dome growth; PDCs Lobe growth; continuous rockfall; small collapses January–February 2001 NE Dome growth; PDCs Small collapse on 25 Feb March–November 2000 NE Dome growth; seismicity Hybrid/LP earthquakes; minor collapses 20 March 2000 E Rainfall-induced collapse; lahars Collapse with mudflows and minor explosions 01 February 2000 E PDCs First PDCs reached delta 17–19 November 1999 Island-wide Lahars; explosions Rain-induced mudflows; minor explosions 20 October 1999 Island-wide Lahars Mudflows July–August 1999 E, N Dome collapse; PDCs Large collapse; ashfall; residual collapses May–June 1999 NE Rockfalls; ash venting Minor ash and steam emissions 22–23 May 1999 E Seismic swarms; collapse VT swarm (121 events); ash plume to 5.8 km December 1998 NE Lahars Rain-induced mudflows November–December 1998 E Dome collapse; PDCs PDCs reached sea; ash clouds 01 November 1998 Island-wide Lahars Extensive rainfall-induced mudflows October–November 1998 E, NE PDCs Sustained pyroclastic flows 03 July 1998 E Dome collapse; explosions ~ 20% dome collapse January–March 1998 NE Seismicity; PDCs Ashfall reached Antigua (~ 20 km) October–December 1997 Island-wide Vulcanian explosions 76 explosions with ash and pumice August–September1997 NE Dome growth; collapse Major collapse on 21 Sep 25 June 1997 NE, NW Major dome collapse Three collapse pulses; surges May–June 1997 N, NE Dome growth; PDCs First PDCs and rockfalls 01 September 1996 E, S Explosions; ballistics Dome collapse and explosive activity April–September1996 E PDCs; dome growth First PDCs reached sea; high magma flux September–October 1995 SE Phreatic eruption; lahars Initial activity phase with seismic swarms N=North; NE=Northeast; E=East; SE=Southeast; S=South; SW=Southwest; W=West; NW=Northwest; PDCs=Pyroclastic density currents. Clast composition patterns support this morphological control. Stage 1 represents a high-energy, compositionally diverse event deposited during a single, turbulent waxing–waning flow. In contrast, Stages 2 and 3 share a more homogeneous character, with similar compositional trajectories and flow structures (Fig. 7 ), consistent with reactivated, traction-dominated phases in a confined channel system. These observations demonstrate that the fidelity of offshore volcanic archives depends not only on eruptive intensity, but critically on geomorphic position relative to active sediment pathways, with channel-axis settings preserving complete, multi-stage successions and adjacent off-axis slopes recording strongly filtered equivalents. AMS ¹⁴C ages constrain Stage 1 with regionally documented andesitic turbidites attributed to late Holocene SHV activity (Trofimovs et al., 2013 ). In contrast, Stages 2 and 3 must postdate AD 181 and are most plausibly associated with the 1995–2010 eruptive cycle of the Soufrière Hills Volcano, a period characterised by frequent dome growth and collapse events documented by the Montserrat Volcano Observatory (Table 2 ). During this interval, numerous dome-collapse–derived pyroclastic density currents were repeatedly channelled through the Tar River Valley towards the eastern and northeastern offshore sector, where their entry into the sea would have generated multiple turbidity currents (Cole et al., 2002 ; Wadge et al., 2014 ). While individual turbidity-current events cannot be resolved one-to-one within the core record, the close vertical spacing of Stages 2 and 3, their similar compositions, and their shared flow structures support interpretation as closely spaced depositional stages produced by successive collapses within a single eruptive phase, rather than by long-lived background sedimentation. Implications for volcanic signal preservation As volcaniclastic turbidity currents or mixed density flows decelerate downslope, transport energy and sediment capacity decrease, promoting bypass and dilution. Coarser-grained material and earlier depositional stages are preferentially lost, leaving only fine-grained, ash-rich veneers interbedded with background sediment in off-axis or distal settings. Even within proximal environments, post-depositional modification further complicates the offshore archive. Once tephra and collapse-derived debris reach the seabed, reworking, amalgamation, and slurry mixing reshape the deposits during and after emplacement. In GeoB23710-1, erosional contacts, amalgamated boundaries, and tractional reworking visible in CT imagery (Figs. 3 , 4 ) demonstrate that reworking during and after emplacement modifies the primary depositional signal (Le Friant et al., 2015 ). As a result, the offshore stratigraphy does not preserve a simple one-to-one correspondence with individual eruptive events documented on land (e.g., the Montserrat Volcano Observatory; Cole et al., 2002 ). Five main processes explain this discrepancy: (1) Temporal amalgamation and fragmentation cause multiple eruptive pulses to merge into composite beds or a single event to be split by internal reactivation, introducing time-averaging that complicates “one onshore event–one offshore bed” assumptions (Cassidy et al., 2014 ; Trofimovs et al., 2006 ). (2) Geochemical dilution by background mud or hemipelagic sediment weakens diagnostic compositional signals. (3) Material reintroduction through remobilisation entrains older volcaniclastic or hemipelagic units, producing hybrid layers that contain reworked grains of differing ages or compositions (Le Friant et al., 2015 ). (4) Spatial filtering by topography yields high-fidelity records at channel axes (e.g., GeoB23710-1) but homogenised veneers at off-axis sites (e.g., GeoB23711-1) (Fig. 8 ) (Feuillet et al., 2010 ; Lebas et al., 2011 ). (5) Physical-property decoupling, revealed by CT-derived metrics (CT-SD, grain-angle and distribution) show that density and MS variations relate more closely to sedimentary fabric and flow dynamics than simple eruption magnitude, breaking straightforward land–sea correlations. These findings reveal that the offshore record of the SHV is not a passive repository of eruptive events but a dynamically filtered archive that integrates eruptive, reworking, and topographic processes. The proximal setting captures near-complete multi-stage sequences generated by successive dome-collapse and remobilisation phases, while fringe or elevated localities preserve only partial, compositionally homogenised deposits (Figs. 3 , 8 ). Robust reconstruction of eruptive chronologies therefore requires morphologically informed sampling strategies and integrated, multi-proxy approaches to distinguish preserved eruptive signals from topographically imposed filtering. Flow process evolution Integration of CT, MSCL, and clast composition datasets delineates a coherent three-stage stratigraphy that records the temporal and hydrodynamic evolution of a volcaniclastic turbidity current (Figs. 3 – 8 ). Variations in CT intensity, CT-SD, grain-angle and grain-size distribution, and clast composition collectively resolve the waxing–steady–waning flow behaviour and document changes in sediment support, traction, and depositional efficiency through time. Stage 1 records a high-energy flow onset marked by a sharp erosional base (Fig. 4 a), elevated CT-SD values (Fig. 5 ), and strong grain alignment, reflecting intense turbulence, tractional transport, and rapid sediment loading. High CT intensity, magnetic susceptibility, and P-wave velocity indicate coarse, compacted material, while clast assemblages dominated by pyroclasts, volcaniclasts, and dome fragments (Fig. 7 ) point to a juvenile-rich, eruption-linked input. Upward decreases in CT intensity and grain alignment indicate progressive waning, defining an energetic waxing–waning phase characterised by erosion, rapid deposition, and deceleration. Stage 2 reflects a lower-energy but internally complex phase. Reduced CT-SD values (Fig. 5 ) indicate diminished turbulence relative to Stage 1, while alternating high- and low-density lamination (Fig. 4 b) and dual zones of grain alignment record waxing, sustained traction, and renewed reactivation prior to final waning. Normal grading and a thin carbonate-rich interval at the top (Fig. 3 ) indicate brief depositional quiescence. Clast compositions show reduced pyroclast abundance and increasing dome fragments and volcaniclasts upward (Fig. 7 ), consistent with intermittent shear focusing and remobilisation of slope-derived material within a confined flow. Stage 3 represents a short-lived waxing phase that rapidly waned (Fig. 5 ). Low CT-SD values (Fig. 3 ), diffuse lamination (Fig. 4 c), weak grain alignment, and reduced P-wave velocities indicate dilute, low-competence flow conditions. Clast compositions broadly mirror Stage 2 but at lower abundances (Fig. 7 ). These signatures define a dilute reactivation or trailing phase that rapidly decelerated and deposited under waning flow conditions. Across the succession, CT-SD peaks correspond to tractional intervals, whereas subdued CT-SD and weaker alignment mark suspension-dominated phases (Figs. 3 – 5 ). The transition from a pyroclast-rich composition in Stage 1 to dome-fragment-dominated compositions in Stages 2–3 demonstrates a shift from a juvenile-bearing, eruption-linked inflow to remobilised, slope-derived stages. This stacked architecture records discrete but closely spaced depositional stages rather than continuous sedimentation, consistent with repeated dome-collapse events during the 1995–2010 SHV eruptive cycle 2010 (Fig. 8 ; (Cole et al., 2002 ; Wadge et al., 2014 ). Comparable multi-stage turbidites have been described from the Lesser Antilles and other volcanic margins, where successive collapses and flow transformations generate stratified event beds that archive the evolving dynamics of volcanic density currents (Le Friant et al., 2008 ; Watt et al., 2012 a, 2012 b). Hazard implications The internal architecture and physical properties revealed in the Montserrat cores have direct implications for submarine slope stability and secondary hazard development. Integrated CT–MSCL data identify density minima and fabric contrasts (reflected by low CT mean, subdued CT-SD, and changes in grain-angle alignment) that represent potential mechanically weak-layers within the sequence (Figs. 5 – 8 ). These layers, particularly fine-grained caps and thin hemipelagic drapes separating coarser volcaniclastic beds, may represent mechanical discontinuities prone to failure during renewed loading or seismic perturbation. Sharp contrasts in density and permeability between these units can facilitate excess pore-pressure accumulation during rapid sedimentation or external disturbance (e.g., earthquake shaking). In GeoB23710-1, low CT intensity, subdued MS, and P-wave velocity minima indicate limited drainage and elevated pore-fluid retention (Fig. 3 ), increasing vulnerability to failure under renewed loading or transient shear stresses from passing turbidity currents. Similar coarse–fine alternations are widely recognised as precursors to weak-layer development and secondary mass movements (e.g., Talling et al., 2012 ; Urlaub et al., 2015 , 2018 ; Wang et al., 2025 ). The contrast between axis-proximal and off-axis settings further implies that failure initiation and reactivation are most likely near channel axes, where repeated flow loading sustains elevated pore pressures, posing risks for tsunami generation and subsea infrastructure. Conclusions The proximal stratigraphic record offshore Montserrat preserves a thick, multi-stage volcaniclastic unit that documents the interplay between seismicity- and dome-collapse-driven turbidity currents. High-resolution CT data, integrated with MSCL and smear-slide analyses, resolve this deposit into three discrete stages defined by distinct density structures, fabric alignments, and clast-component trends. CT-resolved layering explains variability in physical-property profiles and identifies fine-grained, low-density interbeds as mechanically weak layer candidates susceptible to failure under renewed loading or pore-pressure rise. Thick, internally complex offshore volcaniclastic successions may record episodic and multi-phase eruptive activity long after surface expressions have been removed. The burial of such deposits therefore does not necessarily indicate volcanic quiescence, but instead reflects the timing, emplacement processes, and preservation potential of individual eruptive events. Spatial correlation between GeoB23710-1 (axis-proximal) and GeoB23711-1 (off-axis) demonstrates pronounced topographic control on selective preservation, with confined settings retaining complete multi-stage successions and elevated positions preserving only thin, diluted ash veneers. Future work combining proximal–distal transects, geophysical imaging, and CT-constrained modelling will further quantify flow transformation, sediment bypass, and hazard evolution on volcanic slopes. Declarations Not applicable. Conflicts of interest/Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Funding This project has received funding from the European Union under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Grant Agreement No. 101120236 Author Contribution D.H., S.K., and K.H. contributed to the concept and study design. Field data acquisition during the research cruise was carried out by K.H. and S.K. Data analysis and interpretation were performed by D.H. D.H. prepared the figures and wrote the original draft of the manuscript. All authors contributed to reviewing and editing the manuscript. Supervision, funding acquisition, and project administration were provided by K.H. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgement This study is part of the POSEIDON project, funded by the European Union under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Doctoral Networks (MSCA-DN, Grant Agreement No. 101120236). Data used in this study were acquired during R/V METEOR Cruise M154-2, funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) within the project “Sector collapse kinematics and tsunami implications (SEKT)”, and analysed at the XRF Core Scanners Lab and MSCL Lab, MARUM – University of Bremen. We thank Klinikum Bremen-Mitte (Christian Timann) for CT support, the GeoB Core Repository (MARUM – University of Bremen) for providing cores, and colleagues from the Modelling of Sedimentation Processes (Xiaoye Zhao, Dr Gerhard Bartzke, Lina Büschler), the Marine Sedimentology (Dr Jürgen Titschack, Dr Emmanuel Okuma, Dr Mahyar Mohtadi) groups for assistance during core logging, scanning, and sub-sampling. 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Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 11 May, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 07 May, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 06 May, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 22 Apr, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 22 Apr, 2026 First submitted to journal 20 Apr, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9467511","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":638099509,"identity":"a1b2f586-b755-47b3-a053-17dee3b23c22","order_by":0,"name":"Dina Hanifah","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAx0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDCCG0CcYMOQwA/lMzYQpyWNIUGygSQtDEAtBgeI1cJ3u/nZgwcJdnnG1w4/+8ybwyDbT0iL5J1j5gYJCcnFZrfTjGfzbmMwnknIGoMbCWYSiT+YE7fdTjBmBmpJ3HCAoJb0bxIJCfWJm2enfwZr2U9YS44ZUMvhxA3SOVBbCPrlRk4ZUMvxxBm3c4oZ526TMJ5ByBa+G+nbJH8kVCf2z07fzPB2m41sfwMha9CABInqR8EoGAWjYBRgBQCisUXTDekNuwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"University of Bremen","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dina","middleName":"","lastName":"Hanifah","suffix":""},{"id":638099510,"identity":"9d33f96e-c039-4349-9255-036af3f9b282","order_by":1,"name":"Steffen Kutterolf","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Steffen","middleName":"","lastName":"Kutterolf","suffix":""},{"id":638099511,"identity":"978c70ff-3517-487f-83ad-098f3ab2a91f","order_by":2,"name":"Katrin Huhn","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Bremen","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Katrin","middleName":"","lastName":"Huhn","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-04-20 06:10:17","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9467511/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9467511/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":109332080,"identity":"aaa79bf6-53bf-45ed-ad90-ed90d8ef8ea9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-15 16:13:07","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1461501,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBathymetric map of Montserrat and the eastern offshore sector, acquired during the 2019 R/V METEOR cruise M154-2 (Huhn et al., 2019). The map shows the Soufrière Hills Volcano (SHV), major mass-transport deposits (Deposit 1, Deposit 2a–b; Kühn et al., 2024), and core locations discussed in this study. Core GeoB23710-1 was retrieved proximal to Mass Transport Deposit 1, in a disturbed setting with high volcaniclastic input, whereas Core GeoB23711-1 was retrieved farther north in a less disturbed zone. Flow pathways inferred from bathymetry suggest southeastward transport across the basin axis.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9467511/v1/be9b16e1d270103eb9bca303.jpeg"},{"id":109405431,"identity":"c944fb6d-1ad7-48e4-9cad-22426f6b90ba","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-17 13:18:00","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":601096,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSplit-core photographs and Visual Core Descriptions (VCD) (a) Core GeoB23710-1 and (b) Core GeoB23711-1. The succession is subdivided into two formal stratigraphic units, with the lowermost debrite-dominated Unit I overlain by a volcaniclastic Unit II, which is further subdivided into subunits IIa–IIe. Lithofacies descriptors (V1–V3, V2a, V2b, S) denote textural and compositional variability within individual subunits and are used in a descriptive sense only. Volcaniclastic facies (V1–V3) are distinguished from background sediments (S) based on grain size, texture, and colour. Core GeoB23710-1 contains a ~30 cm volcaniclastic deposit underlain by debritic material, whereas (b) Core GeoB23711-1 preserves only a thin (~1–2 cm) ash horizon. These contrasting stratigraphies provide the basis for subsequent multi-proxy analyses.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9467511/v1/6e0b7091222266ab01afd4ae.png"},{"id":109332085,"identity":"269cb89f-d9ce-4607-bc94-a9dec454eed4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-15 16:13:08","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":774763,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eIntegrated multi-proxy overview of Core GeoB23710-1, combining CT scan frontal view and segmentation with co-registered MSCL (gamma density, magnetic susceptibility, P-wave velocity) and XRF geochemical profiles (Zr/Sr, Ca/Al, Si/Ti, K/Ti, Zr/Rb; Croudace \u0026amp; Rothwell, 2015). Shaded windows mark volcaniclastic stages (V1–V3). Square boxes indicate zoom-in areas shown in Figs. 4a–c. At unit scale, CT-mean intensity covaries with MSCL-measured density and magnetic susceptibility, illustrating the physical and compositional layering associated with internally defined stratigraphic variability.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9467511/v1/9a675ce8c262bfba334b142f.jpeg"},{"id":109332082,"identity":"9f990c6c-28c9-4c62-9c34-ebb17e33d739","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-15 16:13:07","extension":"jpeg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1559808,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eZoomed CT panels and orthogonal slices illustrating internal microstructures of volcaniclastic stages in Core GeoB23710-1. (a) Stage 1 (V1): sharp erosional base, laminated sets, bioturbation pathways, and upper mixing with background mud; (b) stage 2 (V2): loaded/imbricated basal contact with normal grading, overlain by parallel laminae transitioning to cross-laminated carbonate-rich material; (c) Stage 3 (V3): fining-upward laminated interval with undulating basal contact and minor disturbance near the top. All images share fixed window/level settings for comparability.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9467511/v1/8f3a3725b2690bd7021a4b6b.jpeg"},{"id":109405628,"identity":"1dedc074-0321-4b40-834f-03ba350041ca","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-17 13:19:26","extension":"jpeg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":408052,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCT-derived textural metrics and flow-index synthesis for the volcaniclastic unit of Core GeoB23710-1. Panels include CT-standard deviation (CT-SD; heterogeneity), grain-angle heatmap, grain-size heatmap, and a derived flow-discharge index computed from standardised CT/textural parameters. Shaded windows (V1–V3) delineate depositional stages. Co-evolution of CT-SD and grain-angle variability highlights transitions in sediment fabric and flow regime.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9467511/v1/00f6a620d47f07cb6336183f.jpeg"},{"id":109332083,"identity":"a3841e9a-1a21-4358-8d01-4c00ee2c0acf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-15 16:13:07","extension":"jpeg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1223775,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRepresentative smear-slide images illustrating the six clast categories used for point-counting in Core GeoB23710-1. (a) Pyroclasts; (b) Volcaniclasts; (c) Dome fragments; (d) Dense minerals; (e) Bioclasts; (f) Sediment clasts. Scale bars and imaging modality (plane-polarized/reflected) are shown. Examples correspond to counted particles in Fig. 7.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9467511/v1/d90eb7038e3d2133d43ab44d.jpeg"},{"id":109332087,"identity":"cf0f95c2-cdb7-47e0-8ade-c4362214eea0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-15 16:13:08","extension":"jpeg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":325634,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDown-core variations in clast composition in Core GeoB23710-1. Stacked bar charts show relative proportions of the six clast types (pyroclasts, volcaniclasts, dome fragments, dense minerals, bioclasts, and sediment clasts) plotted against depth and grouped by volcaniclastic stages (V1–V3, shaded). Stage 1 is characterised by elevated proportions of pyroclasts and volcaniclasts, indicating a dominant explosive input and high juvenile component. In contrast, Stages 2 and 3 display a marked increase in volcaniclasts, dense minerals, and dome-fragment clasts, accompanied by a reduction in pyroclasts, suggesting a transition toward more effusive or reworked material and a shift in the source or transport regime during subsequent depositional phases.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9467511/v1/94a6148274b44c80093b4028.jpeg"},{"id":109332084,"identity":"fb15012a-49e4-4154-a8bf-798bfa5e7b29","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-15 16:13:07","extension":"jpeg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":670890,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBathymetric profile and land-to-sea correlation of proximal volcaniclastic deposits offshore Montserrat. The bathymetric cross-section follows the profile trace indicated in Figure 1, extending downslope from the Montserrat Island shelf to the eastern offshore basin. Core GeoB23710-1 and Core GeoB23711-1 are projected along the transect, showing their relative elevations—GeoB23711-1 lies approximately 90 m higher than GeoB23710-1—although both remain within the proximal depositional domain. Facies sketches and shaded correlation bars represent the mass transport deposit (Deposit 1) and volcaniclastic turbidites identified in Core GeoB23710-1 and GeoB23711-1 and their correlation to the onshore eruptive sequence of 1995–2010 recorded by the Montserrat Volcano Observatory. The lowermost volcaniclastic stage (Stage 1; V1) is correlated with the regional ~2–1.5 ka andesitic turbidite unit described by Trofimovs et al. (2013), whereas Stages 2 and 3 (V2–V3) are associated with dome-collapse-derived turbidites generated during the 1995–2010 eruptive phase of Soufrière Hills Volcano. This correlation highlights the multi-stage nature of volcaniclastic sediment delivery to the offshore basin and demonstrates the role of subtle bathymetric relief in controlling flow confinement, depositional energy, and the selective preservation of eruptive stages, with the lower-sited GeoB23710-1 recording the complete three-stage stratigraphy and the higher GeoB23711-1 preserving only an attenuated ash layer.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9467511/v1/615ead59bbd3e9af9d6e7cf5.jpeg"},{"id":109332079,"identity":"03426852-c7d5-42cf-9e72-bdc67b7d3114","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-15 16:13:04","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":417065,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9467511/v1/0e27a8e5-4da5-4a30-b3c2-05f77d9cabc6.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Volcanic stratigraphy offshore East Montserrat: Selective preservation and subaqueous remobilisation in marine records","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eVolcanic island arcs are dynamic environments where eruptive activity, steep topography, and rapid sedimentation interact to produce complex stratigraphic records. During eruptions, volcanic material is released both subaerially and submarine, through fallout, pyroclastic density currents (PDCs), vertical density currents, slope failures, or secondary remobilisation processes (Freundt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In proximal offshore settings, volcaniclastic materials can be redistributed by sediment gravity flows, locally transporting and reworking erupted material across the basin floor (Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Masson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Watt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003ea). Offshore volcaniclastic deposits commonly archive eruptive history and a spectrum of gravity-driven emplacement processes such as PDCs, turbidity currents, and debris avalanches (Carey, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e; Cas \u0026amp; Wright, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e; Manville et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Masson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). These deposits form key records of eruption dynamics, land\u0026ndash;sea connectivity, and long-term volcanic margin evolution (Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; J. G. Moore et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubmarine slope failures are among the largest mass movements on Earth and are common around volcanic islands ((Boudon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Coombs et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Masson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Oehler et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). More than 40 major events have been identified within the Lesser Antilles arc (Deplus et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e), with several linked to volcanic collapses and heightened eruptive activity. These failures redistribute large volumes of volcaniclastic material and may trigger tsunamis (Herd et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Wynn \u0026amp; Masson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). For instance, PDCs entering the sea during the Soufri\u0026egrave;re Hills Volcano (SHV) eruption generated localised tsunamis around Montserrat (Herd et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Mattioli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Marine sedimentary sequences thus orm natural archives of eruptive and mass-transport processes, often preserving longer and more continuous records than subaerial successions, which are frequently eroded or buried (Larsen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Wetzel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Wiesner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, establishing direct correlation between subaerial eruptions and submarine deposits in proximal settings (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;10km; e.g. Eychenne \u0026amp; Engwell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) to the volcanic sources remains challenging. Post-depositional reworking, selective sediment focusing, and seafloor morphology, can modify marine successions and obscure discrimination between eruptive products and reworked successions (Boudon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Flow confinement, slope gradients, and topographic lows exert first-order control on sediment accumulation and flow energy dissipation (Trofimovs et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), producing significant spatial variability in volcanic signal preservation over short distances. In contrast, distal settings typically preserve thinner, finer-grained ash veneers with limited internal structure (Larsen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Wetzel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Lesser Antilles arc provides a natural laboratory to investigate how volcanic signals are transferred, transformed, and archived offshore. Formed by oblique subduction of the Atlantic Plate beneath the Caribbean Plate, the arc hosts numerous active volcanoes, steep submarine slopes, narrow shelves, and deep submarine basins favourable for volcaniclastic preservation (Deplus et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Within this arc, the SHV on Montserrat is among the most intensively studied due to its prolonged activity since 1995 (Cole et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; A. L. Smith et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Voight et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Repeated cycles of lava-dome growth and collapse have delivered over 90% of erupted material offshore (Cole et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Edmonds \u0026amp; Herd, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Herd et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Trofimovs et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study focuses on the eastern offshore sector of Montserrat, downslope of the Tar River Valley, where gravity cores GeoB23710-1 and GeoB23711-1 were recovered during the METEOR M154-2 expedition (Huhn et al., 2019) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). This region is characterised by channels, scarps, and ponded depocentres that act as traps for volcaniclastic material (Crutchley et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Although this area has received sustained inputs from successive eruptive phases, the internal architecture, flow organisation, and extent of post-depositional modification within proximal offshore successions remain insufficiently resolved.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecent advances in high-resolution core analysis enable detailed examination of such complex deposits. Multi-sensor core logging (MSCL) provides continuous measurements of gamma density, magnetic susceptibility, and P-wave velocity linked to sediment composition and texture Computed tomography (CT) imaging enables three-dimensional visualisation of internal structures and density contrasts, revealing erosional contacts, grading patterns, and subtle fabrics often unresolved in visual core descriptions (Ashi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Bendle et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Capowiez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Cnudde et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Evans et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Griggs et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Ketcham \u0026amp; Carlson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Loame et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Integrated with X-ray fluorescence (XRF) core scanning and microscopic observations, these non-destructive techniques allow reconstruction of depositional processes and multi-stage flow dynamics at millimetre to centimetre scale (Croudace \u0026amp; Rothwell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Emmanouilidis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study investigates volcaniclastic deposits from the eastern offshore sector of Montserrat to evaluate how eruptive signals are recorded, preserved, and modified in proximal area. Specifically, we (1) characterise the physical and geochemical signatures of a distinctive three-stage deposit using computed tomography (CT), multi-sensor core logging (MSCL), and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analyses; (2) reconstruct the evolution of flow energy and depositional phases by integrating CT intensity patterns, grading trends, and microscopic fabrics; and (3) assess selective preservation and land\u0026ndash;sea correlation with the 1995\u0026ndash;2010 eruptive sequence of the SHV. By integrating multi-proxy datasets from GeoB23710-1 and GeoB23711-1, this study builds upon previous studies (Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Trofimovs et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Watt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003ea) and advances understanding of volcanic signal fidelity, post-depositional modification, and the development of mechanically weak layers in proximal volcanic settings, with implications for slope stability and offshore hazard assessment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eRegional setting\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMontserrat is a volcanic island within the northern Lesser Antilles arc, formed by oblique oceanic-oceanic subduction of the Atlantic Plate beneath the Caribbean Plate at a convergence rate of ~\u0026thinsp;2\u0026ndash;4 cm yr⁻\u0026sup1; (Bouysse et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e; Bouysse \u0026amp; Westercamp, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e; DeMets et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Grindlay et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Wadge, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e; Wadge et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The island lies along the western margin of the NNW-SSE striking Bouillante\u0026ndash;Montserrat Graben, a fault-controlled back-arc depression that accommodates extensional deformation and serves as a principal depocentre for volcaniclastic and hemipelagic sedimentation (Boudon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Crutchley et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Feuillet et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Volcanism has migrated southward along the arc from the Silver Hills (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;2.5 Ma) to the Centre Hills (~\u0026thinsp;0.95\u0026ndash;0.55 Ma) and the active SHV (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.17 Ma; Coussens et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Harford et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). The SHV is a composite andesitic stratovolcano characterised by repeated dome growth, collapse, and pyroclastic activity that have constructed and reshaped the southern part of the island (Harford et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Wadge et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe eastern offshore sector of Montserrat lies within the Bouillante\u0026ndash;Montserrat Graben, where a steep, fault-bounded depocenter captures volcaniclastic and hemipelagic sediment derived from both subaerial eruptions and mass-wasting events (Crutchley et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Trofimovs et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Bathymetric and seismic surveys reveal a series of coalescing channels and depositional lobes extending several kilometres east of the Tar River Valley, the main pathway for PDCs and sediment gravity flows (Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Trofimovs et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). These geomorphic features act as primary transport conduits and depocenters for remobilised volcaniclastic sediment. Sediment supply pathways are strongly aligned with subaerial drainage systems such as the Tar River Valley, channelling eruptive material and secondary flows offshore (Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Trofimovs et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRepeated volcanic collapses and associated mass-transport processes from Montserrat, complemented by ash fall out events, have constructed a complex stratigraphic succession comprising debris-avalanche, debris-flow, and turbidite units that archive eruptive and remobilisation events since the late Quaternary (Masson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Talling, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Watt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003ea, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003eb). Seismic, bathymetric, and core data indicate multiple stacked mass-transport deposits, notably Deposits 1 and 2, emplaced within the Montserrat\u0026ndash;Bouillante Graben (Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Lebas et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Watt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003ea, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003eb). Deposit 1 represents a chaotic block-rich avalanche formed by sector collapse around 2 ka, while Deposit 2 forms a smoother, more laterally continuous unit associated with subsequent flank remobilisation and sediment drape (Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Lebas et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Watt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003ea). Deposit 2 extends\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;30 km from the eastern flank of SHV, covering\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;200 km\u0026sup2;, and is subdivided into two subunits (2a and 2b) (Coussens et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Watt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003eb). Material recovered during IODP Expedition 340 confirms interbedding of volcaniclastic and hemipelagic sediments, reflecting combined volcanic collapse and seafloor sediment failure processes (Coussens et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVolcanic activity at SHV resumed in 1995 following a prolonged dormancy, initiating a new eruptive cycle characterised by andesitic dome growth, collapse, and associated pyroclastic and sedimentary processes (Druitt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Young, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). The 1995 onset phase produced widespread tephra fallout, block-and-ash flows, and pyroclastic flows as the lava dome grew and periodically collapsed within the English\u0026rsquo;s Crater (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). A major dome-collapse event in June 1997 mobilised\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;210 \u0026times; 10⁶ m\u0026sup3; of material, producing high-energy PDCs that entered the Tar River Valley and extended several kilometres offshore (Calder et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Cole et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Herd et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). These PDCs triggered secondary turbidity currents and debris-flow remobilisation on the steep submarine slopes (Cassidy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Hart et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e), producing thick multi-unit volcaniclastic turbidites (Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Trofimovs et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubsequent eruptive phases between 2003 and 2010 were characterised by cyclic dome growth and gravitational collapse, accompanied by minor Vulcanian explosions (Wadge et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Alternating inputs of coarse and fine volcaniclastic material offshore produced stratigraphically variable deposits recording both primary eruptive pulses and secondary remobilisation (Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Trofimovs et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Periods of intense dome growth and collapse correspond to increased volcaniclastic flux, while quiescent intervals promote hemipelagic settling and carbonate input (Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Trofimovs et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). As a result, the stratigraphic record offshore Montserrat captures a near-continuous history of eruption, remobilisation, and sediment redistribution (Hart et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e), providing a framework for assessing the link between volcanic activity and submarine depositional processes. The recent eruptive cycles (1995\u0026ndash;2010) provides a modern analogue for reconstructing ancient submarine records, emphasising the role of proximal eastern basin in archiving volcanic activity and associated mass-wasting events.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCore recovery and sampling\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwo short gravity cores (GeoB23710-1 and GeoB23711-1) were collected from the eastern offshore sector of Montserrat during RV Meteor cruise M154-2 in 2019 (Berndt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Huhn et al., 2019). Coring was conducted using a 12 cm-diameter gravity corer at within the Bouillante\u0026ndash;Montserrat Graben, a proximal depocentre east of the SHV. GeoB23710-1 (16\u0026deg;23.26\u0026prime; N, 61\u0026deg;26.02\u0026prime; W; 946 m water depth) was recovered near the margin of Deposit 1 and 2a in a disturbed setting, while GeoB23711-1 (16\u0026deg;23.89\u0026prime; N, 61\u0026deg;25.99\u0026prime; W; 854 m water depth) was obtained farther north in a relatively undisturbed slope. Recovered sediment lengths of GeoB23710-1 and GeoB23711-1 are 88 cm and 86 cm, respectively. Cores were stored at 4\u0026deg;C at the MARUM Core Repository (University of Bremen, Germany), where subsequent re-examination and laboratory analyses were conducted in 2025.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eVisual core description (VCD)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInitial visual core descriptions (VCDs) were conducted onboard RV Meteor during Cruise M154/2 immediately after core splitting, following IODP lithostratigraphic (Huhn et al., 2019). Both working and archive halves were scanned using a Geotek Multi-Sensor Core Logger with integrated line-scan camera (MSCL-C). In 2025, archive halves were re-examined at MARUM \u0026ndash; Center for Marine Environmental Sciences, University of Bremen, to refine shipboard observations and enhance the lithostratigraphic framework through integrated visual, microscopic, and chronological analyses. VCDs were re-conducted at 1-cm resolution, documenting lithology, sedimentary structures, colour, grading, sorting, and bioturbation intensity. The descriptions emphasised the recognition of facies transitions, depositional contacts, and reworking indicators to improve differentiation between primary volcanic deposits and secondary mass-transport or hemipelagic intervals (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo enhance subtle lithological contrasts, archived core photographs were reprocessed using histogram equalisation in Corel PHOTO-PAINT\u0026reg; (2025 improving visibility of internal layering and faint lamination while preserving stratigraphic fidelity. Bioturbation intensity was assessed using a five-point visual scale, and macrofossil, lithic, and volcanic fragments were systematically recorded.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMulti-Sensor Core Logging (MSCL)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePhysical properties were measured using a Geotek Standard Multi-Sensor Core Logger (MSCL-S), following established MARUM protocols to ensure consistency with other geophysical datasets. Gamma-ray attenuation (wet bulk density), magnetic susceptibility (MS), and P-wave velocity were measured continuously at 1-cm resolution. Bulk density provides constraints on sediment compaction and distinguishes coarse-grained volcaniclastic layers from finer hemipelagic intervals. MS was measured using a Bartington MS2E loop sensor and serves as a proxy for variations in magnetite-bearing volcanic material. P-wave velocity reflects sediment stiffness, consolidation, and acoustic properties related to lithology, water content, and diagenetic alteration. All measurements were acquired automatically along the core track using a GEOTEK MST system with real-time temperature compensation. Data were quality-controlled to remove artefacts from surface irregularities or core gaps. The resulting physical property profiles were integrated with VCD and XRF datasets to refine facies boundaries, grading trends, and stratigraphic depositional stages (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eX-ray Fluorescence (XRF) Core Scanning\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHigh-resolution geochemical profiles were acquired at MARUM using an AVAATECH XRF Core Scanner on split archive halves at 10 mm resolution. The instrument is equipped with a SiriusSD D65133BE-INF Silicon Drift Detector (SGX Sensortech) and an Oxford Instruments 100 W Neptune Rh X-ray tube. Measurements were performed at 10, 30, and 50 kV with respective currents of 0.4, 0.65, and 0.55 mA and a count time of 7 s per analysis, using a 10 mm down-core and 12 mm cross-core slit size. Core surfaces were covered with 4 \u0026micro;m SPEXCertiPrep TF-240 film to minimise contamination and desiccation during scanning. Raw spectra were processed using WIN AXIL (Batch) software (Canberra Eurisys, Benelux) with an iterative least-squares approach. Elemental intensities were normalised to total counts to correct for surface roughness and water-content variability. Elements retained for interpretation included Al, Si, K, Ca, Ti, Mn, Fe, Sr, Zr, Ba, and Rb; elements affected by spectral overlap or low counts (e.g. Mo, Ag, Cd, Sn, Te, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Nb, Pb, Bi, Mg, P, Cl, and Cr) were excluded.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFollowing Croudace \u0026amp; Rothwell (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), elemental ratios (Zr/Sr, Si/Ti, K/Ti, Zr/Rb) were used to characterise compositional trends, sediment provenance, and depositional processes Zr/Sr distinguishes volcaniclastic units from background hemipelagic sediments, Si/Ti and K/Ti reflect relative detrital input, and Zr/Rb serves as a grain-size proxy (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). XRF data were interpreted semi-quantitatively alongside MSCL, CT, and smear-slide observations (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eHigh-resolution computed tomography (CT) imaging\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh-resolution CT imaging was conducted on the split archive half of Core GeoB23710-1, using a Philips Brilliance iCT Elite 256 clinical computer tomograph housed at Klinikum Bremen-Mitte, Germany. Scanning was conducted at 120 kV and 300 mA, yielding a voxel resolution of 0.3 mm. GeoB23710-1 was scanned in its original liner and carefully wrapped to preserve sediment integrity and prevent deformation during imaging. Image reconstruction employed Philips\u0026rsquo; proprietary iterative cone-beam algorithm, correcting for beam hardening, geometric distortion, and scattered radiation to enhance density contrasts. Data were reconstructed into 512 \u0026times; 512 pixel slices and exported in DICOM format.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCT datasets were processed at MARUM, following workflows adapted from Titschack et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). DICOM files were imported into Amira (version 2022.31, Thermo Fisher Scientific, ZIB Edition), where consecutive scan segments were merged to reconstruct continuous depth intervals. The outer\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;2 mm of the core liner was removed using the Segmentation Editor and Arithmetic modules to minimise artefacts. Pre-processing included beam-hardening correction, Gaussian noise filtering, and histogram normalisation to optimise contrast between volcaniclastic clasts, bioclasts, and fine-grained matrix.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree-dimensional reconstruction and segmentation were performed using IsoSurface rendering, Watershed Thresholding, and the MaterialStatistics module to isolate constituents\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1 mm. Density-based segmentation was refined using ContourTreeSegmentation (threshold 1700; persistence 990\u0026ndash;1630), determined through iterative testing to best resolve density contrasts within the limits of medical-grade CT resolution. Individual clasts and high-density regions were delineated using a hierarchical, topology-based algorithm.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt should be emphasised that applying medical-grade CT systems to geological materials introduces an inherent resolution bias. Individual laminae may comprise multiple unresolved sub-layers with similar attenuation values. Segmentation boundaries therefore represent operational rather than absolute clast limits, and fine-scale mineralogical variations, particle splitting, and true clast orientation may not be fully resolved. Despite these limitations, CT imaging visualisation using the SurfaceGen and SurfaceView modules enabled qualitative assessment of segmentation quality, volumetric continuity, fabric organisation, and zones of internal disruption. CT-derived metrics are therefore treated as qualitative to semi-quantitative representations of clast-scale fabric rather than exact reconstructions of particle geometry.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFollowing CT segmentation, morphometric properties, including clast size, volume, elongation, orientation, and grain-angle distribution, were quantified using the ShapeAnalysis module. Grain angles were referenced to the vertical axis (0\u0026deg; = horizontal; 90\u0026deg; = vertical), and grain sizes were binned into 16 classes based on equivalent spherical diameter. Mean X-ray attenuation (Hounsfield Units; HU), variability, and orientation statistics were extracted at 0.3-mm intervals and integrated with MSCL, XRF, and smear-slide datasets.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eClast component analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSmear slides were prepared from representative stratigraphic intervals selected individually for each core based on lithological transitions identified VCD and CT imagery. Sampling targeted the base, middle, and top of key stratigraphic units to capture vertical variability in clast composition. From each selected interval, approximately 0.5 cm\u0026sup3; of sediment was collected, oven-dried at 60\u0026deg;C, gently disaggregated, and homogenised prior to slide preparation. The material was mounted in optical adhesive on glass slides under transmitted light.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMicroscopic inspection was performed using a Zeiss transmitted light microscope at 10\u0026times; magnification. An average of 200 grains per smear slide were point-counted using a step counter following the general approach of Cassidy et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), and classification criteria adapted for marine volcaniclastic sediments (cf. Gudmundsd\u0026oacute;ttir et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Schindlbeck et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Clasts were subdivided into six main categories according to their textural, compositional, and genetic characteristics: (1) Volcaniclasts, comprising altered volcanic rock fragments and subangular detritus derived from volcanic sources; (2) Dome fragments, representing dense, non-vesicular lava clasts sourced from dome-collapse or effusive extrusion; (3) Pyroclasts, including vesicular pumice, glass shards, and crystal fragments produced during explosive magma fragmentation; (4) Dense minerals, encompassing heavy mineral grains such as magnetite, pyroxene, and amphibole; (5) Bioclasts, comprising mainly calcareous skeletal fragments and shell debris; and (6) Sediment clasts, representing reworked lithic or detrital grains of sedimentary or metamorphic origin. Relative abundances of each clast type were expressed as percentages of the total counted grains, providing semiquantitative estimates of compositional variability and sediment provenance across the studied intervals.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAccelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) Radiocarbon Dating\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTwo samples from GeoB23710-1 were selected for Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) \u0026sup1;⁴C dating (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) from hemipelagic intervals: one immediately underlying a volcaniclastic unit and the other separating two volcaniclastic units. Analyses were performed on mixed assemblages of planktonic foraminifera (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;63 \u0026micro;m and \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;150 \u0026micro;m), comprising \u003cem\u003eOrbulina universa\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eGlobigerinoides ruber\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eGlobigerinoides sacculifer\u003c/em\u003e. For each AMS \u0026sup1;⁴C analysis, 9\u0026ndash;27 mg of foraminiferal carbonate was picked per sample. Samples were ultrasonically cleaned in deionised water and examined under a binocular microscope to remove reworked or contaminated individuals. Each sample underwent a 10% acid-leaching pretreatment following the CHS-AGE protocol to eliminate surface contamination.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAMS radiocarbon results and CALIBomb-calibrated ages for planktonic foraminifera from Core GeoB23710-1.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCore ID\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample number\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDepth (cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaterial\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u0026sup1;⁴C (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1σ)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCalibration Curve\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCalibrated 14C age (95%, 2σ)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProbability (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeoB23710-1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16546.1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u0026ndash;35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlanktonic foraminiferas (\u003cem\u003eOrbulina universa, Globigerinoides ruber\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eGlobigerinoides sacculifer\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,7936\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,0025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNHZ2/\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eintcal20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAD 181\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16547.1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u0026ndash;44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,6295\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,0020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2131\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;30 cal BC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2061\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;30 cal BC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRadiocarbon analyses were conducted at the Alfred Wegener Institute (AWI) Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany, using a MICADAS (Mini Carbon Dating System; Ionplus AG) equipped with a hybrid cesium sputter ion source. Foraminiferal carbonate samples were hydrolysed to CO₂ in the automated carbonate handling system (CHS; Ionplus AG) at 70\u0026deg;C using phosphoric acid and subsequently graphitised with an AGE-3 system, yielding. approximately 640\u0026ndash;720 \u0026micro;gC per sample. Resulting graphite targets were pressed into cathodes and measured for \u0026sup1;⁴C/\u0026sup1;\u0026sup2;C and \u0026sup1;\u0026sup3;C/\u0026sup1;\u0026sup2;C ratios, with isotopic fractionation corrected using measured δ\u0026sup1;\u0026sup3;C and normalised to δ\u0026sup1;\u0026sup3;C = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;25\u0026permil; (VPDB). Conventional radiocarbon ages (years BP) and associated 1σ analytical uncertainties were calculated at AWI from the resulting F\u0026sup1;⁴C values.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCalibration of the conventional radiocarbon ages was performed using CALIBomb (Reimer \u0026amp; Reimer 2026) with the Northern Hemisphere Zone 2 (NHZ2) atmospheric calibration dataset, appropriate for the Lesser Antilles. The measured F\u0026sup1;⁴C values were 0.7936\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0025 and 0.6295\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0020 for depths of 34\u0026ndash;35 cm and 43\u0026ndash;44 cm, respectively. The resulting calibrated ages (95% probability, 2σ) correspond to AD 181\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;57 (1769\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;57 cal BP) and 2131\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;30 cal BC (4041\u0026ndash;4129\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;60 cal BP) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). All ages are reported relative to AD 1950.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSediment characterisation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the eastern offshore of Montserrat (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), the two studied gravity cores show strongly contrasting expressions of volcaniclastic deposition, ranging from a thick, multi-unit succession in GeoB23710-1 to a thin ash veneer in GeoB23711-1 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Both sequences comprise interbedded volcaniclastic and hemipelagic units with variable thicknesses, textures, physical, and compositional signatures (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeoB23710-1 was retrieved from a topographically confined slope depression near the outer edge of Deposit 1. Its basal section comprises a grey, structureless debrite (Unit I) composed of muddy-sandy material with scattered volcanic clasts, shell fragments, and bioclasts. Overlying this, between 0 and 42 cm core depth, is Unit II, representing a composite volcaniclastic sequence consisting of five stratigraphic subunits (IIa - IIe). The lowermost volcaniclastic subunit (IIa; V1) forms a\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;5 cm thick layer of coarse ash to fine lapilli with a sharp erosional base and an irregular slurry to wavy upper contact (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Clasts are dominantly in the ash to fine lapilli size range (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2\u0026ndash;4 mm; after White \u0026amp; Houghton, 2006) and display faint, laterally variable lamination. Subunit IIb consists of olive-brown hemipelagic silty muds containing dispersed volcanic shards and bioclasts, defining the upper boundary of V1 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Overlying this, a\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;33 cm interval appears visually homogeneous but was resolved by CT and MSCL data (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) into two distinct intervals. The lower (Subunit IIc; V2a) consists of coarse to medium-grained ash with subtle internal lamination and grain-size alternations. This unit is gradually capped by a thin carbonate-rich layer (Subunit IId; V2b) marking the transition to the overlying Subunit IIe (V3). The contact to Subunit IIe (V3) is sharp, separating the lighter-toned carbonate layer from a darker, very coarse volcanic deposit dominated by angular to subangular grains. Subunit IIe forms the uppermost\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;11 cm and exhibits weak internal stratification and packing relative to the underlying unit. Unit and subunit boundaries across this core vary from sharp to gradational, consistent with alternating depositional and transitional interfaces confirmed through CT-based density contrasts (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeoB23711-1, recovered approximately 90 m higher on the adjacent slope, is dominated by hemipelagic mud interbedded with a single thin volcaniclastic layer (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The basal interval consists of fine, light-grey silty mud with dispersed volcanic clasts and minor bioclasts (Unit I; S). A distinct 1\u0026ndash;2 cm thick volcanic layer (Unit II; V) occurs near the top of the sequence, representing the only clearly defined volcaniclastic horizon. This layer contains fine ash-sized particles and minor inclusions of volcaniclasts that locally intercept the underlying sediments, producing a subtle irregular contact (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The overall core is homogeneous, lacking the coarse, multi-stage volcaniclastic successions observed in GeoB23710-1, indicating a substantially thinner volcaniclastic record within this higher slope position (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe volcaniclastic succession in Core GeoB23710-1 is subdivided into three internally defined depositional stages (Stages 1\u0026ndash;3), corresponding to lithofacies V1\u0026ndash;V3 identified from visual core description and CT-based stratigraphic segmentation (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Stage 1 (V1) forms the basal unit and is characterised by a sharp density increase at its base, with gamma-ray attenuation density of ~\u0026thinsp;1.9 g cm⁻\u0026sup3;, increasing upward into Stage 2 (V2) where basal densities reach\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;2.0 g cm⁻\u0026sup3;, and peaking at ~\u0026thinsp;2.1 g cm⁻\u0026sup3; at the base of Stage 3 (V3), where coarse volcanic clasts dominate (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). These sharp basal density peaks correspond closely with CT-derived mean density variations. Density signals are most pronounced within coarse-grained volcaniclastic beds and become subdued within fine-grained hemipelagic intervals. MS exceeds 1250 \u0026times; 10⁻⁵ SI in coarse ash layers and progressively declines upward, mirroring fining-upward trends observed in CT imagery (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). P-wave velocities average around ~\u0026thinsp;1700 m s⁻\u0026sup1; across compacted coarse-grained units and finer hemipelagic muds alike, indicating a primary control by texture and partial compaction. However, distinct velocity troughs occur within Stage 1 and the base of Stage 2, coinciding with CT-resolved bioturbation in Stage 1 and a normal-graded basal layer overlain by fine laminae in Stage 2. These fine-laminated intervals correspond to reduced P-wave velocities (~\u0026thinsp;1500 m s⁻\u0026sup1;) and elevated CT density, reflecting alternating compact and more porous laminae.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh-resolution XRF core-scanning data further constrain compositional variability and corroborate lithological and physical-property observations (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). In GeoB23710-1, Zr/Sr in combination with Ca/Al effectively distinguishes volcaniclastic units from hemipelagic background sediments, with elevated values occur in Stage 1 and the combined Stage 2\u0026ndash;3 interval, marking a clear compositional boundary between eruptive and non-eruptive intervals. However, neither ratios resolve individual stages within the volcaniclastic sequence (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eElemental ratios normalised to Ti (e.g., Si/Ti, K/Ti) and Ca/Al highlight variations in material input and diagenetic overprinting (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Si/Ti shows two broad enrichment trends, with lower values in Stage 1, inferred to reflect primary detrital input, and higher values in Stage 2\u0026ndash;3, suggesting remobilised detrital components. K/Ti follows a comparable pattern, with low values indicating volcanic-derived input and higher values corresponding to land-derived detritus, though neither ratio differentiates individual stages. Ca/Al remains consistently low across all volcaniclastic intervals compared to Unit I, indicating limited carbonate input, but displays a distinct peak at the top of Stage 2, corresponding to a thin carbonate layer identified in the VCD and density log, as well as for subunit IIb. Zr/Rb provides the clearest distinction among the three depositional stages, defining three compositional trends that coincide with MSCL- and CT-based grain-size variability (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Elevated Zr/Rb values at the base of each subunit correspond to coarser layers and higher CT intensity, acting as a grain-size proxy for distinguishing Stages 1, 2, and 3.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eInternal sedimentary structures and physical properties\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCT imaging reveals a well-defined three-stage volcaniclastic succession (Stages 1\u0026ndash;3) within the upper 42 cm of Core GeoB23710-1, consistent with stratigraphic trends observed in the MSCL and XRF datasets (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Mean CT intensity ranges from ~\u0026thinsp;1000 HU in fine-grained intervals to \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1450 HU in coarse, clast-rich layers, defining pronounced vertical density contrasts that correspond closely with MSCL and XRF trends.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStage 1, the lowermost subunit, sharply overlies hemipelagic muds and exhibits a distinct basal density increase, with discrete high-HU clasts embedded in a moderately dense matrix (~\u0026thinsp;1300\u0026ndash;1400 HU) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Internal textures show subtle normal grading and scattered low-density features, producing a slightly irregular upper boundary (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ea). The HU variability within Stage 1 suggests heterogeneous packing and partial bioturbation within a coarse ash to lapilli-sized volcaniclastic layer.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStage 2 represents the thickest subunit, beginning with an abrupt rise in CT intensity to \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1400 HU, marking a coarse, clast-supported basal layer (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). CT intensity decreases gradually and becomes rhythmically modulated between 1000\u0026ndash;1300 HU, reflecting finely interbedded dense and porous laminae (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eb). Orthogonal CT slices reveal small-scale loading, cross-lamination, and lamina bending indicative of internal textural transitions. The upper boundary of Stage 2 is gradational and coincides with a narrow low-HU band corresponding to a carbonate-bearing layer identified by a subtle Ca/Al peak in XRF data (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStage 3 sharply overlies the carbonate-rich layer and is characterised by lower mean CT intensities (~\u0026thinsp;1000\u0026ndash;1150 HU) and a comparatively homogeneous internal texture (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Faint high-HU laminae occur near the base, while the upper part becomes increasingly structureless. The uppermost\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;5 cm are affected by coring disturbance, evident from smeared CT textures and an anomalously low P-wave velocity of ~\u0026thinsp;1550 m s⁻\u0026sup1; (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ec).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCT-derived textural metrics, including standard deviation (CT-SD) and grain-orientation analyses (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e), quantify internal heterogeneity across the succession. Elevated CT-SD values and preferred grain alignments occur at the base of Stages 2 and 3, whereas upper portions show reduced variability. Integrated with MSCL and XRF data, these observations document systematic vertical changes in physical properties that provide the empirical basis for subsequent interpretation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFlow energy structure and clast component characteristics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh-resolution CT-based textural analysis, supported by grain-scale imaging and component quantification, reveals a three-stage internal organisation within the volcaniclastic deposit (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). Stage 1 shows the strongest CT-SD peak at its base, indicating internal heterogeneity associated with coarse-grained material (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). In Stage 2, CT-SD values decrease from the basal peak but show a secondary increase in the middle of the unit, producing a broad, moderate-amplitude profile that reflects alternating intervals of reduced and enhanced internal heterogeneity (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Stage 3 shows a renewed increase in CT-SD at its base, followed by a progressive upward decrease in variability. The upper part of Stage 3 is characterised by low CT-SD values and disrupted internal structure, consistent with reduced textural variability and the influence of coring disturbance (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrain-angle and grain-size distribution heatmaps (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e) further resolve internal organisation within each stage. Intervals of strong grain alignment and coarse-grained distribution coincide with high CT-SD intervals, whereas finer-grained intervals exhibit weaker alignment and lower variability. Stage 1 shows strongest grain alignment at the base and decreases upward. Stage 2 exhibits two zones of enhanced grain alignment (e.g., one at the base and another in the middle of the sequence) both associated with local CT-density highs visible in CT visualisations (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Upsection, grain alignment weakens and grain-size distributions become progressively finer. Stage 3 displays limited grain alignment overall, with internal signals partly obscured in the uppermost section by coring disturbance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmear-slide point counting documents systematic compositional evolution across the sequence that parallels CT-derived textural variability (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). Stage 1 contains a mixed assemblage dominated by volcaniclasts (30\u0026ndash;40%), dense minerals (25\u0026ndash;30%), and pyroclasts (10\u0026ndash;15%), with minor bioclasts and sediment clasts (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;10%). Stage 2 and 3, containing high proportions of volcaniclasts (30\u0026ndash;40%), pyroclasts (10\u0026ndash;15%), and dome fragments (20\u0026ndash;25%), together forming a heterogeneous assemblage with significant juvenile and lithic input. In contrast, Stages 2 and 3 display a more consistent trend, both characterised by a dominance of dense minerals (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;40%) and dome fragments (20\u0026ndash;25%), while volcaniclasts and pyroclasts are initially scarce at the base and gradually increase upward. Within Stage 2, this increase coincides cross-laminated structures visualised in CT. During this interval, volcaniclasts remain low, dome fragments persist at high abundance, and pyroclasts become more pronounced, although still limited to proportions comparable to those in Stage 1. This difference in clast composition and textural evolution between Stage 1 and Stages 2\u0026ndash;3 is further examined in the discussion section in relation to their contrasting eruptive and sedimentary dynamics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTopographic control and selective preservation of volcaniclastic signals\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe preservation of eruptive and mass-transport signals in marine sedimentary archives is fundamentally controlled by seafloor morphology, sediment-routing pathways, and local depositional energy (Cassidy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Trofimovs et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). In the eastern region offshore Montserrat, steep slopes, confined channels, and local depressions within the Bouillante\u0026ndash;Montserrat Graben impose strong spatial filtering on volcaniclastic deposition (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). These sites occupy distinct bathymetric and geomorphic domains, separated by a marked bathymetric offset of ~\u0026thinsp;90 m. This offset reflects differences in flow confinement, sediment focusing, and stratigraphic completeness within proximal depositional environments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe proximal channel-axis site (GeoB23710-1) captures a thick, laterally confined, and internally structured volcaniclastic unit, comprising three discrete stages (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). CT visualisations reveal sharp erosional bases, internal truncations, and alternating high- and low-density lamination, indicative of energetic waxing\u0026ndash;waning flow behaviour (Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Elevated CT-SD variability and cyclic changes in flow discharge reflect repeated reactivation within a confined transport corridor, promoting efficient sediment focusing and amalgamation of multiple depositional stages into a composite unit. This setting favours high stratigraphic completeness along the channel axis, albeit with localised erosional overprinting at stage boundaries.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, the off-axis site (GeoB23711-1), located\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;90 m shallower and outside the main sediment conduit, preserves a thin (1\u0026ndash;2 cm) ash veneer with minor volcanoclastic inclusions (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). This stratigraphy reflects deposition at the fringe of the proximal channel system, where flows were thinner, less confined, and increasingly prone to deceleration, bypass, or dilution. Reduced flow competence at position limited both erosional capacity and depositional thickness, resulting in strong filtering of the eruptive signal relative to the channel-axis record (Feuillet et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Lebas et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Only the most dilute, upper portions of the flows were preserved, while earlier or more energetic phases failed to deposit.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh-resolution CT imaging highlights the trade-off between stratigraphic completeness and erosional overprinting across these domains. The sharply erosional base of Stage 1 reflects intense scouring during the waxing stage, which may have partially removed pre-existing material. The gradational top of Stage 2 marks a transition toward quiescent sedimentation piper before the renewed influx that formed Stage 3. Similar patterns of selective preservation linked to flow confinement and geomorphic position have been observed in other arc systems, such as the Izu\u0026ndash;Bonin (Fiske et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Robertson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), the Valparaiso (Laursen \u0026amp; Normark, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e), and the Shikoku basins (Tilley et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChronology of eruptive, collapse, and mass-flow events at Soufri\u0026egrave;re Hills Volcano (SHV; Montserrat), based on Montserrat Volcano Observatory reports\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDate(s)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSector(s) affected \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, NW)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDominant process(es)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey observation / remarks\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11 February 2010\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePartial dome collapse; PDCs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLarge partial dome collapse with extensive pyroclastic flows\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e05 February 2010\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE, NE, N, NW, W\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExplosive dome destruction; PDCs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExplosion destroyed dome; fountain collapse generated PDCs in all sectors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e09\u0026ndash;30 October 2009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDome growth and collapse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRepeated growth\u0026ndash;collapse cycles\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24 May, 9 June, 20 June 2009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePDCs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmall pyroclastic flows\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24 April 2009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePDC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmall pyroclastic flow\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e06 March 2009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePDC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLarge PDC reached the sea; low seismicity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24 February 2009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePDC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFar-travelled pyroclastic flow\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26 October 2008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE, SE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePDCs; erosion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmall PDCs with ongoing erosion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 October 2008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePDCs; seismicity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree small PDCs associated with seismic events\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u0026ndash;16 October 2008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eErosion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRainfall-induced erosion of dome talus\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e01 August 2006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePDCs; lahars; tsunami\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePDCs and mudflows reached sea, generating small tsunami\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28 June 2005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExplosion; PDCs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate explosion, 7 km plume; PDCs reached sea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e03 March 2004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExplosion; dome collapse; PDCs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDome collapse and explosion; 7 km ash plume; tremor and ash venting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u0026ndash;13 July 2003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE (PDCs), NW (ash)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLarge dome collapse; PDCs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThird major dome collapse; island-wide ashfall\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJune\u0026ndash;July 2003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShear lobe; PDCs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShear lobe followed by weeks of PDCs, seismic swarms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApril\u0026ndash;May 2003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePDCs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePyroclastic flows confined to Tar River\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJanuary\u0026ndash;March 2003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE (growth), E (PDCs)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDome growth; PDCs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDome growth in NE; PDCs and rockfalls to E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDecember 2002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE, W, NW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDome collapse; ash clouds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCollapse in NE; ash dispersed W/NW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOctober 2002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE (collapse), NW (lahars)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRainfall-induced collapse; mudflows\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;4\u0026nbsp;million m\u0026sup3; dome collapse; large mudflows\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e01 September 2002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW, NE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePDCs; dome collapse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePDCs to W; minor collapse-generated PDC to NE reached sea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21 August 2002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmall collapse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRainfall-induced talus collapse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJuly\u0026ndash;August 2002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN, NE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDome growth; PDCs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNew lobe and small PDCs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApril\u0026ndash;May 2002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSE, E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDome growth; PDCs; seismicity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLobe formation, talus accumulation, declining activity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarch 2002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRockfalls; PDCs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLarge spine extension; PDCs reached sea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAugust\u0026ndash;October 2001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCollapse; tremor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmall collapse; prolonged tremor and PDCs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29 July 2001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMajor dome collapse; PDCs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u0026nbsp;million m\u0026sup3; removed; sustained PDCs and surges\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMay\u0026ndash;July 2001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE, N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDome growth; PDCs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLobe growth; continuous rockfall; small collapses\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJanuary\u0026ndash;February 2001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDome growth; PDCs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmall collapse on 25 Feb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarch\u0026ndash;November 2000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDome growth; seismicity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHybrid/LP earthquakes; minor collapses\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 March 2000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRainfall-induced collapse; lahars\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCollapse with mudflows and minor explosions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e01 February 2000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePDCs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst PDCs reached delta\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u0026ndash;19 November 1999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIsland-wide\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLahars; explosions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRain-induced mudflows; minor explosions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 October 1999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIsland-wide\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLahars\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMudflows\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJuly\u0026ndash;August 1999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE, N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDome collapse; PDCs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLarge collapse; ashfall; residual collapses\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMay\u0026ndash;June 1999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRockfalls; ash venting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinor ash and steam emissions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u0026ndash;23 May 1999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeismic swarms; collapse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVT swarm (121 events); ash plume to 5.8 km\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDecember 1998\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLahars\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRain-induced mudflows\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNovember\u0026ndash;December 1998\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDome collapse; PDCs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePDCs reached sea; ash clouds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e01 November 1998\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIsland-wide\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLahars\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExtensive rainfall-induced mudflows\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOctober\u0026ndash;November 1998\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE, NE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePDCs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSustained pyroclastic flows\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e03 July 1998\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDome collapse; explosions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;20% dome collapse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJanuary\u0026ndash;March 1998\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeismicity; PDCs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAshfall reached Antigua (~\u0026thinsp;20 km)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOctober\u0026ndash;December 1997\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIsland-wide\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVulcanian explosions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76 explosions with ash and pumice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAugust\u0026ndash;September1997\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDome growth; collapse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMajor collapse on 21 Sep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25 June 1997\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNE, NW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMajor dome collapse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree collapse pulses; surges\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMay\u0026ndash;June 1997\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN, NE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDome growth; PDCs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst PDCs and rockfalls\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e01 September 1996\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE, S\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExplosions; ballistics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDome collapse and explosive activity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApril\u0026ndash;September1996\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePDCs; dome growth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst PDCs reached sea; high magma flux\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeptember\u0026ndash;October 1995\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhreatic eruption; lahars\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInitial activity phase with seismic swarms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eN=North; NE=Northeast; E=East; SE=Southeast; S=South; SW=Southwest; W=West; NW=Northwest; PDCs=Pyroclastic density currents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eClast composition patterns support this morphological control. Stage 1 represents a high-energy, compositionally diverse event deposited during a single, turbulent waxing\u0026ndash;waning flow. In contrast, Stages 2 and 3 share a more homogeneous character, with similar compositional trajectories and flow structures (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e), consistent with reactivated, traction-dominated phases in a confined channel system. These observations demonstrate that the fidelity of offshore volcanic archives depends not only on eruptive intensity, but critically on geomorphic position relative to active sediment pathways, with channel-axis settings preserving complete, multi-stage successions and adjacent off-axis slopes recording strongly filtered equivalents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAMS \u0026sup1;⁴C ages constrain Stage 1 with regionally documented andesitic turbidites attributed to late Holocene SHV activity (Trofimovs et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, Stages 2 and 3 must postdate AD 181 and are most plausibly associated with the 1995\u0026ndash;2010 eruptive cycle of the Soufri\u0026egrave;re Hills Volcano, a period characterised by frequent dome growth and collapse events documented by the Montserrat Volcano Observatory (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). During this interval, numerous dome-collapse\u0026ndash;derived pyroclastic density currents were repeatedly channelled through the Tar River Valley towards the eastern and northeastern offshore sector, where their entry into the sea would have generated multiple turbidity currents (Cole et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Wadge et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). While individual turbidity-current events cannot be resolved one-to-one within the core record, the close vertical spacing of Stages 2 and 3, their similar compositions, and their shared flow structures support interpretation as closely spaced depositional stages produced by successive collapses within a single eruptive phase, rather than by long-lived background sedimentation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eImplications for volcanic signal preservation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs volcaniclastic turbidity currents or mixed density flows decelerate downslope, transport energy and sediment capacity decrease, promoting bypass and dilution. Coarser-grained material and earlier depositional stages are preferentially lost, leaving only fine-grained, ash-rich veneers interbedded with background sediment in off-axis or distal settings. Even within proximal environments, post-depositional modification further complicates the offshore archive. Once tephra and collapse-derived debris reach the seabed, reworking, amalgamation, and slurry mixing reshape the deposits during and after emplacement. In GeoB23710-1, erosional contacts, amalgamated boundaries, and tractional reworking visible in CT imagery (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) demonstrate that reworking during and after emplacement modifies the primary depositional signal (Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). As a result, the offshore stratigraphy does not preserve a simple one-to-one correspondence with individual eruptive events documented on land (e.g., the Montserrat Volcano Observatory; Cole et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFive main processes explain this discrepancy: (1) Temporal amalgamation and fragmentation cause multiple eruptive pulses to merge into composite beds or a single event to be split by internal reactivation, introducing time-averaging that complicates \u0026ldquo;one onshore event\u0026ndash;one offshore bed\u0026rdquo; assumptions (Cassidy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Trofimovs et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). (2) Geochemical dilution by background mud or hemipelagic sediment weakens diagnostic compositional signals. (3) Material reintroduction through remobilisation entrains older volcaniclastic or hemipelagic units, producing hybrid layers that contain reworked grains of differing ages or compositions (Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). (4) Spatial filtering by topography yields high-fidelity records at channel axes (e.g., GeoB23710-1) but homogenised veneers at off-axis sites (e.g., GeoB23711-1) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e) (Feuillet et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Lebas et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). (5) Physical-property decoupling, revealed by CT-derived metrics (CT-SD, grain-angle and distribution) show that density and MS variations relate more closely to sedimentary fabric and flow dynamics than simple eruption magnitude, breaking straightforward land\u0026ndash;sea correlations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings reveal that the offshore record of the SHV is not a passive repository of eruptive events but a dynamically filtered archive that integrates eruptive, reworking, and topographic processes. The proximal setting captures near-complete multi-stage sequences generated by successive dome-collapse and remobilisation phases, while fringe or elevated localities preserve only partial, compositionally homogenised deposits (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). Robust reconstruction of eruptive chronologies therefore requires morphologically informed sampling strategies and integrated, multi-proxy approaches to distinguish preserved eruptive signals from topographically imposed filtering.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFlow process evolution\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntegration of CT, MSCL, and clast composition datasets delineates a coherent three-stage stratigraphy that records the temporal and hydrodynamic evolution of a volcaniclastic turbidity current (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). Variations in CT intensity, CT-SD, grain-angle and grain-size distribution, and clast composition collectively resolve the waxing\u0026ndash;steady\u0026ndash;waning flow behaviour and document changes in sediment support, traction, and depositional efficiency through time.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStage 1 records a high-energy flow onset marked by a sharp erosional base (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ea), elevated CT-SD values (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e), and strong grain alignment, reflecting intense turbulence, tractional transport, and rapid sediment loading. High CT intensity, magnetic susceptibility, and P-wave velocity indicate coarse, compacted material, while clast assemblages dominated by pyroclasts, volcaniclasts, and dome fragments (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e) point to a juvenile-rich, eruption-linked input. Upward decreases in CT intensity and grain alignment indicate progressive waning, defining an energetic waxing\u0026ndash;waning phase characterised by erosion, rapid deposition, and deceleration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStage 2 reflects a lower-energy but internally complex phase. Reduced CT-SD values (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e) indicate diminished turbulence relative to Stage 1, while alternating high- and low-density lamination (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eb) and dual zones of grain alignment record waxing, sustained traction, and renewed reactivation prior to final waning. Normal grading and a thin carbonate-rich interval at the top (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) indicate brief depositional quiescence. Clast compositions show reduced pyroclast abundance and increasing dome fragments and volcaniclasts upward (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e), consistent with intermittent shear focusing and remobilisation of slope-derived material within a confined flow.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStage 3 represents a short-lived waxing phase that rapidly waned (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Low CT-SD values (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), diffuse lamination (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ec), weak grain alignment, and reduced P-wave velocities indicate dilute, low-competence flow conditions. Clast compositions broadly mirror Stage 2 but at lower abundances (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). These signatures define a dilute reactivation or trailing phase that rapidly decelerated and deposited under waning flow conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcross the succession, CT-SD peaks correspond to tractional intervals, whereas subdued CT-SD and weaker alignment mark suspension-dominated phases (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). The transition from a pyroclast-rich composition in Stage 1 to dome-fragment-dominated compositions in Stages 2\u0026ndash;3 demonstrates a shift from a juvenile-bearing, eruption-linked inflow to remobilised, slope-derived stages.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis stacked architecture records discrete but closely spaced depositional stages rather than continuous sedimentation, consistent with repeated dome-collapse events during the 1995\u0026ndash;2010 SHV eruptive cycle 2010 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e; (Cole et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Wadge et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Comparable multi-stage turbidites have been described from the Lesser Antilles and other volcanic margins, where successive collapses and flow transformations generate stratified event beds that archive the evolving dynamics of volcanic density currents (Le Friant et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Watt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003ea, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003eb).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eHazard implications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe internal architecture and physical properties revealed in the Montserrat cores have direct implications for submarine slope stability and secondary hazard development. Integrated CT\u0026ndash;MSCL data identify density minima and fabric contrasts (reflected by low CT mean, subdued CT-SD, and changes in grain-angle alignment) that represent potential mechanically weak-layers within the sequence (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). These layers, particularly fine-grained caps and thin hemipelagic drapes separating coarser volcaniclastic beds, may represent mechanical discontinuities prone to failure during renewed loading or seismic perturbation. Sharp contrasts in density and permeability between these units can facilitate excess pore-pressure accumulation during rapid sedimentation or external disturbance (e.g., earthquake shaking). In GeoB23710-1, low CT intensity, subdued MS, and P-wave velocity minima indicate limited drainage and elevated pore-fluid retention (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), increasing vulnerability to failure under renewed loading or transient shear stresses from passing turbidity currents. Similar coarse\u0026ndash;fine alternations are widely recognised as precursors to weak-layer development and secondary mass movements (e.g., Talling et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Urlaub et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). The contrast between axis-proximal and off-axis settings further implies that failure initiation and reactivation are most likely near channel axes, where repeated flow loading sustains elevated pore pressures, posing risks for tsunami generation and subsea infrastructure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe proximal stratigraphic record offshore Montserrat preserves a thick, multi-stage volcaniclastic unit that documents the interplay between seismicity- and dome-collapse-driven turbidity currents. High-resolution CT data, integrated with MSCL and smear-slide analyses, resolve this deposit into three discrete stages defined by distinct density structures, fabric alignments, and clast-component trends. CT-resolved layering explains variability in physical-property profiles and identifies fine-grained, low-density interbeds as mechanically weak layer candidates susceptible to failure under renewed loading or pore-pressure rise. Thick, internally complex offshore volcaniclastic successions may record episodic and multi-phase eruptive activity long after surface expressions have been removed. The burial of such deposits therefore does not necessarily indicate volcanic quiescence, but instead reflects the timing, emplacement processes, and preservation potential of individual eruptive events. Spatial correlation between GeoB23710-1 (axis-proximal) and GeoB23711-1 (off-axis) demonstrates pronounced topographic control on selective preservation, with confined settings retaining complete multi-stage successions and elevated positions preserving only thin, diluted ash veneers. Future work combining proximal\u0026ndash;distal transects, geophysical imaging, and CT-constrained modelling will further quantify flow transformation, sediment bypass, and hazard evolution on volcanic slopes.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eConflicts of interest/Competing interests\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis project has received funding from the European Union under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Grant Agreement No. 101120236\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eD.H., S.K., and K.H. contributed to the concept and study design. Field data acquisition during the research cruise was carried out by K.H. and S.K. Data analysis and interpretation were performed by D.H. D.H. prepared the figures and wrote the original draft of the manuscript. All authors contributed to reviewing and editing the manuscript. Supervision, funding acquisition, and project administration were provided by K.H. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study is part of the POSEIDON project, funded by the European Union under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Doctoral Networks (MSCA-DN, Grant Agreement No. 101120236). Data used in this study were acquired during R/V METEOR Cruise M154-2, funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) within the project \u0026ldquo;Sector collapse kinematics and tsunami implications (SEKT)\u0026rdquo;, and analysed at the XRF Core Scanners Lab and MSCL Lab, MARUM \u0026ndash; University of Bremen. We thank Klinikum Bremen-Mitte (Christian Timann) for CT support, the GeoB Core Repository (MARUM \u0026ndash; University of Bremen) for providing cores, and colleagues from the Modelling of Sedimentation Processes (Xiaoye Zhao, Dr Gerhard Bartzke, Lina B\u0026uuml;schler), the Marine Sedimentology (Dr J\u0026uuml;rgen Titschack, Dr Emmanuel Okuma, Dr Mahyar Mohtadi) groups for assistance during core logging, scanning, and sub-sampling. We thank colleagues from the Sedimentology group (Prof Dr Elda Miramontes, Dr Pauline Cornard) for fruitful discussion and feedback.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData are provided in the body of the paper as figures submitted to the Environmental Earth Sciences\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAshi J (1995) CT scan analysis of sediments from Leg 146. In B. Carson, G. K. Westbrook, R. J. Musgrave, \u0026amp; E. Suess (Eds.), \u003cem\u003eProc. 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Kluwer Academic, pp 325\u0026ndash;332\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYoung SR (1998) Monitoring on Montserrat: the course of an eruption. \u003cem\u003eAstronomy \u0026amp; Geophysics\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e39\u003c/em\u003e(2), 2.18\u0026ndash;2.21. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1093/astrog/39.2.2.18\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1093/astrog/39.2.2.18\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-earth-sciences","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"enge","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Earth Sciences](https://www.springer.com/journal/12665)","snPcode":"12665","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12665/3","title":"Environmental Earth Sciences","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Volcanic sedimentation, Marine stratigraphy, Mass-transport deposits, Facies variability, Eruption archives, Slope stability","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9467511/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9467511/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIn tectonically active regions, volcanic eruptions generate large volumes of material that are transported offshore through processes such as pyroclastic density currents, turbidity currents, and secondary sediment remobilisation. These deposits form key stratigraphic markers for reconstructing eruptive histories, yet their preservation, correlation with onshore events, and modification by mass wasting remain insufficiently understood. This study examines the effectiveness of marine sedimentary sequences in recording eruptive and mass-transport events from Soufri\u0026egrave;re Hills Volcano offshore Montserrat, related and compared to its well-known last eruptive phase between 1995 and 2010, evident by eye-witness and monitoring data. We focus on spatial and temporal variations in facies, evaluating how offshore deposits reflect transport mechanisms, depositional settings, and post-depositional reworking. Two gravity cores (~\u0026thinsp;1.7 m in total) from the eastern offshore sector provide contrasting perspectives: one retrieved in a depression and close to a mass-transport deposit contains\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;30 cm of volcaniclastic layers underlain by debrites, whereas the other, from a more stable setting higher at the slope, preserves only a thin (~\u0026thinsp;1 cm) ash horizon. A multi-proxy approach, including X-ray fluorescence (XRF) geochemistry, multi-sensor core logging (MSCL), and computed tomography (CT) imaging, was applied to characterise volcanic facies, assess ash preservation, and evaluate the development of mechanically weak layers that may act as failure planes for eruption-induced remobilisation or slope instability. Results demonstrate significant challenges in correlating terrestrial and submarine records regarding smaller eruptive events and in the temporal order of years. Offshore sequences show selective preservation, with simple, thin ash deposits in undisturbed areas contrasting with complex, remobilised successions near disturbed settings. These findings underline the critical role of post-depositional processes in shaping proximal marine volcanic archives and highlight the value of integrated sedimentological and physical property analyses for reconstructing eruptive processes and improving hazard assessments in proximal volcanic island settings.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Volcanic stratigraphy offshore East Montserrat: Selective preservation and subaqueous remobilisation in marine records","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-05-15 16:12:59","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9467511/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"112559552290549187716845006455580661665","date":"2026-05-11T09:09:42+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"84038777691716645556181871175517350951","date":"2026-05-07T05:52:36+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-05-06T14:56:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-04-22T07:15:31+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-04-22T07:14:41+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Environmental Earth Sciences","date":"2026-04-20T05:55:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-earth-sciences","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"enge","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Earth Sciences](https://www.springer.com/journal/12665)","snPcode":"12665","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12665/3","title":"Environmental Earth Sciences","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"db79c2c8-77fe-48ff-a302-20eb88a6fa51","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 15th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"112559552290549187716845006455580661665","date":"2026-05-11T09:09:42+00:00","index":18,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"84038777691716645556181871175517350951","date":"2026-05-07T05:52:36+00:00","index":15,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"11","date":"2026-05-06T14:56:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-15T16:12:59+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-05-15 16:12:59","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9467511","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9467511","identity":"rs-9467511","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}