"Phytochemical Composition, Antioxidant Potential, and Insecticidal Activity of Moringa oleifera Extracts Against Tribolium castaneum: A Sustainable Approach to Pest Management"

"Phytochemical Composition, Antioxidant Potential, and Insecticidal Activity of Moringa oleifera Extracts Against Tribolium castaneum: A Sustainable Approach to Pest Management" | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article "Phytochemical Composition, Antioxidant Potential, and Insecticidal Activity of Moringa oleifera Extracts Against Tribolium castaneum: A Sustainable Approach to Pest Management" Ben Khedher Ghada, Rezgui Marwa, Tawaf Ali Shah, Mutwakel Dabiellil, and 6 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6010436/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 02 May, 2025 Read the published version in BMC Plant Biology → Version 1 posted 4 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Moringa oleifera , known for its rich phytochemical profile, offers a promising natural alternative for sustainable pest management. This study investigates the phytochemical composition, antioxidant activity, and evauates for the first time the insecticidal potential of M. oleifera extracts against Tribolium castaneum . Extracts were obtained from different plant parts (leaves, stems, roots, and seeds) using ethanol, methanol, acetone, and distillated water. Phytochemical analysis revealed high concentrations of total phenolics (7.18 µg GAE/mg DW in ethanol leaf extract), flavonoids (23.52 µg QE/mg DW in ethanol leaf extract), tannins (245.4 mg CE/g DW in acetone seed extract), saponins (13.7 in methanol leaf extract), and alkaloids (30.06 mg atropine/100mL in water stem extract). HPLC analysis identified various bioactive compound, including phenolic acids (gallic acid, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, ferulic acid), flavonoids (apigenin, quercetin, kaempferol), flavanols (catechin, epicatechin, procyanidin dimers), and iridoids (oleuroside). Among these, gallic acid, quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside and kaempferol were detected in high concentrations. Antioxidant assays showed significant free radical scavenging activity, with methanol root extract displaying the highest DPPH inhibition (7.1%). Total antioxidant activity peaked at 36.12 mg GAE/g DW in methanol stem extract. Insecticidal bioassays demonstrated that ethanol root extracts achieved 90% mortality of T. castaneum within 24 hours at a 30% concentration. These findings highlight M. oleifera as a potent bioinsecticide with strong antioxidant properties, supporting its integration into sustainable pest management strategies. Further research should focus on formulation stability and field application for large-scale use. Antioxidant activity Bioactive compounds Flavonoids Insecticidal properties Moringa oleifera Natural pesticides Phytochemicals Tribolium castaneum Sustainable pest management Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 1. Introduction Cereal grains are a cornerstone of global diets and hold substantial economic value. However, they are highly susceptible to damage from storage pests, particularly Tribolium castaneum , and associated pathogens, which produce mycotoxins and off-odors. These issues lead to significant quantitative and qualitative losses, including reduced nutritional value and economic profitability [1]. To mitigate these challenges, plant-based extracts have been extensively studied for their potential in pest management. For instance, extracts from Mentha royleana (Lamiaceae) and Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae) have demonstrated efficacy against T. castaneum [2]. Similarly, extracts from Datura alba and Elettaria cardamomum have been effective against Trogoderma granarium and Sitophilus zeamais, respectively [3,4]. Additionally, botanical extracts from garlic ( Allium sativum ), neem ( Azadirachta indica ), and other plants have shown promising insecticidal properties [5,6,7]. Despite the growing interest in natural alternatives, synthetic insecticides like spinosad and spinetoram remain widely used for controlling stored grain pests due to their effectiveness. Spinetoram, a derivative of spinosyn J and L, has been particularly effective compared to spinosad [8,9,10]. However, these synthetic insecticides pose significant environmental risks, including non-target toxicity, resistance development, and high costs [11,12]. These challenges underscore the urgent need for cost-effective and environmentally friendly pest control solutions. Moringa oleifera , a member of the monogeneric family Moringaceae, is native to tropical northern India and is cultivated worldwide, particularly in the Mediterranean basin and South Africa [13,14]. Known as the "tree of life," M. oleifera has garnered attention as a promising natural pesticide due to its resilience and adaptability to arid climates, such as those in Tunisia. Recently, it has been cultivated in the Tunisian desert due to its exceptional tolerance to stressful conditions. M. oleifera is regarded as one of the most remarkable nutritional and medicinal trees globally, capable of thriving in diverse climatic conditions [15,16]. This fast-growing tree requires minimal water and can reach heights of up to 12 meters within three years. The cultivation of M. oleifera in Tunisia was pioneered by Ahmed Mansi, a farmer from Mornag, who recognized its potential to combat desertification with support from the General Directorate of Forests (DGF) [17]. Among the species of the Moringa genus, M. oleifera is the most extensively studied due to its rich phytochemical profile. It contains a wide range of bioactive compounds, including phenolics, flavonoids [18], alkaloids, tannins, triterpenoids, sterols, and isothiocyanates [19], as well as unique compounds like moringyne [20,21]. These phytochemicals exhibit diverse bioactivities, such as anthelmintic [22], antiviral [23,24], and antibacterial properties [25,26]. Beyond its medicinal applications, M. oleifera has potential uses as a fertilizer, biopesticide, and natural alternative to synthetic insecticides [27]. Of particular interest are its phenolic compounds, which influence insect behavior and population dynamics, making them valuable for sustainable pest management strategies [28]. This research focuses on Tribolium castaneum (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), commonly known as the red flour beetle, which is one of the most destructive storage pests with a broad host range, particularly affecting rice and milled wheat. T. castaneum has one of the highest population growth rates among storage pests due to its high reproductive rate and long reproductive lifespan [29]. The rising costs and ecological concerns associated with synthetic pesticides further highlight the importance of exploring natural alternatives. In this context, the present study aims to evaluate the antioxidant and insecticidal activities of M. oleifera extracts in Tunisia. Despite the remarkable benefits of M. oleifera , which are attributed to its diverse biochemical compounds, the specific metabolites present in each organ and their ecological and biological roles remain poorly understood. Therefore, this research places particular emphasis on investigating the biochemical content of different organs of M. oleifera (stems, leaves, seeds, and roots), as well as their antioxidant potential and insecticidal activity against T. castaneum. By doing so, this study seeks to contribute to sustainable pest management solutions and advance the utilization of plant-based insecticides 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Plant Material M. oleifera samples were collected in 2021 from the farm of Makhlouf Mohamed, located in Nabeul. The plant material was authenticated by Professor Chiraz Chaffei Haouari, Director of the Laboratory of Plant Productivity & Environmental Constraints at the Faculty of Sciences of Tunisia. The preparation of the plant material was carried out according to the method described by Moyo et al. (2011) [30]. The roots, stems, and leaves of M. oleifera were manually chopped into small pieces and shade-dried for 7 days. After drying, the material was ground for 3 minutes using a Moulinex mixer (Type 716, France) at maximum speed to produce a fine powder. Mature seeds of M. oleifera were dried at room temperature for 7 days in the laboratory, weighed, and ground into powder. The defatted samples of roots, seeds, stems, and leaves were prepared for further analysis. 2.2. Preparation of Extracts The preparation of extracts from the aerial parts of the seven plants was conducted according to the method described by Rezgui et al. (2021) [31], with slight modifications. Fifty grams of each plant sample were extracted with 100 mL of 70% ethanol, 70% methanol, 70% acetone, or distilled water. Extraction was performed using a magnetic stirrer for 24 hours at room temperature. The extracts were filtered through Whatman No. 1 filter paper, and the residues were re-extracted under the same conditions to ensure complete extraction. The 70% ethanol extracts were freeze-dried using a Thermo Electron Corporation Freeze Dryer, while the other solvent extracts were concentrated using a rotary evaporator at 40°C for 24 hours. The dried extracts were collected in labeled vials and stored at -20°C until further analysis. 2.3. Total Alkaloid Content Total alkaloids were estimated by extracting with glacial acetic acid and ethanol, followed by precipitation with Dragendorff’s reagent. The residue was treated with sodium sulfide and thiourea solution, and absorbance was measured at 435 nm [32]. Alkaloid concentration was determined using an atropine calibration curve (y = 20x; R² = 1) and expressed as mg atropine equivalents per 100 mL of extract. All measurements were performed in triplicate. 2.4. Total Phenolic Compounds (TPC) Total phenolic content from different parts of M. oleifera was estimated using the Folin-Ciocalteu method as described by Yilmaz, 2020) [33]. The optical density was measured at 765 nm using a spectrophotometer (Analytik Jena). The concentration of total phenolic compounds was determined as milligrams of gallic acid equivalents per gram of extract using a calibration curve obtained with gallic acid (y = 0.176x – 0.041 ; R² = 0.995), where y is the absorbance of the methanolic test solution, gallic acid or methanolic extract and x is the concentration of the gallic acid solution. Results are presented in Table 1 and expressed as microgram of gallic acid equivalent per milligram of dry weight (µg GAE/mg DW). The assays were carried out in triplicate, and the results are expressed as means ± standard deviations. 2.5. Total Flavonoid Compounds The flavonoid content in dried samples was determined using the aluminum chloride colorimetric method [34]. Absorbance was measured at 405 nm, and total flavonoid content was calculated using a quercetin standard curve (y = 0.117x – 0.059 ; R² = 0.988). Results, expressed as micrograms of quercetin equivalents per milligram of dry weight (µg QE/mg DW), are presented in Table 1 . All measurements were performed in triplicate. 2.6. Total Tannin Compounds Tannic acid was used as a standard, and tannin content was estimated at 760 nm according to Schanderl (1970) [35]. The measurements were compared to a calibration curve prepared with catechin (y = 0.005x ; R² = 0.998).The results obtained are expressed in milligram of catechin equivalent per gram of dry weight (mg CE/g DW). The assays were carried out in triplicate, and the results are expressed as means ± standard deviations. 2.7. Total Saponins Total saponins were measured using the method of Shiau et al. (2009) [36]. Briefly, 50 µL of each ethanolic extract was mixed with 250 µL of 8% vanillin. The mixture was cooled in an ice water bath, and 2.5 mL of 72% sulfuric acid was added gently along the tube wall. After vortexing, the samples were incubated in an ice water bath for 3 minutes, followed by heating at 60°C for 10 minutes. After cooling, absorbance was measured at 544 nm against a reagent blank (ethanol, 8% vanillin, and 72% sulfuric acid). The measurements were compared to a calibration curve prepared with (y = 0.025x + 0.01 ; R² = 0.991).The results obtained are expressed in mg diosgenin equivalents per gram of dry weight (mg DE/g DW). All assays were performed in triplicate, and results are expressed as means ± standard deviations. 2.8. In vitro determination of antioxidant activity 2.8.1. Free Radical Scavenging Activity DPPH scavenging activity DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl-hydrate) is an electron-transferring free radical that produces a purple colored solution in methanol. The solution turns pale yellow to colorless in the presence of antioxidant molecules. 2 ml DPPH (0.01 g) 0394 g in 100 ml methanol was added to different concentrations (10–100 µg/ml) of crude leaf extracts of M. oleifera varieties (Jaffna, PKM-1, PKM-2, ODC and Conventional). The extracts were incubated for 30 min in the dark and the absorbance was recorded at 520 nm using a UV/VIS spectrophotometer (LAMBDA 950, Perkin Elmer, USA). Ascorbic acid was used as a standard [37]. The recovery percentage was : % scavenging activity = \(\:\frac{[\text{A}0\:\left(\text{C}\text{o}\text{n}\text{t}\text{r}\text{o}\text{l}\right)-\text{A}1(\:\text{S}\text{a}\text{m}\text{p}\text{l}\text{e}\left)\right]}{\text{A}0\:\left(\text{C}\text{o}\text{n}\text{t}\text{r}\text{o}\text{l}\right)}*100\) where A Control is the absorbance of the control solution (containing all reagents except the test extract), A Sample is the absorbance of the sample containing the tested extract. 2.8.2. Measurement of Total Antioxidant Activity This method involved adding 0.2 mL of a reagent solution (0.6 M NaH₂PO₄, 4 mM (NH₄)₆Mo₇O₂₄•4H₂O, and H₂SO₄ in 28 mL H₂O) at acidic pH. The mixture was incubated at 95°C for 90 minutes, cooled, and absorbance was measured at 695 nm [38]. Results were compared to a gallic acid calibration curve (y = 0.077x − 0.077; R² = 0.967), and total antioxidant activity was expressed as mg gallic acid equivalents per gram of dry weight (mg GAE/g DW). 2.8.3. Ferric Antioxidant Reducing Power (FRAP) The FRAP (Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power) assay was conducted following the protocol outlined by Skowyra et al. 2014 [34]. Briefly, a suitable dilution of Moringa oleifera extracts was mixed with the FRAP reagent and incubated at 37°C. The FRAP reagent was prepared by combining acetate buffer (300 mM, pH 3.6), 2,4,6-Tri-Pyridyl-5-Triazine (10 mM in HCl, 40 mM), and FeCl₃ (20 mM) in a 10:1:1 (v/v/v) ratio. Absorbance was measured at 593 nm, and the FRAP value was calculated using a Trolox calibration curve (3–20 µM, R² = 0.989). The results were expressed as mM Trolox equivalents per gram of dry plant material. 2.9. Phytochemical Analysis Quantitative screening of phytochemicals in the extracts was conducted using a Shimadzu LC-MS-8040 tandem mass spectrometer coupled with a Nexera U-HPLC system. The system included binary pumps (LC-30AD), a column oven (CTO-10ASvp), an autosampler (SIL-30AC), and a degasser (DGU-20A3R). Analyses were performed using the LC-MS/MS method under optimized conditions [33]. An Agilent-Poroshell 120 EC-C18 reversed-phase analytical column (150 mm × 2.1 mm, 2.7 µm) was used at 40°C. The mobile phase consisted of eluent A (water/5 mM ammonium formate/0.1% formic acid) and eluent B (methanol/5 mM ammonium formate/0.1% formic acid). The gradient elution program was as follows: 0–25 min (20–100% B), 25–35 min (100% B), and 35–45 min (20% B). The solvent flow rate was set to 0.5 mL/min, and the injection volume was 5 µL. 2.10. Rearing of Insects T. castaneum individuals were reared in a controlled environment (25 ± 1°C, 65–70% RH) under continuous darkness. The insects were sourced from the Laboratory of Plant Protection at the National Institute of Agronomic Research (INRAT). Cracked wheat grain (14.4% moisture content) served as their food source. One hundred mixed-sex adults were placed in 500 mL glass jars containing 200 g of wheat feed, with jars covered by nylon mesh secured with rubber bands. After one week of oviposition, adults were removed, and the progeny were used for assays. The insect population was re-cultured every eight weeks, and assays were conducted using 3–7-day-old adults. 2.11. Contact Toxicity A Whatman No. 1 filter paper (90 mm diameter) was placed inside a glass Petri dish (11.0 cm diameter). The extracts were evenly applied to the filter papers and allowed to air-dry for 5 minutes. Subsequently, 20 adult T. castaneum individuals (3–7 days old, mixed sex) were introduced into each dish. The dishes were kept in the laboratory under controlled conditions (25 ± 1°C, 65–70% relative humidity, and a 16:8-hour light-dark photoperiod). Water was used as a non-insecticide control. Each treatment was replicated three times. Insect mortality was assessed at 24, 48, and 72 hours. Individuals were considered dead if they showed no movement or response to three gentle prods with a blunt dissecting probe after a 5-minute recovery period. 2. 12. Statistical analysis Each experiment was repeated in three replications. The results were presented as mean ± standard error (SD). The experimental data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using XLSTAT-Excel software, and the comparison of means was performed with the least significant difference (LSD), post-hoc test, at the 5% probability level. 3. Results 3.1. Extraction of Moringa oleifera The extraction yields of Moringa oleifera using different solvents reveal significant variations in efficiency, with ethanol and water consistently providing the highest yields across all plant parts (leaves, roots, stems, and seeds). Ethanol, in particular, demonstrated superior performance, achieving the highest yields for roots (39.2%) and seeds (36.4%), likely due to its ability to extract both polar and moderately non-polar compounds, such as phenolics, flavonoids, and alkaloids. Water also showed high efficiency, especially for leaves (35%) and stems (36%), indicating its effectiveness for extracting polar compounds like phenolic acids and glycosides. In contrast, methanol provided moderate yields, making it a viable but less efficient alternative, while acetone consistently yielded the lowest extraction rates (13.3–20%), suggesting it is less suitable for Moringa extraction. These results highlight the importance of solvent selection based on the target compounds and plant part, with ethanol and distillated water emerging as the most effective solvents for maximizing extraction yields. Table 1 Variation of yield extraction (%) using different solvents Solvent Organ Yield (%) Ethanol Roots 28.3% Stems 39.2% Seeds 38.7% Leaves 36.4% Methanol Roots 19.7% Stems 23% Seeds 35.5% Leaves 23.3% Acetone Roots 13.3% Stems 15% Seeds 20% Leaves 18% Distillated water Roots 35% Stems 28% Seeds 36% Leaves 28.4% 3.2. Chemical Content of Moringa oleifera The chemical composition of different Moringa extracts varied significantly across solvents and plant parts. The total phenolic content was highest in ethanol extract of leaves (7.18%) and lowest in methanol extract of roots (3.01%). Flavonoid content was significantly higher in ethanol extract of leaves (23.52%), almost 3.5 times greater than the next highest value in methanol extract of stems (9.07%), while ethanol extract of seeds had the lowest (0.25%). Tannin content peaked in acetone extract of seeds (245.4%), nearly 10 times higher than the lowest value in methanol extract of leaves (16.6%). Saponin content was highest in methanol extract of leaves (13.7%) and lowest in ethanol and methanol extracts of seeds (1.64%). The alkaloid content showed the highest value in distillated water extract of stems (30.06%), which was almost 10 times higher than the ethanol extract of seeds (2.96%). These variations indicate that ethanol is the most efficient solvent for flavonoid and phenolic extraction, acetone for tannins, methanol for saponins, and water for alkaloids, with leaves and stems generally containing higher phytochemical concentrations than seeds and roots. (Table 2 ). Table 2 Contents of total polyphenol, flavonoids, total tannins, saponins and alkaloids in Moringa oleifera (stems, roots, seeds and leaves) extracts Stem Roots Seeds Leaves Total phenolic content ( µg GAE/mg DW) Acetone 4.0 ± 0 .5ab 6.5 ± 0.8ab 3.54 ± 0.4b 3.3 ± 0.1b Water 4.35 ± 0.6a 4.2 ± 0.5a 3.17 ± 0.2b 3.94 ± 0.4b Ethanol 4.4 ± 0.5c 6.2 ± 0.3b 6.32 ± 0.5b 7.18 ± 0.4a Methanol 6.03 ± 0.4a 3.01 ± 0.4b 3.43 ± 0.3b 6.64 ± 0.3a Total flavonoid content ( µg QE/ mg DW) Acetone 5.94 ± 0.4a 4.8 ± 0.3b 3.02 ± 0.2d 4.05 ± 0.4c Water 6.1 ± 0.4a 1.99 ± 0.2c 0.76 ± 0.1d 5.66 ± 0.4b Ethanol 6.6 ± 0.5b 1.36 ± 0.2c 0.25 ± 0.1d 23.52 ± 2.0a Methanol 9.07 ± 0.7a 5.82 ± 0.3c 7.72 ± 0.5b 4.8 ± 0.3c Total tannins content ( mg CE/g DW) Acetone 133.2 ± 10.0c 8.8 ± 1.0d 245.4 ± 20.0a 177 ± 15.0b Water 107.4 ± 10.0a 31.4 ± 2.0b 38 ± 2.0b 27.4 ± 3.0c Ethanol 245.4 ± 20.0a 38 ± 4.0b 25.4 ± 3.0c 25.8 ± 3.0c Methanol 177 ± 15.00a 27.4 ± 3.0b 23.8 ± 3.0bc 16.6 ± 2.0c Saponin content (mg DE/g DW) Acetone 7.24 ± 0.6b 3.6 ± 0.4c 2.14 ± 0.2c 9.4 ± 1.0a Water 5.2 ± 0.4b 11.4 ± 1.2a 6.2 ± 0.5b 3.01 ± 0.3c Ethanol 4.3 ± 0.2a 3.8 ± 0.4b 1.64 ± 0.1c 4.44 ± 0.5a Methanol 3.5 ± 0.4b 2.4 ± 0.3b 1.64 ± 0.2c 13.7 ± 1.5a Alkaloids (mg atropine/100mL) Acetone 13.76 ± 1.5a 3.6 ± 0.4c 7.1 ± 0.5b 5.72 ± 0.4b Water 30.06 ± 1.2a 8.12 ± 0.19b 3.19 ± 0.3c 9.8 ± 1.0b Ethanol 23.6 ± 2.5a 8.96 ± 1.0b 2.96 ± 0.3c 7,68 ± 0,6b Methanol 20.2 ± 2.3a 8.24 ± 0.9c 3.78 ± 0.4d 16,8 ± 1.8b Each value is the average of three replicates (n = 3) and is expressed as the mean ± standard deviation. Different letters in the same column represent a significant difference between samples at p < 0.05. GAE (gallic acid equivalent), QE (quercetin equivalent), CE (catechin equivalent), DE (Diosgenin equivalents), AE (atropine equivalents) and DW (dry weight). Means followed by the same letter are not different according to ANOVA (analysis of variance) (* p b > c > d. 3.3. Antioxidant Effect of Moringa oleifera 3.3.1. Radical scavenging activity of Moringa oleifera extracts evaluated by the DPPH test. The antioxidant activity of the extracts was evaluated using the DPPH free radical scavenging assay and the results were computed and presented in Table 3 . The DPPH radical scavenging activity (%) of different Moringa oleifera extracts varied significantly depending on the solvent and plant part. Roots exhibited the highest antioxidant activity, with methanol extract (7.1 2.99%) and distillated water extract (6.72%) showing the strongest DPPH scavenging potential. This was significantly higher than the lowest value, which was observed in methanol extract of seeds (2.52%), demonstrating a nearly 3-fold difference. Among stems and leaves, ethanol extract showed the highest antioxidant activity (5.24% for both), whereas acetone extract had the lowest (2.95%). Seeds had moderate activity, with the highest value recorded in distilated water extract (6.3%), slightly lower than that of roots. Overall, water and methanol were the most effective solvents for extracting antioxidant compounds, particularly in roots, while acetone yielded the lowest DPPH scavenging activity in most cases. This suggests that the choice of solvent significantly impacts the antioxidant potential of Moringa extracts, with roots exhibiting the highest radical-scavenging capacity across all treatments. The assay was determined in triplicate for each extract. Table 3 Percentage of DPPH inhibition by stems, roots, seeds, and leaves of Moringa oleifera extracted with various solvents. DPPH% Acetone Distillated Water Ethanol Methanol Stems 2.95 ± 0,75ab 4.6 ± 1.41b 5.24 ± 1.71a 4.16 ± 1.21b Roots 3.67 ± 1.38b 6.72 ± 2.81a 4 ± 1.15b 7.1 ± 2.99a Seeds 5.2 ± 2.05a 6.3 ± 2.6a 5.36 ± 2.15a 2.52 ± 0.63c Leaves 2.95 ± 0.75ab 4.59 ± 1.41b 5.24 ± 1.71a 4.16 ± 1.22b Means followed by the same letter are not different according to ANOVA (analysis of variance) (* p b > c. 3.3.2. Total Antioxidant Activity of Moringa oleifera Table 4 presents the antioxidant activity of different extracts of Moringa oleifera measured in mg EAG/g DW across various plant parts (stems, roots, leaves, and seeds) using four different solvents (acetone, water, ethanol, and methanol). The antioxidant activity (mg EAG/g DW) of different Moringa oleifera extracts varied significantly across plant parts and solvents. Stems exhibited the highest antioxidant activity, with methanol extract (36.12 mg EAG/g DW) showing the strongest activity, followed closely by acetone extract (30.32 mg EAG/g DW). In contrast, the lowest stem antioxidant activity was found in ethanol extract (18.15 mg EAG/g DW). Roots had the highest antioxidant activity in water extract (30.20 mg EAG/g DW), which was significantly higher than in ethanol (13.15mg EAG/g DW). Leaves displayed moderate antioxidant activity, with the highest value in methanol extract (26.89 mg EAG/g DW), whereas acetone extract showed the lowest (1.14 mg EAG/g DW). Seeds had the lowest overall antioxidant activity, with water extract showing the highest value (9.52 mg EAG/g DW) and methanol extract the lowest (3.03 mg EAG/g DW). These results suggest that methanol is the most effective solvent for extracting antioxidants from stems and leaves, while water is the most efficient for roots. Seeds exhibited significantly lower antioxidant potential regardless of solvent choice. The antioxidant capacity varies significantly depending on both the plant part and the extraction solvent, highlighting the influence of solvent polarity on bioactive compound extraction. Table 4 Total antioxidant activity of (stems, roots, seeds, and leaves) of Moringa oleifera extracted with various solvents. TAA (mg EAG/g DW) Acetone Water Ethanol Methanol Stems 30.32 ± 3.50b 23.58 ± 2.80c 18.15 ± 2.50d 36.12 ± 4.00a Roots 1.62 ± 0.50c 30.20 ± 3.20a 13.15 ± 2.00b 29.43 ± 3.50a Leaves 1.14 + 0.40c 23.10 ± 2.50a 18.17 ± 2.50b 26.89 ± 3.00a Seeds 1.52 ± 0.45c 9.52 ± 1.50a 4.32 ± 1.00b 3.03 ± 0.80b Each value represents the mean ± SD (n = 3); TAA, total antioxidant activity; GAE, gallic acid equivalents; DW, dry weight. Means followed by the same letter are not different according to ANOVA (analysis of variance) (* p b > c > d 3.3.3. Ferric reducing power of Moringa oleifera The ferric reducing power of different Moringa extracts varied significantly across plant parts and solvents. Results are presented in Table 5 . Methanol and ethanol extracts generally exhibited stronger reducing power, suggesting they are more effective in extracting antioxidants responsible for ferric ion reduction. The highest activity was observed in the methanol extract of leaves (2.67 mM Trolox/g Dry weight) and the acetone extract of seeds (2.7 mM Trolox/g Dry weight), indicating that these plant parts contain high levels of reducing compounds. In contrast, water extracts demonstrated the lowest activity, with the leaves showing the weakest reduction (0.05 mM Trolox/g Dry weight), likely due to the poor solubility of key antioxidants in water. Statistical analysis revealed significant differences among extracts, as indicated by different superscripts (a, b, c), highlighting that stems, roots, leaves, and seeds respond differently depending on the solvent used. Overall, Moringa leaves and seeds, particularly in methanol and acetone extracts, exhibit the highest ferric reducing power, suggesting their potential as rich sources of natural antioxidants. Table 5 Variation of ferric reducing power of differents extracts of Moringa oleifera FRAP (mM Trolox/g Dry weight) Acetone Water Ethanol Methanol Stems 0.12 ± 0.05c 0.54 ± 0.07b 1.73 ± 0.10 a 0.66 ± 0.08b Roots 0.25 ± 0.06c 0.41 ± 0.08b 0.173 ± 0.05c 0.88 ± 0.09a Leaves 0.131 ± 0.04c 0.05 ± 0.02d 1.2 ± 0.12b 2.67 ± 0.15a Seeds 2.7 ± 0.2a 0.07 ± 0.02b 0.4 ± 0.08c 0.32 + 0.07c Means followed by the same letter are not different according to ANOVA (analysis of variance) (* p b > c > d 3.4. Chemical Composition of Moringa oleifera The HPLC analysis of Moringa revealed the presence of a wide range of bioactive compounds highlighting the phytochemical diversity across different plant parts (stems, roots, seeds, and leaves) (Figs. 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ). These compounds were identified based on their retention times (RT), molecular weights, and ionization modes (Table 5 ). Thus, according to retention time, molecular masses, and fragmentation patterns, a range of bioactive coumpounds tentatively identified by comparison with bibliographic resources. Phenolic acids were the most abundant class, represented by compounds such as gallic acid (RT: 3.65 min), caffeic acid (RT: 4.36 min), syringic acid (RT: 5.10 min, 31.64 min), and ferulic acid (RT: 10.63 min). These compounds were predominantly found in stems and leaves, with roots and seeds containing specific derivatives like gallic acid derivative (RT: 5.09 min). Additionally, chlorogenic acid (RT: 11.83 min) and its isomers (RT: 8.25 min, 20.09 min) were identified, particularly in stems and seeds. Flavonoids were another prominent group, with compounds such as apigenin (RT: 4.22 min), rutin (RT: 9.73 min), and quercetin derivatives (RT: 10.58–21.66 min) mainly concentrated in the leaves. Flavonols like kaempferol derivatives (RT: 18.11–19.17 min) and myricetin (RT: 18.86 min) were also detected, further emphasizing the phytochemical richness of leaves. Seeds contained flavanols such as epicatechin (RT: 15.22 min) and procyanidins (RT: 15.20–21.36 min). The analysis confirmed the distribution of bioactive compounds in specific plant parts, with leaves showing the highest diversity, followed by stems, seeds, and roots. Table 5 HPLC Analysis of Bioactive Compounds in Moringa oleifera RT (min) Chemical Formula Molecular Weight Ionization Mode Class Reference. Stems Roots Seeds Leaves 3.6 Ascorbic acid 176.12 [M-H]− Vitamin C [39] + 4.22 Apigenin 270.24 [M-H]− Flavonoids [40] + 4.36 Caffeic acid 180.16 [M-H]− Phenolic acids [41] + + + 3.49 Protocatechuic acid hexoside 316.26 [M-H]− Phenolic acids [42] + 3.65 Gallic acid 170.12 [M-H]− Phenolic acids [43] + 4.08 Dihydroferulic acid 4-sulfate 276.03 [M-H]− Phenoic acids [44] + 4.37 p-Coumaric acid 164.15 [M-H]− Phenolic acids [45] + + 5.08 Vanillic acid 168.14 [M-H]− Phenolic acids [46] + 5.09 Gallic acid derivative 170.12 [M-H]− Phenolic acids [47] + + 5.10 Syringic acid 198.17 [M-H]− Phenolic acids [48] + 6.56 Hydroxybenzoic acid 138.12 [M-H]− Phenolic acids [42] + 8.25 Caffeoylquinic acid isomer 354.31 [M-H]− Phenolic acids [49] + 9.69 Apigenin 6,8-di-glucopyranoside 594.52 [M-H]− Flavonoids [50] + 9.73 Rutin 610.52 [M-H]− Flavonoids [51] + 10.22 Oleuroside 534.50 [M-H]− Iridoids [41] + 10.58 Quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside 448.38 [M-H]− Flavonoids [52] + 10.63 Ferulic acid 194.18 [M-H]− Phenolic acids [53] + 11.80 Syringic acid hexoside 356.33 [M-H]− Phenolic acids [46] + 11.83 Chlorogenic acid 354.31 [M-H]− Phenolic acids [45] + 12.41 Catechin 290.27 [M-H]− Flavanols [54] + 12.44 2,3-Dihydroxybenzoic acid 154.12 [M-H]− Phenolic acids [52] + 13.25 Quercetin-3,7-diglucoside (isomer) 626.52 [M-H]− Flavonoids [55] + 14.66 Sinapic acid 224.21 [M-H]− Phenolic acids [45] + 15.20 Procyanidin dimer 578.14 [M-H]− Flavan 3-ols [54] + 15.22 Epicatechin 290.27 [M-H]− Flavanols [52] + 16.95 Quercetin acetyl hexose 506.45 [M-H]− Flavonoids [42] + 16.98 (-)-Epigallocatechin 306.07 [M-H]− Flavanols [52] + 17.26 Cichoric Acid 474.371 [M + H]+ Phenolic acids [56] + 17.29 Methoxy hydroxybenzoic acid hexoside pentoside 445.14 [M-H]− Phenolic acids [57] + 17.55 Apigenin 7-O-neohesperidoside 578.52 [M-H]− Flavonoids [58] + 18.11 Kaempferol 3-O-glucoside 448.38 [M-H]− Flavonoids [42] + 18.15 Kaempferol 286.24 [M-H]− Flavonoids [59] + 18.86 Myricetin 318.04 [M + H]+ Flavonols [60] + 19.17 Kaempferol 3-O-rhamnoside 432.38 [M-H]− Flavonols [61] + 19.20 Myricetin 3-O-galactoside 480.09 [M-H]− Flavonols [52] + 20.09 3-Caffeoylquinic acid 354.31 [M-H]− Phenolic acids [56] + 21.32 Quercetin-3-O-glucuronide 478.36 [M-H]− Flavonoids [62] + 21.36 Procyanidin dimer B1 578.14 [M-H]− Flavonols [52] + 21.66 Quercetin 302.24 [M-H]− Flavonoids [63] + 27.64 Luteolin 7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside 448.38 [M-H]− Flavonoids [41] + 27.66 Kaempferol-7-glucoside 448.38 [M-H]− Flavonoids [64] + 31.64 Syringic acid 198.17 [M-H]− Phenolic acids [46] + 3.5. Insecticidal Activity of Moringa oleifera Extracts Against Tribolium castaneum The insecticidal efficacy of Moringa oleifera extracts was assessed based on the mortality rates of T. castaneum . Mortality rates increased with both time and extract concentration (Fig. 5 ). Ethanol extracts were the most effective, with root extracts achieving 90% mortality within 24 hours at a 30% concentration. Methanol’s stem extract and distiltaed water’s seed extract demonstrated moderate effectiveness, reaching 29.8% mortality at 30% concentration after 3–4 days. Ethanolic root extracts also exhibited the highest average mortality rates, reaching 80.6% and 72.2% at 10% concentration after three days. Extracts from roots caused the highest mortality overall, with 90% of adults succumbing at a 100% concentration within 24 hours. These effects were significantly higher compared to the control. 4. Discussion Moringa oleifera is a highly versatile plant rich in biotechnologically relevant compounds, including saponins and alkaloids, which contribute to its insecticidal properties [65–66]. Saponins, known for their surfactant properties, disrupt insect cell membranes, leading to oxidative stress or metabolic dysfunction [67–68]. Alkaloids, on the other hand, interfere with neural signaling, digestion, and enzymatic processes in insects, causing paralysis or mortality [69–70]. These mechanisms highlight the potential of saponin- and alkaloid-rich ethanol extracts from Moringa oleifera as eco-friendly alternatives for integrated pest management (IPM). The efficacy of these extracts is influenced by solvent polarity, with ethanol and methanol extracts showing superior solubility of bioactive compounds. For instance, 80% ethanol outperformed 80% methanol in antioxidant assays, while 100% methanol showed higher efficacy in the DPPH assay [71]. The highest phenolic and flavonoid contents were observed in ethanol and methanol extracts, particularly when mixed with water, due to their intermediate polarity. Analysis using HPLC has enabled the identification of various phenolic compounds, including flavonoids such as quercetin. This compound, identified as a bioactive substance by Drago et al. 2006 [72], is present in onions and lettuce and is commonly incorporated into functional foods. Sosa et al. 2000 [73] demonstrated that quercetin exhibits insecticidal properties. Among the various secondary metabolites of neem, quercetin was identified, with a molecular weight of approximately 300 kDa [74]. Additionally, Drago et al. (2006) [72] identified quercetin in chia seeds (Salvia hispanica L.), with a 28% yield when extracted using ethanol. The study also revealed that leaves had the highest phenolic content, whereas stems contained substantial levels of flavonoids. Both components play a role in mitigating oxidative stress and exhibit insecticidal activity. Certain compounds derived from plants like Nerium oleander, including steroid-triterpenes and flavonoids, exhibit insecticidal properties. These compounds function as insect enzyme inhibitors and possess repellent activity against insects [75]. The high total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) in Moringa leaves can be attributed to phytochemicals such as kaempferol, quercetin, rhamnetin, isoquercetin, and kaempferitrin, as well as cytokinins that enhance secondary metabolite production [76–77]. Glycosidic compounds, glucosinolates, and isothiocyanates in Moringa leaves further contribute to antioxidant activity, which is strongly correlated with phenolic content due to their free radical scavenging capacity [78]. Thus, The antioxidant abilities of this plant material highlights its potential for valuable applications in the development of innovative healthy foods and natural preservatives. These properties suggest its suitability for creating functional food products and sustainable ingredients that promote health and extend shelf life. Insecticidal Activity of Moringa oleifera Extracts Against Tribolium castaneum The insecticidal activity of Moringa oleifera extracts against Tribolium castaneum exhibited a dose-dependent increase in mortality, with root and stem extracts demonstrating the highest efficacy. Ethanol extracts at a 50% concentration achieved nearly complete mortality (90–100%) within 24 hours, significantly outperforming seed and leaf extracts. The delayed mortality observed with seed and leaf extracts may be attributed to slower absorption or lower potency of their bioactive compounds. Mechanistically, the superior performance of root and stem extracts likely involves disruption of digestive processes, inhibition of neural signaling, or induction of oxidative stress in insects. This aligns with previous studies demonstrating that bioactive compounds in M. oleifera , such as alkaloids and phenolics, inhibit nutrition, cause respiratory distress, and induce mortality in pests [67]. The insecticidal potential of Moringa oleifera is further supported by its rich phytochemical profile, including flavonoids, tannins, saponins, phenylpropanoids, alkaloids, and reducing sugars [79]. Water extracts (WE) of M. oleifera demonstrated significant toxicity against S. zeamais (LC50: 214.6 mg/g), with even low doses causing mortality, confirming its potential as a natural insecticide. Research by Madukwe and IE (2012) and Eleirt al. (1980) [80–81] further supports the use of M. oleifera as a biopesticide, highlighting its safety for human health and lack of toxic effects. In comparative studies, M. oleifera extracts were more effective against T. castaneum than extracts from Origanum majorana and Syzygium aromaticum [69]. Additionally, the presence of Moringa extracts significantly reduced the emergence of F1 progeny in Acanthoscelides obtectus, with maximum reduction observed at a dose of 50 µl/mL. Similar findings were reported by Wahedi et al. (2013) [82], who noted that neem seed extract reduced F1 emergence in Callosobruchus maculatus without causing weight loss in treated grains. Helaly (2018) [83] also observed a 100% reduction in F1 emergence of C. maculatus using oils such as jojoba, Moringa, fenugreek, and sweet almond at concentrations of 25–35%. Woguem (2017) [84] achieved complete inhibition of F1 emergence in A. obtectus using essential oils from Mondia whitei and Echinops giganteus at low doses (1.6 µL/g and 0.64 µL/g, respectively). The findings of Dos Santos et al. (2023) [85] provide further context by highlighting the toxicological properties of avermectin-based insecticides (ABM), which target glutamate-sensitive chloride channels, impairing neuronal coordination in insects. However, ABM can adversely affect liver and kidney function, as well as hematological parameters, in non-target organisms [86]. Recent study of Sanusi and Ibrahim. (2024) [87] campares the efficacy of moringa, neem and lemon grass leaf powders in the control of bean beetle ( Callosobruchus maculatus Fab.) infesting cowpea ( Vigna unguiculata L. Walp). Thus, both moringa and neem leaf powders demonstrated effectiveness as protective agents against C. maculatus infestations in cowpea. These findings confirm the essential properties required for chemicals to effectively control insect feeding on plants, including toxicity to adult insects, reduction in egg-laying (oviposition), ovicidal activity, and toxicity to immature stages either before or immediately after they penetrate plant tissues [88]. In conclusion, the high efficacy of M. oleifera root and stem extracts against T. castaneum underscores their potential as natural bioinsecticides. Their multifaceted mechanisms of action, coupled with their safety profile, position M. oleifera as a sustainable alternative to synthetic pesticides for integrated pest management. Conclusion and Perspectives This study underscores the significant potential of Moringa oleifera extracts, particularly from roots and stems, as effective bioinsecticides against Tribolium castaneum . The high concentrations of bioactive compounds, such as phenolics, flavonoids, and saponins, along with their strong antioxidant activity, drive their efficacy in pest management. Ethanol extracts demonstrated exceptional insecticidal activity, achieving up to 90% mortality within 24 hours, while offering a sustainable alternative to synthetic pesticides that reduces environmental risks and mitigates pest resistance. Future research should focus on optimizing scalable and cost-effective extraction methods for Moringa oleifera bioactive compounds, as well as evaluating their performance under real-world storage and agricultural conditions. Developing stable formulations to enhance the longevity and effectiveness of these extracts is also crucial. Additionally, assessing the long-term ecological benefits and economic feasibility of integrating Moringa oleifera extracts into pest management programs will provide valuable insights. Expanding their application to other economically significant pests and pathogens could further broaden their utility. By adopting such natural solutions, we can reduce the environmental impact of pest management practices, enhance food security, and promote sustainable agricultural systems globally. Declarations Acknowledgement: We are grateful for the support provided by the Tunisian Ministry of Higher Education, Scientific Research, and the University of Tunis El Manar. The authors also appreciate the collaboration of Mr Mohamed Makhlouf for providing the plant investigated Moringa oleifera . Funding Statement: The authors would like to extend their sincere appreciation to the Researchers Supporting Project, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia for funding this work through project number –(RSP2025R197). Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Chiraz Chaffei Haouari; methodology, Chiraz Chaffei Haouari; Software, Tarek Slatni; validation,Chiraz Chaffei Haouari; Investigation, Ghada Ben Khedher, Triki Tebra, Chargui Hadhami; resources data curation; Writing—original draft preparation, Ghada Ben Khedher, Marwa Rezgui; writing—review and editing, Marwa Rezgui and Chiraz Chaffei Haouari; Visualization, Tawaf Ali Shah, Mutwakel Dabiellil, Turki M. Dawoud, Mohammed Bourhia; Supervision, Chiraz Chaffei Haouari; project administration, Chiraz Chaffei Haouari; funding acquisition, Tawaf Ali Shah, Mutwakel Dabiellil, Turki M. Dawoud, Mohammed Bourhia and Chiraz Chaffei Haouari;All authors reviewed the results and approved the final version of the manuscript. Ethics Approval: Not applicable. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest to report regarding the present study. References Czembor E, Stępień Ł, Waśkiewicz A. 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Fumigant bioactivity of extracts of Citrulus colocynthes, Moringa oleifera, and Azadirachta indica against Tribolium castaneum and Alphitobius diaperinus under laboratory conditions. 10th International Conference on Controlled Atmosphere and Fumigation in Stored Products, Winnipeg, Canada. 2016. Mondal M, Khalequzzaman M. Toxicity of essential oils against red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). J Biotechnol Sci. 2006;14:43 − 8. Urías-Orona V, Gutiérrez-Soto G, Ruiz-Bautista J, Flores-Alonso R, Montiel-Ramos I, Martínez-Ávila G. C., ... & Niño-Medina G. Influence of extraction solvent on phenolic content and antioxidant capacity level of a commercial food supplement from Moringa oleifera leaves. Archivos Latinoamericanos de Nutrición. 2017; 67(3):211–217. Drago SME, Lopez LM, Sainz ETR. Componentes Bioactivos de Alimentos Funcionales de Origen Vegetal. Rev Mex Cienc Farm. 2006;37:58–68. Sosa ME, Guerreiro E, Giordano OS, Tonn CE. Bioactividad de Flavonoides Sobre Larvas de Tenebrio Molitor (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). Rev Soc Entomol Argent. 2000;59:179 − 84. Hatti KS, Muralitharan L, Hegde R, Kush AN. NeeMDB: Convenient Database for Neem Secondary Metabolites. Bioinformation. 2014;10:314-5. Nava-Perez E, García-Gutierrez C, Camacho-Baez JR, Vazquez-Montoya EL. Bioplaguicidas: una Opcion Para el Control Biologico de Plagas. Ra Ximhai. 2012;4:17–29. Yasmeen A, Nouman W, Basra SMA, Wahid A, Hussain N, & Afzal I. Morphological and physiological response of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) to natural and synthetic cytokinin sources: a comparative study. Acta Physiol Plant. 2014;36:3147-55. Basra SM, Lovatt CJ. Exogenous applications of Moringa leaf extract and cytokinins improve plant growth, yield, and fruit quality of cherry tomato. HortTechnology. 2016;26:327 − 37. Wu YT, Lin CH. Analysis of cytokinin activity in commercial aqueous seaweed extract. Gartenbauwissenschaft. 2000;65:170-3. De Oliveira APS, Agra-Neto AC, Pontual EV, de Albuquerque Lima T, Cruz K CV, de Melo, K R, ... & Paiva PMG. Evaluation of the insecticidal activity of Moringa oleifera seed extract and lectin (WSMoL) against Sitophilus zeamais. J Stored Prod Res. 2020;87:101615. Madukwe D, Ie OMC. Effects of M. oleifera leaf extract on the growth and yield of soybean (Glycine max L. Merri) and sweet pepper (Capsicum annum L.). Int J Appl Res Technol. 2012;1(3):90 − 7. Eleirt U, Walters H, Mahrstedt A. The antibacterial properties of seeds of Moringa oleifera. Planta medica, 42(1), 55. The antibacterial properties of seeds of Moringa oleifera. Planta Med. 1980;42(1):55. Wahedi JA, David LD, Edward A, Mshelmbula BP, & Bullus. Efficacy of seed powder and extracts of Azadirachta indica Linn (Meliaceae) at graded levels on adult Callosobruchus maculatus (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) in Mubi, North Eastern Nigeria. Int J Sci Nat. 2013;4(1):138 − 14. Helaly, S. M. M. Y. Insecticidal and biological effects of four plant oils on the cowpea beetle, Callosobruchus maculatus (F.). Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies. 2018. 6(2); 3111–3118. Woguem, V. 2017. "Etude des activités insecticide, antifongique, antioxydante, antiproliférative et caractérisation chimique des huiles essentielles de cinq plantes aromatiques du Cameroun." Sciences and Technology: 140–140. Dos Santos KPE, Silva IF, Mano-Sousa BJ, Duarte-Almeida JM, de Castro WV, de Azambuja Ribeiro RIM, ... & Thomé RG. "Abamectin promotes behavior changes and liver injury in zebrafish." Chemosphere. 2023; 311: 136941. Salman M, Abbas RZ, Mehmood K, Hussain R, Shah S, Faheem M, ... & Martínez JL. "Assessment of avermectins-induced toxicity in animals." Pharmaceuticals. 2022; 15(3): 332. Sanusi, L., & Ibrahim, N. D. (2024). Comparative efficacy of moringa, neem, and lemon grass leaf powders in the control of bean beetle ( Callosobruchus maculatus Fab.) infesting cowpea ( Vigna unguiculata L. Walp). J. Agric. Environ. Sci. 20 (1) : 211 225. https://doi.org/10.4314/jagrenv.v20i1.21. Ogunwolu E.A, Odunlami AT. Suppression of seed bruchid (Callosobruchus maculatus F.) development and damage on cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) with Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides (Lam.) Waterm. (Rutaceae) root bark powder when compared to neem seed powder and pirimiphos-methyl Crop Protection. 1996; 15: 603–607 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 02 May, 2025 Read the published version in BMC Plant Biology → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 14 Feb, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 13 Feb, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 13 Feb, 2025 First submitted to journal 11 Feb, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6010436","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":415648804,"identity":"4cece32c-7cc1-412a-90f9-37fedfb5a5ea","order_by":0,"name":"Ben Khedher Ghada","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University Tunis El Manar","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ben","middleName":"Khedher","lastName":"Ghada","suffix":""},{"id":415648805,"identity":"cc423c4e-c8ee-409f-bbe3-f170868f095d","order_by":1,"name":"Rezgui Marwa","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA2UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYNACAwY5fvYGEMOCeC3Gkj0HQAwJ4u1J3HAjAUQTocW8vf3xa56CbYwNN59f3fCjQIKBv707Aa8WmTMH0qx5DG4zM87OKbvZA3SYxJmzG/BqkZBIOGYM1MLGLJ2TdoMHqMVAIpeAFvmHbSAtPGySZ9Ju/iFKiwQz82OgFgkeCfZjt4mzhSeNjXGOwW0DCZ4cttsyQIqwX9iPP/7w5s/t+v3Hjz+7+eaPjRx/ey9+LUDABo0LHgMwSUg5CDB/gNDsD4hRPQpGwSgYBSMQAAAa0ER6gWFB9AAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"University Tunis El Manar","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rezgui","middleName":"","lastName":"Marwa","suffix":""},{"id":415648806,"identity":"25ca9f22-7700-46af-b374-5a991b7eb4c8","order_by":2,"name":"Tawaf Ali Shah","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shandong University of Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Tawaf","middleName":"Ali","lastName":"Shah","suffix":""},{"id":415648807,"identity":"3197cf2f-c639-4040-adf9-d9c0b4ac1fa7","order_by":3,"name":"Mutwakel Dabiellil","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mutwakel","middleName":"","lastName":"Dabiellil","suffix":""},{"id":415648808,"identity":"8a768ed9-15f6-4da7-a95a-ccd88fe2b204","order_by":4,"name":"Turki M. 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21:38:13","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6010436/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6010436/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-025-06626-3","type":"published","date":"2025-05-02T15:57:47+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":76472110,"identity":"3a2e2467-fb12-4766-83cd-b490e3e3e303","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-17 13:21:13","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":5951,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLC–MS chromatogram \u0026nbsp;showing the separation of selected phenolics of \u0026nbsp;ethanolic \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e’s stems extract.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6010436/v1/4c2a0410d1eb239a5a05667f.png"},{"id":76472108,"identity":"abba2acd-2dba-431b-a300-abb54d9ebc87","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-17 13:21:13","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":4591,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLC–MS chromatogram showing the separation of selected coumpounds of \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e’s roots ethanolic extract.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6010436/v1/0945bf14b6e24a2513337ca0.png"},{"id":76472107,"identity":"40a28a0a-26ad-4f65-83b0-5db0e8b9152b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-17 13:21:13","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":16860,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLC–MS chromatogram showing the separation of selected coumponds of \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e’s leaves extract.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6010436/v1/765fbc0191bc9f7b615ef1b0.png"},{"id":76473193,"identity":"4420dd2e-c2c8-406b-814b-6d9afd913b24","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-17 13:29:13","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":14273,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLC–MS chromatogram showing the separation of selected coumpounds of \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e oleifera’s leaves extract.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6010436/v1/b3150a30b6152e788545e02f.png"},{"id":76473196,"identity":"8fa132cd-9bfd-4982-b08b-d58db0576806","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-17 13:29:13","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":189355,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMortality rates of \u003cem\u003eT. castaneum\u003c/em\u003e exposed to \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e extracts from leaves (A), seeds (B), stems (C), and roots (D).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6010436/v1/7fd3d04cbc851fd2c1e399d6.png"},{"id":81987817,"identity":"4ed227db-2f88-475d-baf3-a2b9de065862","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-05 16:06:18","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1658546,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6010436/v1/256f0eba-93bf-4b19-a582-39207bab11b9.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\"Phytochemical Composition, Antioxidant Potential, and Insecticidal Activity of Moringa oleifera Extracts Against Tribolium castaneum: A Sustainable Approach to Pest Management\"","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eCereal grains are a cornerstone of global diets and hold substantial economic value. However, they are highly susceptible to damage from storage pests, particularly \u003cem\u003eTribolium castaneum\u003c/em\u003e, and associated pathogens, which produce mycotoxins and off-odors. These issues lead to significant quantitative and qualitative losses, including reduced nutritional value and economic profitability [1]. To mitigate these challenges, plant-based extracts have been extensively studied for their potential in pest management. For instance, extracts from \u003cem\u003eMentha royleana\u003c/em\u003e (Lamiaceae) and \u003cem\u003eArtemisia absinthium\u003c/em\u003e (Asteraceae) have demonstrated efficacy against \u003cem\u003eT. castaneum\u003c/em\u003e [2]. Similarly, extracts from Datura alba and Elettaria cardamomum have been effective against Trogoderma granarium and Sitophilus zeamais, respectively [3,4]. Additionally, botanical extracts from garlic (\u003cem\u003eAllium sativum\u003c/em\u003e), neem (\u003cem\u003eAzadirachta indica\u003c/em\u003e), and other plants have shown promising insecticidal properties [5,6,7].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite the growing interest in natural alternatives, synthetic insecticides like spinosad and spinetoram remain widely used for controlling stored grain pests due to their effectiveness. Spinetoram, a derivative of spinosyn J and L, has been particularly effective compared to spinosad [8,9,10]. However, these synthetic insecticides pose significant environmental risks, including non-target toxicity, resistance development, and high costs [11,12]. These challenges underscore the urgent need for cost-effective and environmentally friendly pest control solutions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e, a member of the monogeneric family Moringaceae, is native to tropical northern India and is cultivated worldwide, particularly in the Mediterranean basin and South Africa [13,14]. Known as the \"tree of life,\" \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e has garnered attention as a promising natural pesticide due to its resilience and adaptability to arid climates, such as those in Tunisia. Recently, it has been cultivated in the Tunisian desert due to its exceptional tolerance to stressful conditions. \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e is regarded as one of the most remarkable nutritional and medicinal trees globally, capable of thriving in diverse climatic conditions [15,16]. This fast-growing tree requires minimal water and can reach heights of up to 12 meters within three years. The cultivation of \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e in Tunisia was pioneered by Ahmed Mansi, a farmer from Mornag, who recognized its potential to combat desertification with support from the General Directorate of Forests (DGF) [17].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the species of the Moringa genus, \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e is the most extensively studied due to its rich phytochemical profile. It contains a wide range of bioactive compounds, including phenolics, flavonoids [18], alkaloids, tannins, triterpenoids, sterols, and isothiocyanates [19], as well as unique compounds like moringyne [20,21]. These phytochemicals exhibit diverse bioactivities, such as anthelmintic [22], antiviral [23,24], and antibacterial properties [25,26]. Beyond its medicinal applications, \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e has potential uses as a fertilizer, biopesticide, and natural alternative to synthetic insecticides [27]. Of particular interest are its phenolic compounds, which influence insect behavior and population dynamics, making them valuable for sustainable pest management strategies [28]. This research focuses on \u003cem\u003eTribolium castaneum\u003c/em\u003e (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), commonly known as the red flour beetle, which is one of the most destructive storage pests with a broad host range, particularly affecting rice and milled wheat. \u003cem\u003eT. castaneum\u003c/em\u003e has one of the highest population growth rates among storage pests due to its high reproductive rate and long reproductive lifespan [29]. The rising costs and ecological concerns associated with synthetic pesticides further highlight the importance of exploring natural alternatives. In this context, the present study aims to evaluate the antioxidant and insecticidal activities of \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e extracts in Tunisia. Despite the remarkable benefits of \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e, which are attributed to its diverse biochemical compounds, the specific metabolites present in each organ and their ecological and biological roles remain poorly understood. Therefore, this research places particular emphasis on investigating the biochemical content of different organs of \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e (stems, leaves, seeds, and roots), as well as their antioxidant potential and insecticidal activity against \u003cem\u003eT. castaneum.\u003c/em\u003e By doing so, this study seeks to contribute to sustainable pest management solutions and advance the utilization of plant-based insecticides\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Plant Material\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e samples were collected in 2021 from the farm of Makhlouf Mohamed, located in Nabeul. The plant material was authenticated by Professor Chiraz Chaffei Haouari, Director of the Laboratory of Plant Productivity \u0026amp; Environmental Constraints at the Faculty of Sciences of Tunisia. The preparation of the plant material was carried out according to the method described by Moyo et al. (2011) [30]. The roots, stems, and leaves of \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e were manually chopped into small pieces and shade-dried for 7 days. After drying, the material was ground for 3 minutes using a Moulinex mixer (Type 716, France) at maximum speed to produce a fine powder. Mature seeds of \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e were dried at room temperature for 7 days in the laboratory, weighed, and ground into powder. The defatted samples of roots, seeds, stems, and leaves were prepared for further analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Preparation of Extracts\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e The preparation of extracts from the aerial parts of the seven plants was conducted according to the method described by Rezgui et al. (2021) [31], with slight modifications. Fifty grams of each plant sample were extracted with 100 mL of 70% ethanol, 70% methanol, 70% acetone, or distilled water. Extraction was performed using a magnetic stirrer for 24 hours at room temperature. The extracts were filtered through Whatman No. 1 filter paper, and the residues were re-extracted under the same conditions to ensure complete extraction. The 70% ethanol extracts were freeze-dried using a Thermo Electron Corporation Freeze Dryer, while the other solvent extracts were concentrated using a rotary evaporator at 40\u0026deg;C for 24 hours. The dried extracts were collected in labeled vials and stored at -20\u0026deg;C until further analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Total Alkaloid Content\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal alkaloids were estimated by extracting with glacial acetic acid and ethanol, followed by precipitation with Dragendorff\u0026rsquo;s reagent. The residue was treated with sodium sulfide and thiourea solution, and absorbance was measured at 435 nm [32]. Alkaloid concentration was determined using an atropine calibration curve (y\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;20x; R\u0026sup2; = 1) and expressed as mg atropine equivalents per 100 mL of extract. All measurements were performed in triplicate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Total Phenolic Compounds (TPC)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal phenolic content from different parts of \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e was estimated using the Folin-Ciocalteu method as described by Yilmaz, 2020) [33]. The optical density was measured at 765 nm using a spectrophotometer (Analytik Jena). The concentration of total phenolic compounds was determined as milligrams of gallic acid equivalents per gram of extract using a calibration curve obtained with gallic acid (y\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.176x \u0026ndash; 0.041 ; R\u0026sup2; = 0.995), where y is the absorbance of the methanolic test solution, gallic acid or methanolic extract and x is the concentration of the gallic acid solution. Results are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e and expressed as microgram of gallic acid equivalent per milligram of dry weight (\u0026micro;g GAE/mg DW). The assays were carried out in triplicate, and the results are expressed as means\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard deviations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5. Total Flavonoid Compounds\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe flavonoid content in dried samples was determined using the aluminum chloride colorimetric method [34]. Absorbance was measured at 405 nm, and total flavonoid content was calculated using a quercetin standard curve (y\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.117x \u0026ndash; 0.059 ; R\u0026sup2; = 0.988). Results, expressed as micrograms of quercetin equivalents per milligram of dry weight (\u0026micro;g QE/mg DW), are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. All measurements were performed in triplicate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.6. Total Tannin Compounds\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTannic acid was used as a standard, and tannin content was estimated at 760 nm according to Schanderl (1970) [35]. The measurements were compared to a calibration curve prepared with catechin (y\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.005x ; R\u0026sup2; = 0.998).The results obtained are expressed in milligram of catechin equivalent per gram of dry weight (mg CE/g DW). The assays were carried out in triplicate, and the results are expressed as means\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard deviations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.7. Total Saponins\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal saponins were measured using the method of Shiau et al. (2009) [36]. Briefly, 50 \u0026micro;L of each ethanolic extract was mixed with 250 \u0026micro;L of 8% vanillin. The mixture was cooled in an ice water bath, and 2.5 mL of 72% sulfuric acid was added gently along the tube wall. After vortexing, the samples were incubated in an ice water bath for 3 minutes, followed by heating at 60\u0026deg;C for 10 minutes. After cooling, absorbance was measured at 544 nm against a reagent blank (ethanol, 8% vanillin, and 72% sulfuric acid). The measurements were compared to a calibration curve prepared with (y\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.025x\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;0.01 ; R\u0026sup2; = 0.991).The results obtained are expressed in mg diosgenin equivalents per gram of dry weight (mg DE/g DW). All assays were performed in triplicate, and results are expressed as means\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard deviations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.8. In vitro determination of antioxidant activity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.8.1. Free Radical Scavenging Activity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDPPH scavenging activity DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl-hydrate) is an electron-transferring free radical that produces a purple colored solution in methanol. The solution turns pale yellow to colorless in the presence of antioxidant molecules. 2 ml DPPH (0.01 g) 0394 g in 100 ml methanol was added to different concentrations (10\u0026ndash;100 \u0026micro;g/ml) of crude leaf extracts of M. oleifera varieties (Jaffna, PKM-1, PKM-2, ODC and Conventional). The extracts were incubated for 30 min in the dark and the absorbance was recorded at 520 nm using a UV/VIS spectrophotometer (LAMBDA 950, Perkin Elmer, USA). Ascorbic acid was used as a standard [37]. The recovery percentage was :\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e% scavenging activity = \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\frac{[\\text{A}0\\:\\left(\\text{C}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\text{t}\\text{r}\\text{o}\\text{l}\\right)-\\text{A}1(\\:\\text{S}\\text{a}\\text{m}\\text{p}\\text{l}\\text{e}\\left)\\right]}{\\text{A}0\\:\\left(\\text{C}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\text{t}\\text{r}\\text{o}\\text{l}\\right)}*100\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere A\u003csub\u003eControl\u003c/sub\u003e is the absorbance of the control solution (containing all reagents except the test extract), A\u003csub\u003eSample\u003c/sub\u003e is the absorbance of the sample containing the tested extract.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.8.2. Measurement of Total Antioxidant Activity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis method involved adding 0.2 mL of a reagent solution (0.6 M NaH₂PO₄, 4 mM (NH₄)₆Mo₇O₂₄\u0026bull;4H₂O, and H₂SO₄ in 28 mL H₂O) at acidic pH. The mixture was incubated at 95\u0026deg;C for 90 minutes, cooled, and absorbance was measured at 695 nm [38]. Results were compared to a gallic acid calibration curve (y\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.077x \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.077; R\u0026sup2; = 0.967), and total antioxidant activity was expressed as mg gallic acid equivalents per gram of dry weight (mg GAE/g DW).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.8.3. Ferric Antioxidant Reducing Power (FRAP)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe FRAP (Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power) assay was conducted following the protocol outlined by Skowyra et al. 2014 [34]. Briefly, a suitable dilution of Moringa oleifera extracts was mixed with the FRAP reagent and incubated at 37\u0026deg;C. The FRAP reagent was prepared by combining acetate buffer (300 mM, pH 3.6), 2,4,6-Tri-Pyridyl-5-Triazine (10 mM in HCl, 40 mM), and FeCl₃ (20 mM) in a 10:1:1 (v/v/v) ratio. Absorbance was measured at 593 nm, and the FRAP value was calculated using a Trolox calibration curve (3\u0026ndash;20 \u0026micro;M, R\u0026sup2; = 0.989). The results were expressed as mM Trolox equivalents per gram of dry plant material.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.9. Phytochemical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuantitative screening of phytochemicals in the extracts was conducted using a Shimadzu LC-MS-8040 tandem mass spectrometer coupled with a Nexera U-HPLC system. The system included binary pumps (LC-30AD), a column oven (CTO-10ASvp), an autosampler (SIL-30AC), and a degasser (DGU-20A3R). Analyses were performed using the LC-MS/MS method under optimized conditions [33]. An Agilent-Poroshell 120 EC-C18 reversed-phase analytical column (150 mm \u0026times; 2.1 mm, 2.7 \u0026micro;m) was used at 40\u0026deg;C. The mobile phase consisted of eluent A (water/5 mM ammonium formate/0.1% formic acid) and eluent B (methanol/5 mM ammonium formate/0.1% formic acid). The gradient elution program was as follows: 0\u0026ndash;25 min (20\u0026ndash;100% B), 25\u0026ndash;35 min (100% B), and 35\u0026ndash;45 min (20% B). The solvent flow rate was set to 0.5 mL/min, and the injection volume was 5 \u0026micro;L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.10. Rearing of Insects\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eT. castaneum\u003c/em\u003e individuals were reared in a controlled environment (25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1\u0026deg;C, 65\u0026ndash;70% RH) under continuous darkness. The insects were sourced from the Laboratory of Plant Protection at the National Institute of Agronomic Research (INRAT). Cracked wheat grain (14.4% moisture content) served as their food source. One hundred mixed-sex adults were placed in 500 mL glass jars containing 200 g of wheat feed, with jars covered by nylon mesh secured with rubber bands. After one week of oviposition, adults were removed, and the progeny were used for assays. The insect population was re-cultured every eight weeks, and assays were conducted using 3\u0026ndash;7-day-old adults.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.11. Contact Toxicity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA Whatman No. 1 filter paper (90 mm diameter) was placed inside a glass Petri dish (11.0 cm diameter). The extracts were evenly applied to the filter papers and allowed to air-dry for 5 minutes. Subsequently, 20 adult \u003cem\u003eT. castaneum\u003c/em\u003e individuals (3\u0026ndash;7 days old, mixed sex) were introduced into each dish. The dishes were kept in the laboratory under controlled conditions (25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1\u0026deg;C, 65\u0026ndash;70% relative humidity, and a 16:8-hour light-dark photoperiod). Water was used as a non-insecticide control. Each treatment was replicated three times. Insect mortality was assessed at 24, 48, and 72 hours. Individuals were considered dead if they showed no movement or response to three gentle prods with a blunt dissecting probe after a 5-minute recovery period.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e2. 12. Statistical analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEach experiment was repeated in three replications. The results were presented as mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard error (SD). The experimental data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using XLSTAT-Excel software, and the comparison of means was performed with the least significant difference (LSD), post-hoc test, at the 5% probability level.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Extraction of \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe extraction yields of \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e using different solvents reveal significant variations in efficiency, with ethanol and water consistently providing the highest yields across all plant parts (leaves, roots, stems, and seeds). Ethanol, in particular, demonstrated superior performance, achieving the highest yields for roots (39.2%) and seeds (36.4%), likely due to its ability to extract both polar and moderately non-polar compounds, such as phenolics, flavonoids, and alkaloids. Water also showed high efficiency, especially for leaves (35%) and stems (36%), indicating its effectiveness for extracting polar compounds like phenolic acids and glycosides. In contrast, methanol provided moderate yields, making it a viable but less efficient alternative, while acetone consistently yielded the lowest extraction rates (13.3\u0026ndash;20%), suggesting it is less suitable for Moringa extraction. These results highlight the importance of solvent selection based on the target compounds and plant part, with ethanol and distillated water emerging as the most effective solvents for maximizing extraction yields.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariation of yield extraction (%) using different solvents\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolvent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrgan\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYield (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoots\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeeds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoots\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeeds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoots\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeeds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistillated water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoots\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeeds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Chemical Content of \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe chemical composition of different Moringa extracts varied significantly across solvents and plant parts. The total phenolic content was highest in ethanol extract of leaves (7.18%) and lowest in methanol extract of roots (3.01%). Flavonoid content was significantly higher in ethanol extract of leaves (23.52%), almost 3.5 times greater than the next highest value in methanol extract of stems (9.07%), while ethanol extract of seeds had the lowest (0.25%). Tannin content peaked in acetone extract of seeds (245.4%), nearly 10 times higher than the lowest value in methanol extract of leaves (16.6%). Saponin content was highest in methanol extract of leaves (13.7%) and lowest in ethanol and methanol extracts of seeds (1.64%). The alkaloid content showed the highest value in distillated water extract of stems (30.06%), which was almost 10 times higher than the ethanol extract of seeds (2.96%). These variations indicate that ethanol is the most efficient solvent for flavonoid and phenolic extraction, acetone for tannins, methanol for saponins, and water for alkaloids, with leaves and stems generally containing higher phytochemical concentrations than seeds and roots. (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContents of total polyphenol, flavonoids, total tannins, saponins and alkaloids in \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e (stems, roots, seeds and leaves) extracts\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStem\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoots\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeeds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"BoldUnderline\" class=\"BoldUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eTotal phenolic content\u003c/span\u003e (\u003cspan type=\"BoldUnderline\" class=\"BoldUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026micro;g GAE/mg DW)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u0026nbsp;.5ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.54\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.18\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"BoldUnderline\" class=\"BoldUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eTotal flavonoid content ( \u0026micro;g QE/ mg DW)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.66\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.0a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.72\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"BoldUnderline\" class=\"BoldUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eTotal tannins content ( mg CE/g DW)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e133.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.0c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e245.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20.0a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e177\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;15.0b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e107.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.0a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.0b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.0b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.0c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e245.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20.0a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.0b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.0c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.0c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e177\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;15.00a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.0b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.0bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.0c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"BoldUnderline\" class=\"BoldUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eSaponin content (mg DE/g DW)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.5a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"BoldUnderline\" class=\"BoldUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eAlkaloids (mg atropine/100mL)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.5a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.72\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.19b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.5a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7,68\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,6b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.3a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16,8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.8b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEach value is the average of three replicates (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3) and is expressed as the mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard deviation. Different letters in the same column represent a significant difference between samples at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05. GAE (gallic acid equivalent), QE (quercetin equivalent), CE (catechin equivalent), DE (Diosgenin equivalents), AE (atropine equivalents) and DW (dry weight). Means followed by the same letter are not different according to ANOVA (analysis of variance) (* p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), a\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;b\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;c\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;d.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3. Antioxidant Effect of \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.1. Radical scavenging activity of \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e extracts evaluated by the DPPH test.\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe antioxidant activity of the extracts was evaluated using the DPPH free radical scavenging assay and the results were computed and presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. The DPPH radical scavenging activity (%) of different Moringa oleifera extracts varied significantly depending on the solvent and plant part. Roots exhibited the highest antioxidant activity, with methanol extract (7.1 2.99%) and distillated water extract (6.72%) showing the strongest DPPH scavenging potential. This was significantly higher than the lowest value, which was observed in methanol extract of seeds (2.52%), demonstrating a nearly 3-fold difference. Among stems and leaves, ethanol extract showed the highest antioxidant activity (5.24% for both), whereas acetone extract had the lowest (2.95%). Seeds had moderate activity, with the highest value recorded in distilated water extract (6.3%), slightly lower than that of roots. Overall, water and methanol were the most effective solvents for extracting antioxidant compounds, particularly in roots, while acetone yielded the lowest DPPH scavenging activity in most cases. This suggests that the choice of solvent significantly impacts the antioxidant potential of Moringa extracts, with roots exhibiting the highest radical-scavenging capacity across all treatments. The assay was determined in triplicate for each extract.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage of DPPH inhibition by stems, roots, seeds, and leaves of Moringa oleifera extracted with various solvents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDPPH%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistillated Water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,75ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.41b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.71a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.21b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoots\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.38b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.72\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.81a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.15b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.99a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeeds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.05a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.6a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.15a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.63c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.75ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.41b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.71a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.22b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeans followed by the same letter are not different according to ANOVA (analysis of variance) (* p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), a\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;b\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;c.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.2. Total Antioxidant Activity of \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e presents the antioxidant activity of different extracts of \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e measured in mg EAG/g DW across various plant parts (stems, roots, leaves, and seeds) using four different solvents (acetone, water, ethanol, and methanol). The antioxidant activity (mg EAG/g DW) of different Moringa oleifera extracts varied significantly across plant parts and solvents. Stems exhibited the highest antioxidant activity, with methanol extract (36.12 mg EAG/g DW) showing the strongest activity, followed closely by acetone extract (30.32 mg EAG/g DW). In contrast, the lowest stem antioxidant activity was found in ethanol extract (18.15 mg EAG/g DW). Roots had the highest antioxidant activity in water extract (30.20 mg EAG/g DW), which was significantly higher than in ethanol (13.15mg EAG/g DW). Leaves displayed moderate antioxidant activity, with the highest value in methanol extract (26.89 mg EAG/g DW), whereas acetone extract showed the lowest (1.14 mg EAG/g DW). Seeds had the lowest overall antioxidant activity, with water extract showing the highest value (9.52 mg EAG/g DW) and methanol extract the lowest (3.03 mg EAG/g DW). These results suggest that methanol is the most effective solvent for extracting antioxidants from stems and leaves, while water is the most efficient for roots. Seeds exhibited significantly lower antioxidant potential regardless of solvent choice. The antioxidant capacity varies significantly depending on both the plant part and the extraction solvent, highlighting the influence of solvent polarity on bioactive compound extraction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal antioxidant activity of (stems, roots, seeds, and leaves) of \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e extracted with various solvents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTAA (mg EAG/g DW)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.50b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.58\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.80c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.50d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.00a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoots\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.50c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.20a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.00b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.50a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.14\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;0.40c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.50a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.50b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.89\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.00a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeeds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.45c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.50a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.00b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.80b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEach value represents the mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3); TAA, total antioxidant activity; GAE, gallic acid equivalents; DW, dry weight. Means followed by the same letter are not different according to ANOVA (analysis of variance) (* p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), a\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;b\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;c\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.3. Ferric reducing power of \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ferric reducing power of different \u003cem\u003eMoringa\u003c/em\u003e extracts varied significantly across plant parts and solvents. Results are presented in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. Methanol and ethanol extracts generally exhibited stronger reducing power, suggesting they are more effective in extracting antioxidants responsible for ferric ion reduction. The highest activity was observed in the methanol extract of leaves (2.67 mM Trolox/g Dry weight) and the acetone extract of seeds (2.7 mM Trolox/g Dry weight), indicating that these plant parts contain high levels of reducing compounds. In contrast, water extracts demonstrated the lowest activity, with the leaves showing the weakest reduction (0.05 mM Trolox/g Dry weight), likely due to the poor solubility of key antioxidants in water. Statistical analysis revealed significant differences among extracts, as indicated by different superscripts (a, b, c), highlighting that stems, roots, leaves, and seeds respond differently depending on the solvent used. Overall, \u003cem\u003eMoringa\u003c/em\u003e leaves and seeds, particularly in methanol and acetone extracts, exhibit the highest ferric reducing power, suggesting their potential as rich sources of natural antioxidants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariation of ferric reducing power of differents extracts of \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFRAP (mM Trolox/g Dry weight)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.54\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10 a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.66\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoots\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.173\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.88\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.131\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeeds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.32\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;0.07c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeans followed by the same letter are not different according to ANOVA (analysis of variance) (* p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), a\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;b\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;c\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4. Chemical Composition of \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe HPLC analysis of Moringa revealed the presence of a wide range of bioactive compounds highlighting the phytochemical diversity across different plant parts (stems, roots, seeds, and leaves) (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). These compounds were identified based on their retention times (RT), molecular weights, and ionization modes (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, according to retention time, molecular masses, and fragmentation patterns, a range of bioactive coumpounds tentatively identified by comparison with bibliographic resources. Phenolic acids were the most abundant class, represented by compounds such as gallic acid (RT: 3.65 min), caffeic acid (RT: 4.36 min), syringic acid (RT: 5.10 min, 31.64 min), and ferulic acid (RT: 10.63 min). These compounds were predominantly found in stems and leaves, with roots and seeds containing specific derivatives like gallic acid derivative (RT: 5.09 min). Additionally, chlorogenic acid (RT: 11.83 min) and its isomers (RT: 8.25 min, 20.09 min) were identified, particularly in stems and seeds. Flavonoids were another prominent group, with compounds such as apigenin (RT: 4.22 min), rutin (RT: 9.73 min), and quercetin derivatives (RT: 10.58\u0026ndash;21.66 min) mainly concentrated in the leaves. Flavonols like kaempferol derivatives (RT: 18.11\u0026ndash;19.17 min) and myricetin (RT: 18.86 min) were also detected, further emphasizing the phytochemical richness of leaves. Seeds contained flavanols such as epicatechin (RT: 15.22 min) and procyanidins (RT: 15.20\u0026ndash;21.36 min). The analysis confirmed the distribution of bioactive compounds in specific plant parts, with leaves showing the highest diversity, followed by stems, seeds, and roots.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHPLC Analysis of Bioactive Compounds in \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"11\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRT (min)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChemical Formula\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMolecular Weight\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIonization Mode\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClass\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReference.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoots\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeeds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAscorbic acid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e176.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVitamin C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[39]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApigenin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e270.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlavonoids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[40]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCaffeic acid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e180.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhenolic acids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[41]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtocatechuic acid hexoside\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e316.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhenolic acids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[42]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGallic acid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e170.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhenolic acids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[43]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDihydroferulic acid 4-sulfate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e276.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhenoic acids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[44]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep-Coumaric acid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e164.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhenolic acids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[45]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVanillic acid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e168.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhenolic acids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[46]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGallic acid derivative\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e170.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhenolic acids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[47]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSyringic acid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e198.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhenolic acids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[48]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHydroxybenzoic acid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e138.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhenolic acids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[42]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCaffeoylquinic acid isomer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e354.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhenolic acids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[49]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApigenin 6,8-di-glucopyranoside\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e594.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlavonoids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[50]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRutin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e610.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlavonoids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[51]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOleuroside\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e534.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIridoids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[41]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuercetin-3-O-rhamnoside\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e448.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlavonoids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[52]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFerulic acid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e194.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhenolic acids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[53]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSyringic acid hexoside\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e356.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhenolic acids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[46]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChlorogenic acid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e354.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhenolic acids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[45]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatechin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e290.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlavanols\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[54]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,3-Dihydroxybenzoic acid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e154.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhenolic acids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[52]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuercetin-3,7-diglucoside (isomer)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e626.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlavonoids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[55]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSinapic acid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e224.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhenolic acids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[45]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProcyanidin dimer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e578.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlavan 3-ols\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[54]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEpicatechin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e290.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlavanols\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[52]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuercetin acetyl hexose\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e506.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlavonoids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[42]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(-)-Epigallocatechin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e306.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlavanols\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[52]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCichoric Acid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e474.371\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;H]+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhenolic acids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[56]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethoxy hydroxybenzoic acid hexoside pentoside\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e445.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhenolic acids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[57]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApigenin 7-O-neohesperidoside\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e578.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlavonoids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[58]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKaempferol 3-O-glucoside\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e448.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlavonoids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[42]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKaempferol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e286.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlavonoids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[59]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMyricetin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e318.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;H]+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlavonols\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[60]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKaempferol 3-O-rhamnoside\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e432.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlavonols\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[61]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMyricetin 3-O-galactoside\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e480.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlavonols\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[52]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3-Caffeoylquinic acid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e354.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhenolic acids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[56]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuercetin-3-O-glucuronide\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e478.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlavonoids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[62]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProcyanidin dimer B1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e578.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlavonols\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[52]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuercetin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e302.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlavonoids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[63]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLuteolin 7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e448.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlavonoids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[41]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKaempferol-7-glucoside\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e448.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlavonoids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[64]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSyringic acid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e198.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[M-H]\u0026minus;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhenolic acids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[46]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.5. Insecticidal Activity of \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e Extracts Against \u003cem\u003eTribolium castaneum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe insecticidal efficacy of \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e extracts was assessed based on the mortality rates of \u003cem\u003eT. castaneum\u003c/em\u003e. Mortality rates increased with both time and extract concentration (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Ethanol extracts were the most effective, with root extracts achieving 90% mortality within 24 hours at a 30% concentration. Methanol\u0026rsquo;s stem extract and distiltaed water\u0026rsquo;s seed extract demonstrated moderate effectiveness, reaching 29.8% mortality at 30% concentration after 3\u0026ndash;4 days. Ethanolic root extracts also exhibited the highest average mortality rates, reaching 80.6% and 72.2% at 10% concentration after three days. Extracts from roots caused the highest mortality overall, with 90% of adults succumbing at a 100% concentration within 24 hours. These effects were significantly higher compared to the control.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e is a highly versatile plant rich in biotechnologically relevant compounds, including saponins and alkaloids, which contribute to its insecticidal properties [65\u0026ndash;66]. Saponins, known for their surfactant properties, disrupt insect cell membranes, leading to oxidative stress or metabolic dysfunction [67\u0026ndash;68]. Alkaloids, on the other hand, interfere with neural signaling, digestion, and enzymatic processes in insects, causing paralysis or mortality [69\u0026ndash;70]. These mechanisms highlight the potential of saponin- and alkaloid-rich ethanol extracts from \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e as eco-friendly alternatives for integrated pest management (IPM). The efficacy of these extracts is influenced by solvent polarity, with ethanol and methanol extracts showing superior solubility of bioactive compounds. For instance, 80% ethanol outperformed 80% methanol in antioxidant assays, while 100% methanol showed higher efficacy in the DPPH assay [71]. The highest phenolic and flavonoid contents were observed in ethanol and methanol extracts, particularly when mixed with water, due to their intermediate polarity. Analysis using HPLC has enabled the identification of various phenolic compounds, including flavonoids such as quercetin. This compound, identified as a bioactive substance by Drago et al. 2006 [72], is present in onions and lettuce and is commonly incorporated into functional foods. Sosa et al. 2000 [73] demonstrated that quercetin exhibits insecticidal properties. Among the various secondary metabolites of neem, quercetin was identified, with a molecular weight of approximately 300 kDa [74]. Additionally, Drago et al. (2006) [72] identified quercetin in chia seeds (Salvia hispanica L.), with a 28% yield when extracted using ethanol. The study also revealed that leaves had the highest phenolic content, whereas stems contained substantial levels of flavonoids. Both components play a role in mitigating oxidative stress and exhibit insecticidal activity. Certain compounds derived from plants like Nerium oleander, including steroid-triterpenes and flavonoids, exhibit insecticidal properties. These compounds function as insect enzyme inhibitors and possess repellent activity against insects [75]. The high total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) in Moringa leaves can be attributed to phytochemicals such as kaempferol, quercetin, rhamnetin, isoquercetin, and kaempferitrin, as well as cytokinins that enhance secondary metabolite production [76\u0026ndash;77]. Glycosidic compounds, glucosinolates, and isothiocyanates in Moringa leaves further contribute to antioxidant activity, which is strongly correlated with phenolic content due to their free radical scavenging capacity [78]. Thus, The antioxidant abilities of this plant material highlights its potential for valuable applications in the development of innovative healthy foods and natural preservatives. These properties suggest its suitability for creating functional food products and sustainable ingredients that promote health and extend shelf life. \u003cb\u003eInsecticidal Activity of\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eExtracts Against\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eTribolium castaneum\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe insecticidal activity of \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e extracts against \u003cem\u003eTribolium castaneum\u003c/em\u003e exhibited a dose-dependent increase in mortality, with root and stem extracts demonstrating the highest efficacy. Ethanol extracts at a 50% concentration achieved nearly complete mortality (90\u0026ndash;100%) within 24 hours, significantly outperforming seed and leaf extracts. The delayed mortality observed with seed and leaf extracts may be attributed to slower absorption or lower potency of their bioactive compounds. Mechanistically, the superior performance of root and stem extracts likely involves disruption of digestive processes, inhibition of neural signaling, or induction of oxidative stress in insects. This aligns with previous studies demonstrating that bioactive compounds in \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e, such as alkaloids and phenolics, inhibit nutrition, cause respiratory distress, and induce mortality in pests [67]. The insecticidal potential of \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e is further supported by its rich phytochemical profile, including flavonoids, tannins, saponins, phenylpropanoids, alkaloids, and reducing sugars [79]. Water extracts (WE) of M. oleifera demonstrated significant toxicity against S. zeamais (LC50: 214.6 mg/g), with even low doses causing mortality, confirming its potential as a natural insecticide. Research by Madukwe and IE (2012) and Eleirt al. (1980) [80\u0026ndash;81] further supports the use of \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e as a biopesticide, highlighting its safety for human health and lack of toxic effects. In comparative studies, \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e extracts were more effective against T. castaneum than extracts from \u003cem\u003eOriganum majorana\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eSyzygium aromaticum\u003c/em\u003e [69]. Additionally, the presence of Moringa extracts significantly reduced the emergence of F1 progeny in Acanthoscelides obtectus, with maximum reduction observed at a dose of 50 \u0026micro;l/mL. Similar findings were reported by Wahedi et al. (2013) [82], who noted that neem seed extract reduced F1 emergence in Callosobruchus maculatus without causing weight loss in treated grains. Helaly (2018) [83] also observed a 100% reduction in F1 emergence of C. maculatus using oils such as jojoba, Moringa, fenugreek, and sweet almond at concentrations of 25\u0026ndash;35%. Woguem (2017) [84] achieved complete inhibition of F1 emergence in A. obtectus using essential oils from Mondia whitei and Echinops giganteus at low doses (1.6 \u0026micro;L/g and 0.64 \u0026micro;L/g, respectively). The findings of Dos Santos et al. (2023) [85] provide further context by highlighting the toxicological properties of avermectin-based insecticides (ABM), which target glutamate-sensitive chloride channels, impairing neuronal coordination in insects. However, ABM can adversely affect liver and kidney function, as well as hematological parameters, in non-target organisms [86]. Recent study of Sanusi and Ibrahim. (2024) [87] campares the efficacy of moringa, neem and lemon grass leaf powders in the control of bean beetle (\u003cem\u003eCallosobruchus maculatus\u003c/em\u003e Fab.) infesting cowpea (\u003cem\u003eVigna unguiculata\u003c/em\u003e L. Walp). Thus, both moringa and neem leaf powders demonstrated effectiveness as protective agents against \u003cem\u003eC. maculatus\u003c/em\u003e infestations in cowpea. These findings confirm the essential properties required for chemicals to effectively control insect feeding on plants, including toxicity to adult insects, reduction in egg-laying (oviposition), ovicidal activity, and toxicity to immature stages either before or immediately after they penetrate plant tissues [88]. In conclusion, the high efficacy of \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e root and stem extracts against T. castaneum underscores their potential as natural bioinsecticides. Their multifaceted mechanisms of action, coupled with their safety profile, position \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e as a sustainable alternative to synthetic pesticides for integrated pest management.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Conclusion and Perspectives","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study underscores the significant potential of \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e extracts, particularly from roots and stems, as effective bioinsecticides against \u003cem\u003eTribolium castaneum\u003c/em\u003e. The high concentrations of bioactive compounds, such as phenolics, flavonoids, and saponins, along with their strong antioxidant activity, drive their efficacy in pest management. Ethanol extracts demonstrated exceptional insecticidal activity, achieving up to 90% mortality within 24 hours, while offering a sustainable alternative to synthetic pesticides that reduces environmental risks and mitigates pest resistance. Future research should focus on optimizing scalable and cost-effective extraction methods for \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e bioactive compounds, as well as evaluating their performance under real-world storage and agricultural conditions. Developing stable formulations to enhance the longevity and effectiveness of these extracts is also crucial. Additionally, assessing the long-term ecological benefits and economic feasibility of integrating \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e extracts into pest management programs will provide valuable insights. Expanding their application to other economically significant pests and pathogens could further broaden their utility. By adopting such natural solutions, we can reduce the environmental impact of pest management practices, enhance food security, and promote sustainable agricultural systems globally.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eWe are grateful for the support provided by the Tunisian Ministry of Higher Education, Scientific Research, and the University of Tunis El Manar. The authors also appreciate the collaboration of Mr Mohamed Makhlouf \u0026nbsp;for providing the plant investigated \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Statement:\u003c/strong\u003e The authors would like to extend their sincere appreciation to the Researchers Supporting Project, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia for funding this work through project number \u0026ndash;(RSP2025R197).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions:\u003c/strong\u003e Conceptualization, Chiraz Chaffei Haouari; methodology,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChiraz Chaffei Haouari; Software, Tarek Slatni; validation,Chiraz Chaffei Haouari; Investigation, Ghada Ben Khedher, Triki Tebra, Chargui Hadhami; resources data curation; Writing\u0026mdash;original draft preparation, Ghada Ben Khedher, Marwa Rezgui; writing\u0026mdash;review and editing, Marwa Rezgui and Chiraz Chaffei Haouari; Visualization, Tawaf Ali Shah, Mutwakel Dabiellil, Turki M. Dawoud, Mohammed Bourhia; Supervision, Chiraz Chaffei Haouari; project administration, Chiraz Chaffei Haouari; funding acquisition, Tawaf Ali Shah, Mutwakel Dabiellil, Turki M. Dawoud, Mohammed Bourhia and Chiraz Chaffei Haouari;All authors reviewed the results and approved the final version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval:\u003c/strong\u003e Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflicts of Interest:\u003c/strong\u003e The authors declare no conflicts of interest to report regarding the present study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e Czembor E, Stępień Ł, Waśkiewicz A. Effect of environmental factors on Fusarium species and associated mycotoxins in maize grain grown in Poland. PLoS One. 2015;10(7):e0133644. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0133644.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e Zuhra F, Ali A, Ahmad F. 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D. (2024). Comparative efficacy of moringa, neem, and lemon grass leaf powders in the control of bean beetle (\u003cem\u003eCallosobruchus maculatus\u003c/em\u003e Fab.) infesting cowpea (\u003cem\u003eVigna unguiculata\u003c/em\u003e L. Walp). J. Agric. Environ. Sci. \u003cem\u003e20\u003c/em\u003e(1) : 211 225. https://doi.org/10.4314/jagrenv.v20i1.21.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e Ogunwolu E.A, Odunlami AT. Suppression of seed bruchid (Callosobruchus maculatus F.) development and damage on cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) with Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides (Lam.) Waterm. (Rutaceae) root bark powder when compared to neem seed powder and pirimiphos-methyl Crop Protection. 1996; 15: 603\u0026ndash;607\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-plant-biology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pbio","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Plant Biology](http://bmcplantbiol.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pbio/default.aspx","title":"BMC Plant Biology","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Antioxidant activity, Bioactive compounds, Flavonoids, Insecticidal properties, Moringa oleifera, Natural pesticides, Phytochemicals, Tribolium castaneum, Sustainable pest management","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6010436/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6010436/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e, known for its rich phytochemical profile, offers a promising natural alternative for sustainable pest management. This study investigates the phytochemical composition, antioxidant activity, and evauates for the first time the insecticidal potential of \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e extracts against \u003cem\u003eTribolium castaneum\u003c/em\u003e. Extracts were obtained from different plant parts (leaves, stems, roots, and seeds) using ethanol, methanol, acetone, and distillated water. Phytochemical analysis revealed high concentrations of total phenolics (7.18 \u0026micro;g GAE/mg DW in ethanol leaf extract), flavonoids (23.52 \u0026micro;g QE/mg DW in ethanol leaf extract), tannins (245.4 mg CE/g DW in acetone seed extract), saponins (13.7 in methanol leaf extract), and alkaloids (30.06 mg atropine/100mL in water stem extract). HPLC analysis identified various bioactive compound, including phenolic acids (gallic acid, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, ferulic acid), flavonoids (apigenin, quercetin, kaempferol), flavanols (catechin, epicatechin, procyanidin dimers), and iridoids (oleuroside). Among these, gallic acid, quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside and kaempferol were detected in high concentrations. Antioxidant assays showed significant free radical scavenging activity, with methanol root extract displaying the highest DPPH inhibition (7.1%). Total antioxidant activity peaked at 36.12 mg GAE/g DW in methanol stem extract. Insecticidal bioassays demonstrated that ethanol root extracts achieved 90% mortality of \u003cem\u003eT. castaneum\u003c/em\u003e within 24 hours at a 30% concentration. These findings highlight \u003cem\u003eM. oleifera\u003c/em\u003e as a potent bioinsecticide with strong antioxidant properties, supporting its integration into sustainable pest management strategies. Further research should focus on formulation stability and field application for large-scale use.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"\"Phytochemical Composition, Antioxidant Potential, and Insecticidal Activity of Moringa oleifera Extracts Against Tribolium castaneum: A Sustainable Approach to Pest Management\"","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-02-17 13:21:08","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6010436/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-02-14T06:09:45+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-02-13T09:18:46+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-02-13T09:18:18+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Plant Biology","date":"2025-02-11T21:34:20+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-plant-biology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pbio","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Plant Biology](http://bmcplantbiol.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pbio/default.aspx","title":"BMC Plant Biology","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"6a7f3ab3-6ec2-4e51-a2ba-d2c82001c649","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 17th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-05-05T16:02:05+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6010436","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-025-06626-3","journal":{"identity":"bmc-plant-biology","isVorOnly":false,"title":"BMC Plant Biology"},"publishedOn":"2025-05-02 15:57:47","publishedOnDateReadable":"May 2nd, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-02-17 13:21:08","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s12870-025-06626-3","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-025-06626-3","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6010436","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6010436","identity":"rs-6010436","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}