Prevalence, Determinants, and Care-Seeking Behaviour for Major Depressive Disorder in the Lesotho Population: A Multilevel Analysis from the Lesotho Demographic and Health Survey 2023-24

Prevalence, Determinants, and Care-Seeking Behaviour for Major Depressive Disorder in the Lesotho Population: A Multilevel Analysis from the Lesotho Demographic and Health Survey 2023-24 | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Prevalence, Determinants, and Care-Seeking Behaviour for Major Depressive Disorder in the Lesotho Population: A Multilevel Analysis from the Lesotho Demographic and Health Survey 2023-24 Syed Toukir Ahmed Noor, Sazid Siddique, Samin Yeasar, Oishi Das, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6945317/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 24 Feb, 2026 Read the published version in Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology → Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Purpose The purpose of this study is to estimate the prevalence and associated factors of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), as well as care-seeking behavior among participants with depressive symptoms in Lesotho. Methods This study utilized data from the nationally representative, cross-sectional Lesotho Demographic and Health Survey (LDHS) 2023–2024. MDD was assessed using the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), with scores of 10 or above classified as present. Multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression was employed to identify factors associated with MDD, accounting for the hierarchical nature of the data. Results Among the 6,481 respondents, the weighted prevalence of MDD was 6.3% (95% CI: 5.5–7.2), with women (7.2%) experiencing a notably higher burden than men (5.4%). Specifically, women had 75% (AOR = 1.75, 95% CI: 1.35–2.27) higher odds of MDD compared to men. Individuals residing in households with fewer than four people and those who used tobacco were also more likely to experience MDD. Conversely, rural residence was associated with a lower likelihood of MDD. Geographic disparities were evident, with Mohale's Hoek showing higher odds and Mokhotlong lower odds compared to Maseru. Only 22.9% of those with depressive symptoms sought help, and 10.8% used medication. Conclusion This study highlights a substantial mental health burden in Lesotho, with MDD influenced by sociodemographic and geographic factors. Low help-seeking rates emphasize the urgent need for comprehensive mental health strategies. Recommendations include strengthening community-based care, integrating mental health into primary care, reducing stigma through awareness, and improving service accessibility and affordability, particularly for vulnerable and underserved populations. Depression Major Depressive Disorder Lesotho Care-Seeking Behavior Multilevel Mixed-Effects Logistic Regression Mental Health Figures Figure 1 Introduction Mental health is an essential component of overall well-being, enabling individuals to effectively manage stress, utilize their abilities, work and learn effectively, build relationships, and make a positive impact on society [ 1 ]. Depression is one of the most common and devastating mental health illnesses worldwide [ 2 ]. Depression is a widely recognized mental disorder characterized by a persistent low mood, diminished interest in activities, and a substantial reduction in daily functioning across emotional, social, and physical domains [ 2 ]. Mental health is an important aspect of public health, emphasizing its essential role in the pursuit of global well-being and development objectives [ 3 , 4 ] Globally, one in eight people, or approximately 970 million, suffers from a mental illness [ 5 ], with approximately 82% of instances arising in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) [ 6 ]. Major depressive disorders (MDD) affect an estimated 280 million individuals worldwide, representing 3.8% of the global population. The prevalence of depression is 5% in adults and 5.7% in individuals over 60 years of age [ 2 ]. Globally, women are disproportionately affected compared to men, with 6% of women and 4% of men being affected [ 2 ]. Furthermore, depression affects more than 10% of women during and after pregnancy [ 7 ]. Globally, the incidence of depression increased by 59%, from 172.7 million in 1990 to 274.8 million in 2019 [ 8 ]. Furthermore, depression ranked as the second leading cause of years lived with disability in 2019, accounting for approximately 5.6% of the total global years lived with disability [ 9 ]. It represented 46.8 million disability-adjusted life years, an increase of nearly 61% from 1990 [ 10 ]. Although there are effective mental disorder treatments, over 75% of LMICs do not receive them [ 11 ]. Studies in the USA and Germany have demonstrated an increase in depression prevalence, especially among women, adolescents, with widening treatment disparity and socioeconomically disadvantaged populations [ 12 – 16 ]. Additionally, LMICs experience more severe forms of depression due to restricted access to care, increased comorbidity, and the significant impact of factors such as poverty, violence, abuse, unemployment, low income, inadequate education, and inefficient healthcare systems [ 17 , 18 ]. Furthermore, previous studies have shown that depression is prevalent in South Africa and Kenya; however, several people refrain from seeking support due to financial constraints, stigma, and inadequate knowledge [ 19 , 20 ]. Another study conducted in Ethiopia found that over one-fifth of individuals were at risk of experiencing depression due to socio-demographic factors such as sex, age, and violence [ 21 , 22 ]. According to a previous study conducted in Lesotho, the prevalence of severe depression among outpatients is estimated to be 23% [ 23 ]. In rural areas, the prevalence of MDD was 28.8%, with a higher rate of 32.7% among women than among men with 20.2% [ 24 ]. Furthermore, Lesotho had the highest age-standardized incidence rate of depression among the 195 countries analyzed in 2017, with a rate of 6.59 per 1,000 individuals [ 25 ]. Additionally, 29.8% of patients co-infected with HIV and tuberculosis (TB) exhibited MDD, suggesting a significant mental health burden [ 26 ]. In contrast, data from the general population indicated that 87.6% of women and 89.6% of men were classified as having a minimal risk of depression, while 2% of women and 1.8% of men were identified as being at moderate to severe risk [ 27 ]. The Global Burden of Disease (GBD) study estimated that by 2050, MDD will become the 13th leading cause of disease burden in Lesotho [ 28 ]. Although some studies have examined depression in Lesotho, they are mostly limited to specific geographic areas [ 23 , 24 , 29 – 31 ] and specific groups, such as healthcare professionals [ 29 , 30 , 32 ] and patients with specific disease conditions [ 24 , 26 ]. To our best knowledge, no study has been conducted on a nationally representative sample of the population to estimate the prevalence and factors associated with MDD in Lesotho. However, the Lesotho Demographic and Health Survey (LDHS) has made progress by including mental health data in its most recent round and adding a dedicated section to the published report [ 33 ]. Therefore, in this study, our objective was to estimate the prevalence and factors associated with MDD, as well as care-seeking behavior among participants with depressive symptoms in Lesotho using the LDHS 2023-24 data. This study provides a substantial contribution to the understanding of mental health issues in the Lesotho population by offering critical insights into the prevalence of MDD and associated factors. Methods Data source and sampling Technique This study utilized data from the nationally representative, cross-sectional LDHS 2023-24. The LDHS dataset is publicly available and can be accessed upon request ( https://www.dhsprogram.com/methodology/survey/survey-display-572.cfm ) from The DHS Program. The sampling framework for the 2023–2024 LDHS was constructed using the 2016 Lesotho Population and Housing Census, which provided a comprehensive listing of all enumeration areas (EAs) across the country. Each EA represents a defined geographic unit, typically a city block in urban settings or a village (or group of villages) in rural regions, and contains approximately 100 households. These EAs were mapped and identified based on census data, including household counts and boundary delineations. Lesotho is divided into 10 administrative districts, which are further subdivided into constituencies and community councils. For the LDHS, a stratified, two-stage sampling design was employed. Each district was categorized into urban, peri-urban, and rural strata, resulting in 29 distinct strata, as Butha-Buthe district does not have peri-urban areas. In the first stage, 400 EAs were selected independently across these strata using probability proportional to size, ensuring that the number of households in each EA determined its likelihood of selection. A household listing was then conducted in each selected EA, providing the basis for the second stage of sampling. In the second stage, 25 households were systematically chosen from each EA with equal probability. All women aged 15–49 who were either usual residents or who had spent the night prior to the survey in the selected households were eligible to participate in the Woman’s Questionnaire. In a randomly selected half of the households, all men aged 15–59 meeting the same residency criteria were eligible for the Man’s Questionnaire. A total of 9,976 households were selected for the sample, of which 9,853 were occupied. Of the occupied households, 9,810 were successfully interviewed, yielding a household response rate of over 99%. Within these households, 6,536 women aged 15–49 were identified as eligible for individual interviews, and interviews were completed with 98% of these women. Among the subsample of households selected for the male survey, 3,304 eligible men aged 15–59 were identified, with a 97% interview completion rate. Further details regarding the sampling procedures and response rates are available in the final LDHS 2023–2024 report [ 33 ]. Population and Sample Size From the households successfully interviewed through the LDHS 2023–2024 sampling process described above, a total of 6,481 (weighted) respondents of reproductive age who completed the mental health module were included in this analysis. This final sample comprised both men (n = 3,215) and women (n = 3,266), ensuring balanced representation within the reproductive age group. Study variables and measurements Outcome variables Respondents were assessed for MDD by the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). It is a nine-item self-report tool that evaluates the presence of depression symptoms during the previous two weeks (26), with a total score that ranges from 0 to 27; the symptoms are classified as not depressive (0–4), mild (5–9), moderate (10–14), moderately severe (15–19), and severe (20–27). For this study, MDD was classified as present if a participant's score was 10 or above (coded as 1), and absent if their score was less than 10 (coded as 0) [ 34 ]. Our study's PHQ-9 scale showed strong internal consistency, with a Cronbach's Alpha of 0.88. Exploratory variables This study examined a comprehensive set of explanatory variables encompassing demographic, socioeconomic, household, and regional factors. Key demographic variables included the respondent’s sex (male or female) and age, categorized into the following groups: 15–19, 20–24, 25–29, 30–34, 35–39, 40–44, 45–49, and 50 years or older. Educational attainment was classified as no education, primary, secondary, or higher education. Occupational status was grouped as either not working or working. Socioeconomic status was assessed using the wealth index, divided into the poorest, poorer, middle, richer, and richest quintiles. Marital status was categorized as never married or ever married, while religious affiliation was categorized as Catholic or other religions. Additional behavioral and access-related variables included mass media exposure (yes/no), mobile phone ownership (yes or no), and tobacco use (yes/no). Household composition was measured by the number of household members, categorized as four or more, or fewer than four. Place of residence was classified as urban or rural. Finally, regional variation was captured by including the administrative district of residence: Butha-Buthe, Leribe, Berea, Maseru, Mafeteng, Mohale's Hoek, Quthing, Qacha's Nek, Mokhotlong, and Thaba-Tseka. In addition to the main explanatory variables, this study also assessed two mental health care indicators among respondents with depressive symptoms: help-seeking behavior (yes, no) and medication use (yes/no). Help-seeking was determined by asking whether individuals had ever tried to seek help for their symptoms, while medication use was measured by whether respondents had taken any prescribed medicine for depression in the past two weeks. Statistical Analysis For this study, data cleaning, recording, and analysis were conducted using Stata version 17.0 (StataCorp LP, College Station, Texas) following the DHS guidelines. Sample weights were used, and modifications were made to the intricate survey design, considering the primary sampling units (PSUs) and strata to guarantee the survey's representativeness. The intricate survey design was managed with the help of the Stata "Svyset" tool. Moreover, the analysis followed STROBE standards for a cross-sectional study [ 35 ]. Descriptive statistics were utilized to outline the distribution of study variables, with frequencies and percentages reported for all categorical data. Associations between categorical variables and MDD were initially examined using chi-squared tests. Given the hierarchical nature of the DHS data, a multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression model was employed, rather than a standard binary logistic regression, in accordance with DHS analytical guidelines, to appropriately account for clustering within the survey design. Variables with a p-value less than 0.20 in bivariate analyses were included in the multivariable model. Multicollinearity was assessed using the variance inflation factor (VIF), which indicated low collinearity, with the highest VIF observed for the wealth index (2.2) and an average VIF of 1.1 across all variables. Results were presented as adjusted odds ratios (AORs) with corresponding 95% confidence intervals to reflect the strength and precision of associations. Results Among 6,481 respondents, 49.6% were men and 50.4% were women. The largest age group was 15–19 years, comprising 19.5%, while the majority completed secondary level education, accounting for 50.9%. A substantial number of people (41.0%) were unemployed. In terms of marital status, 58.4% were previously married, whereas 41.6% had never been married. Regarding religious affiliation, Catholicism was reported by 36.9% of participants, while 63.1% identified with other faiths. Additionally, a majority of participants (76.9%) reported exposure to mass media. In terms of lifestyle habits, 27.1% of participants reported current tobacco use. More than half of the respondents resided in rural areas (56.9%), with the highest concentration in the Maseru district (32.4%) (Table 1 ). Table 1 Background Characteristics of the Study Population in Lesotho ( n = 6481 ) Variable Weighted frequency Weighted percentage (%) Overall 6481 100 Sex of respondents Man 3215 49.6 Woman 3266 50.4 Age of respondents 15–19 1265 19.5 20–24 1102 17 25–29 826 12.8 30–34 792 12.2 35–39 808 12.5 40–44 747 11.5 45–49 579 8.9 50+ 361 5.6 Educational level of respondents No education 224 3.5 Primary 1992 30.7 Secondary 3299 50.9 Higher 966 14.9 Respondent's occupation Not working 2656 41 Working 3825 59 Wealth index poorest 1008 15.6 poorer 1127 17.4 middle 1337 20.6 richer 1538 23.7 richest 1469 22.7 Current marital status Never married 2698 41.6 Ever married 3783 58.4 Religion Catholic 2390 36.9 Others 4090 63.1 Mass media exposure No 1499 23.1 Yes 4982 76.9 Owns a mobile telephone no 1117 17.2 yes 5363 82.8 Tobacco habit No 4727 72.9 Yes 1754 27.1 Number of household members >=4 3408 52.6 < 4 3072 47.4 Place of residence Urban 2794 43.1 Rural 3686 56.9 Administrative district Butha-buthe 398 6.1 Leribe 1211 18.7 Berea 979 15.1 Maseru 2098 32.4 Mafeteng 423 6.5 Mohale's hoek 310 4.8 Quthing 241 3.7 Qacha's nek 183 2.8 Mokhotlong 258 4 Thaba-tseka 379 5.9 Figure 1 illustrates the prevalence and severity of depressive symptoms among the study population in Lesotho. The majority of participants (74.7%) reported no depressive symptoms, while 25.3% exhibited symptoms of varying severity. Specifically, 19.0% of respondents experienced mild symptoms, 4.7% had moderate symptoms, 1.3% reported moderately severe symptoms, and 0.3% had severe symptoms. Overall, 6.3% of participants were classified as having moderate to severe depressive symptoms, corresponding to the threshold for MDD. Women demonstrated a notably higher prevalence of MDD at 7.4%, in contrast to men (5.2%). The prevalence of depressive symptoms was 4.6% among the poorest, 5.1% among the poorer, 5.8% in the middle quintile, increasing to 8.0% among the richer, and 7.1% among the richest. Furthermore, exposure to mass media was significantly associated with depressive symptoms; individuals with mass media exposure had a prevalence of 6.7% (95% CI: 5.7–7.9), compared to 4.9% (95% CI: 3.9–6.3) among those with no exposure. A significant urban-rural disparity was observed, with urban residents having a higher prevalence (8.5%) than their rural counterparts (4.6%). In addition, the Mohale's hoek (17.2%) and Quthing (10.6%) districts reported significantly higher prevalence of MDD compared to other districts (Table 2 ). Table 2 Prevalence of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) by Socio-demographic and Other Characteristics Among the Study Population in Lesotho (n = 6481) Variable MDD, % [95% CI] p-value Overall 6.3 [5.5,7.2] Sex of respondents Man 5.2 [4.1,6.6] < 0.001 Woman 7.4 [6.3,8.7] Age of respondents 15–19 5.7 [4.1,7.8] 20–24 7.3 [5.5,9.5] 25–29 6.8 [4.6,9.7] 30–34 6 [4.2,8.4] 0.184 35–39 7 [5.0,9.6] 40–44 5.9 [4.0,8.7] 45–49 5 [3.1,8.0] 50+ 6.6 [4.3,10.0] Educational level of respondents No education 4.2 [1.8,9.6] Primary 6.3 [4.8,8.2] 0.171 Secondary 6.2 [5.2,7.4] Higher 7.1 [5.0,10.1] Respondent's occupation Not working 6 [5.0,7.1] 0.149 Working 6.5 [5.4,7.9] Wealth index poorest 4.6 [3.4,6.3] poorer 5.1 [3.8,6.8] middle 5.8 [4.4,7.6] 0.031 richer 8 [6.0,10.5] richest 7.1 [5.5,9.0] Current marital status Never married 6.3 [5.1,7.8] Ever married 6.3 [5.3,7.4] 0.911 Religion Catholic 6.1 [4.9,7.5] Others 6.4 [5.4,7.6] 0.648 Mass media exposure No 4.9 [3.9,6.3] Yes 6.7 [5.7,7.9] 0.026 Owns a mobile telephone no 6.1 [4.2,8.7] yes 6.3 [5.5,7.4] 0.28 Tobacco habit No 6.2 [5.3,7.3] Yes 6.5 [5.1,8.2] 0.175 Number of household members >=4 6 [4.9,7.2] 0.134 < 4 6.7 [5.6,7.9] Place of residence Urban 8.5 [7.0,10.3] Rural 4.6 [3.8,5.7] < 0.001 Administrative district Butha-buthe 4.7 [3.4,6.4] Leribe 5.7 [4.2,7.6] Berea 6.6 [4.2,10.2] Maseru 6.3 [4.6,8.5] Mafeteng 4.7 [3.3,6.5] < 0.001 Mohale's hoek 17.2 [12.7,22.8] Quthing 10.6 [7.9,14.1] Qacha's nek 6.1 [4.1,9.0] Mokhotlong 2 [1.2,3.5] Thaba-tseka 2.7 [1.7,4.3] Multilevel mixed-effect logistic regression results are presented in Table 3 . The model indicated that gender was a significant predictor of depressive symptoms, with women showing 1.75 times higher odds of experiencing these symptoms compared to men (AOR = 1.75, 95% CI = 1.35, 2.27). Tobacco use was also substantially linked to symptoms of MDD (AOR = 1.39, 95% CI = 1.05, 1.84). Living in a household with fewer than four individuals was linked to increased odds of experiencing MDD (AOR = 1.32, 95% CI = 1.05, 1.67). Additionally, living in a rural area demonstrated a protective effect against MDD (AOR = 0.55, 95% CI = 0.39, 0.77). Furthermore, residing in the Mohale's Hoek district showed a significant association with a higher likelihood of experiencing symptoms of MDD when compared to Maseru (AOR = 3.19, 95% CI = 1.82, 5.58). In contrast, living in Mokhotlong was linked to reduced odds of such symptoms (AOR = 0.36, 95% CI = 0.13, 0.97). Table 3 Determinants of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) Among the Study Population in Lesotho using Multilevel Mixed-Effect Logistic Regression Model (n = 6481) Variables Model 0 Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Empty model AOR (95% CI) p-value AOR (95% CI) p-value AOR (95% CI) p-value Sex of respondents Man Ref Ref Woman 1.78 (1.38, 2.31) < 0.001 1.75 (1.35, 2.27) < 0.001 Age of respondents 15–19 Ref Ref 20–24 1.26 (0.89, 1.81) 0.196 1.3 (0.91, 1.86) 0.148 25–29 1.09 (0.73, 1.63) 0.669 1.13 (0.76, 1.7) 0.54 30–34 0.99 (0.65, 1.51) 0.975 1.02 (0.67, 1.56) 0.92 35–39 1.21 (0.8, 1.81) 0.368 1.26 (0.83, 1.89) 0.277 40–44 0.94 (0.61, 1.44) 0.762 0.93 (0.6, 1.44) 0.757 45–49 0.77 (0.47, 1.26) 0.301 0.79 (0.48, 1.29) 0.343 50+ 1.26 (0.73, 2.17) 0.404 1.24 (0.72, 2.15) 0.443 Educational level of respondents No education Ref Ref Primary 1.19 (0.58, 2.44) 0.63 1.11 (0.54, 2.29) 0.777 Secondary 1.06 (0.51, 2.19) 0.884 0.9 (0.43, 1.9) 0.781 Higher 1.15 (0.53, 2.48) 0.718 0.96 (0.44, 2.12) 0.919 Respondent’s occupation Not working Ref Ref Working 1.13 (0.88, 1.44) 0.337 1.04 (0.81, 1.33) 0.759 Mass media exposure No Ref Ref Yes 1.42 (1.07, 1.9) 0.016 1.21 (0.89, 1.64) 0.227 Tobacco habit No Ref Ref Yes 1.36 (1.03, 1.79) 0.03 1.39 (1.05, 1.84) 0.019 Number of household members >=4 Ref Ref < 4 1.22 (0.97, 1.53) 0.092 1.32 (1.05, 1.67) 0.016 Wealth index poorest Ref Ref poorer 1.05 (0.6, 1.82) 0.869 1.08 (0.68, 1.71) 0.737 middle 0.88 (0.5, 1.53) 0.645 1.02 (0.63, 1.65) 0.93 richer 1.12 (0.62, 2.02) 0.698 1.31 (0.79, 2.18) 0.3 richest 0.93 (0.5, 1.71) 0.808 1.07 (0.62, 1.87) 0.798 Place of residence Urban Ref Ref Rural 0.59 (0.36, 0.95) 0.031 0.55 (0.39, 0.77) 0.001 Administrative district Maseru Ref Ref Butha-buthe 0.52 (0.21, 1.26) 0.147 0.76 (0.39, 1.47) 0.412 Leribe 0.68 (0.3, 1.56) 0.361 0.84 (0.51, 1.4) 0.505 Berea 0.96 (0.46, 1.99) 0.903 0.89 (0.55, 1.43) 0.62 Mafeteng 0.78 (0.37, 1.66) 0.521 0.77 (0.4, 1.48) 0.436 Mohale's hoek 3.89 (1.92, 7.9) < 0.001 3.19 (1.82, 5.58) < 0.001 Quthing 1.7 (0.76, 3.79) 0.194 1.87 (0.99, 3.54) 0.055 Qacha's nek 1.11 (0.5, 2.45) 0.797 0.98 (0.44, 2.17) 0.958 Mokhotlong 0.41 (0.15, 1.11) 0.08 0.36 (0.13, 0.97) 0.044 Thaba-tseka 0.7 (0.28, 1.76) 0.449 0.5 (0.22, 1.13) 0.095 Measures of variation for the random effect Community-level variance (SE) 1.94 (0.30) 1.83 (0.28) 1.46 (0.23) 1.51 (0.23) ICC (SE) 0.370 (0.04) 0.316 (0.03) 0.307 (0.03) 0.314 (0.03) Log-likelihood -8136 -8017 -8089 -7971 AIC 16276 16068 16210 16003 BIC 16290 16182 16318 16111 Table 4 presents the percentage of participants with depressive symptoms who reported seeking help or taking medication. Overall, 22.9% of individuals sought any form of help, while 10.8% reported using medication. Among the participants, a higher proportion of women (24.9%) reported seeking help compared to men (19.9%). Conversely, a slightly higher percentage of men (11.3%) reported taking medication than women (10.5%). Age-wise, the 40-44-year group had the highest rates for both help-seeking (33.6%) and medication use (20.2%), while the lowest rates were seen among adolescents aged 25–29 years for medication (4.0%) and 15–19 years for help-seeking (21.3%). The comparison of economic status indicated clear patterns such as help-seeking behaviors were more common in the middle (25.4%), richer (25.6%), and richest (25.6%) quintiles in comparison to the poorest (17.0%) and poorer (13.4) quintiles. Ever-married individuals showed higher rates of both help-seeking (24.3%) and medication use (13.0%) compared to those who had never been married (20.9% and 7.8%, respectively). Household size and place of residence also played a role. Individuals from households with fewer than four members were more likely to seek help (25.7%) than those from larger households (20.0%). Urban residents reported a slightly higher prevalence of help-seeking (23.7%) compared to rural residents (21.7%). Marked geographic variation was observed across administrative districts. The highest proportions of help-seeking were reported in Butha-buthe (49.5%) and Thaba-tseka (43.6%), with Thaba-tseka also recording the highest medication use (26.2%). In contrast, Mohale's Hoek (7.1%) and Mokhotlong (7.5%) had the lowest rates of help-seeking, and both Qacha’s Nek and Mokhotlong reported no medication use. Table 4 Help-Seeking Behaviour and Medication Use Among the Study Population in Lesotho with Depressive Symptoms (n = 1640). Variable Sought any help % [95% CI] Took medication % [95% CI] Overall 22.9 [22.9,22.9] 10.8 [10.8,10.8] Sex of respondents Man 19.9 [19.9,19.9] 11.3 [11.3,11.3] Woman 24.9 [24.9,24.9] 10.5 [10.5,10.5] Age of respondents 15–19 21.3 [21.3,21.3] 4.8 [4.8,4.8] 20–24 26 [26.0,26.0] 12.8 [12.8,12.8] 25–29 20.8 [20.8,20.8] 4 [4.0,4.0] 30–34 16.3 [16.3,16.3] 11.2 [11.2,11.2] 35–39 20.2 [20.2,20.2] 12.9 [12.9,12.9] 40–44 33.6 [33.6,33.6] 20.2 [20.2,20.2] 45–49 27.5 [27.5,27.5] 14.8 [14.8,14.8] 50+ 15.4 [15.4,15.4] 10.9 [10.9,10.9] Educational level of respondents No education 16.3 [16.3,16.3] 38.6 [38.6,38.6] Primary 22.4 [22.4,22.4] 13.8 [13.8,13.8] Secondary 21.7 [21.7,21.7] 6.7 [6.7,6.7] Higher 28 [28.0,28.0] 14 [14.0,14.0] Respondent’s occupation Not working 24.6 [24.6,24.6] 8.5 [8.5,8.5] Working 21.7 [21.7,21.7] 12.3 [12.3,12.3] Wealth index poorest 17 [17.0,17.0] 14.5 [14.5,14.5] poorer 13.4 [13.4,13.4] 8.5 [8.5,8.5] middle 25.4 [25.4,25.4] 11.3 [11.3,11.3] richer 25.6 [25.6,25.6] 8.2 [8.2,8.2] richest 25.6 [25.6,25.6] 13.3 [13.3,13.3] Current marital status Never married 20.9 [20.9,20.9] 7.8 [7.8,7.8] Ever married 24.3 [24.3,24.3] 13 [13.0,13.0] Religion Catholic 19.7 [19.7,19.7] 11.4 [11.4,11.4] Others 24.6 [24.6,24.6] 10.5 [10.5,10.5] Mass media exposure No 20.9 [20.9,20.9] 10.1 [10.1,10.1] Yes 23.3 [23.3,23.3] 11 [11.0,11.0] Owns a mobile telephone no 25.9 [25.9,25.9] 17 [17.0,17.0] yes 22.3 [22.3,22.3] 9.6 [9.6,9.6] Tobacco habit No 23.4 [23.4,23.4] 9.4 [9.4,9.4] Yes 21.4 [21.4,21.4] 14.5 [14.5,14.5] Number of household members >=4 20 [20.0,20.0] 10.3 [10.3,10.3] < 4 25.7 [25.7,25.7] 11.4 [11.4,11.4] Place of residence Urban 23.7 [23.7,23.7] 10.3 [10.3,10.3] Rural 21.7 [21.7,21.7] 11.6 [11.6,11.6] Administrative district Butha-buthe 49.5 [49.5,49.5] 9.5 [9.5,9.5] Leribe 29.3 [29.3,29.3] 14.2 [14.2,14.2] Berea 19.9 [19.9,19.9] 15 [15.0,15.0] Maseru 23.6 [23.6,23.6] 9.5 [9.5,9.5] Mafeteng 30.5 [30.5,30.5] 14.9 [14.9,14.9] Mohale's hoek 7.1 [7.1,7.1] 2.5 [2.5,2.5] Quthing 12.7 [12.7,12.7] 14.6 [14.6,14.6] Qacha's nek 19.5 [19.5,19.5] 0 Mokhotlong 7.5 [7.5,7.5] 0 Thaba-tseka 43.6 [43.6,43.6] 26.2 [26.2,26.2] Discussion In this study, we aimed to provide a comprehensive assessment of the mental health landscape in Lesotho, with a specific focus on MDD. Our findings contribute valuable insights into the prevalence, associated factors, and care-seeking behaviours related to depressive symptoms within this population. The observed prevalence of MDD in our sample was 6.3%, which closely aligns with previous estimates from rural Lesotho (6.0%) as reported in a previous study [ 36 ]. This figure is also comparable to nationally representative surveys from Nepal and Bangladesh, which reported MDD prevalence of 6.0% and 5.0%, respectively [ 37 , 38 ]. These consistent findings across diverse LMICs reinforce the reliability of our prevalence estimates and underscore the global relevance of MDD in similar socio-economic contexts. In addition to prevalence, our study identified several factors significantly associated with depressive symptoms. These included sex, place of residence, number of household members, tobacco use, and administrative district, highlighting the multifaceted and context-specific nature of depression in Lesotho. Notably, our analysis also explored care-seeking behavior among individuals with depressive symptoms, an often-overlooked dimension in mental health research. The identification of key disparities in help-seeking and medication use offers critical evidence to inform targeted interventions and mental health service planning in the country. The current study found that women were more likely to experience depressive symptoms than men. Specifically, biological factors, such as variations in sex hormones, are probably the cause of this discrepancy [ 39 ]. Gender differences in stress experiences and stress reactivity could be another reason for this finding [ 40 ]. However, a study conducted in rural Lesotho also found that women had a higher risk of depressive symptoms than men [ 41 ]. A recent meta-analysis on infertility revealed that women have a considerably a higher risk of getting depression [ 42 ]. This reinforces the general knowledge that major health and life obstacles may cause women to experience a disproportionate psychological burden. Additionally, this result aligned with similar studies conducted in different countries [ 43 – 46 ]. However, one study reported that men had a higher risk of depression than women [ 47 ]. Moreover, number of household members also played a crucial role in determining depressive symptoms among the Lesotho population. The likelihood of experiencing depressive symptoms was higher for respondents with less than four household members compared to four or more. This finding was consistent with some previous studies that found the number of household members to be a risk factor for depression [ 48 – 50 ]. However, a study conducted in South Africa found that depressive symptoms were higher among respondents with more household members [ 51 ]. This study also revealed an important association between tobacco use and a higher odds of MDD. This finding is consistent with that of other studies that identified tobacco use as a risk factor for depression [ 38 , 52 – 54 ]. According to a comprehensive study, there is strong evidence linking smoking to depression, with current smokers having a 1.3–2.3-fold higher prevalence of depression [ 55 ]. The primary explanation for the observed link may be attributed to various factors, including the neurobiological impact of nicotine on the brain, psychological behaviour of smoking as a coping mechanism, and social and contextual factors associated with smoking behaviour and mental health outcomes [ 55 ]. Additionally, smoking may be used by depressed individuals as a stress-reduction or self-medication strategy, which may worsen their symptoms over time [ 55 , 56 ]. The present study found that residing in Mohale's Hoek district was associated with significantly higher odds of experiencing depressive symptoms compared to the capital, Maseru, while living in Mokhotlong was linked to reduced odds. These findings underscore the considerable geographic variation in mental health outcomes within Lesotho. Several factors may explain the elevated risk of depression in Mohale's Hoek. Previous literature highlights that rural and remote districts in Lesotho often face greater socioeconomic challenges, including higher rates of poverty, food insecurity, and limited employment opportunities, all of which are well-established risk factors for depression [ 57 – 59 ]. Mohale's Hoek, being a predominantly rural and mountainous district, may have fewer economic opportunities and greater barriers to accessing health care, including mental health services, compared to urban centers like Maseru [ 60 ]. Additionally, stigma surrounding mental illness, lack of mental health professionals, and limited awareness further compound the problem in rural areas, potentially leading to higher prevalence and lower rates of diagnosis and treatment [ 57 , 60 ]. The finding that Mokhotlong residents had reduced odds of depressive symptoms is noteworthy and may be attributed to several contextual factors. While Mokhotlong is also a remote and mountainous district, recent interventions, such as community-based mental health programs and integration of mental health care into primary services, may have contributed to improved mental health outcomes [ 61 ]. Adapted mental health promotion and resilience-building interventions piloted in Mokhotlong have emphasized community education, early detection, and support, which could mitigate the risk of depression despite ongoing socioeconomic adversity [ 60 , 61 ]. Social cohesion and strong community networks, which have been shown to be protective against depression, may also play a role in this setting.[ 59 , 60 ] Help-seeking for depressive symptoms in Lesotho remains low, with fewer than one in four individuals with depression reporting that they sought any form of assistance and an even smaller proportion using medication. This limited engagement with mental health care is consistent with findings from other studies in Lesotho and sub-Saharan Africa, where both structural barriers, such as limited service availability, cost, and workforce shortages, and attitudinal barriers, including stigma and lack of mental health literacy, impede access to both informal and formal support [ 59 , 62 ]. Women were somewhat more likely than men to seek help, but overall rates of care engagement were modest for both sexes [ 59 , 63 ]. Socioeconomic status, education, and marital status were also important, with higher help-seeking and medication use among wealthier, more educated, and ever-married individuals, while adolescents, the poorest groups, and never-married participants were less likely to engage with care [ 63 ]. Geographic disparities were pronounced, with some districts reporting substantially higher rates of help-seeking and medication use than others, likely reflecting differences in service availability and community attitudes[ 63 ]. These findings highlight the urgent need for targeted public health strategies in Lesotho to reduce stigma, expand mental health literacy, and improve access to both informal and formal mental health services, particularly for underserved groups and regions. Strengths and limitations This study addresses the prevalence, associated factors and care-seeking behaviour for MDD among the population of Lesotho. These findings provide consistent and generalizable insights into the prevalence of MDD and factors in the region using data from a large, nationally representative sample of 6,481 people. Furthermore, the multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression explains individual and community-level differences, providing a more elegant understanding of depression. These methodological attributes make the results statistically robust and beneficial for mental health policy and intervention in Lesotho. Our study also included the respondents' care-seeking behavior, which can be highly useful in identifying gender disparities in mental health responses and developing specific interventions. Despite its strengths, this study has several limitations. A major drawback of our study is the cross-sectional design of the LDHS, which inhibits our ability to draw causal inferences. Furthermore, the utilization of self-reported data about depressive symptoms and care-seeking behaviors may result in reporting bias, including stigma or misinterpretation of survey items. However, the assessment of depressed symptoms was based on self-reported severity rather than clinical diagnosis, potentially influencing prevalence estimates for clinically diagnosed MDD. Additionally, the LDHS dataset's absence of contextual or psychosocial factors, such as trauma exposure, social support, and mental health services, may have omitted critical variables. Conclusion This study highlights a considerable mental health burden in Lesotho, with depressive symptoms affecting diverse segments of the population. Increased risk was evident among women, tobacco users, and those living in smaller households, while residing in Mohale’s Hoek district emerged as a particular vulnerability. The persistently low rates of help-seeking and medication use, coupled with notable disparities across districts, underscore the urgent need for comprehensive mental health strategies. To address these challenges, it is essential for policymakers in Lesotho to strengthen community-based mental health services and integrate mental health into primary care, ensuring that support is accessible in both urban and rural areas and tailored to the needs of high-risk groups. Raising public awareness through nationwide campaigns can help reduce stigma and encourage early help-seeking, while targeted interventions should be developed for vulnerable populations such as women and tobacco users. Improving the accessibility and affordability of services and medications, particularly in underprivileged and remote regions, is also critical. Additionally, fostering collaboration between government, non-governmental organizations, and community leaders, alongside establishing robust monitoring and evaluation systems, will be crucial for the effective delivery and continuous improvement of mental health care throughout Lesotho. Declarations Acknowledgements: We are grateful to the DHS team for allowing us to conduct the analysis of this study using the Lesotho Demographic and Health Survey 2023-24 dataset. Funding: The authors did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Availability of data and material: Data are available on request from the DHS program website. Ethics approval and consent to participate : We do not need ethical approval as we used the secondary data from DHS. However, details of ethical approval for DHS are available at: https://dhsprogram.com/Methodology/Protecting-the-Privacy-of-DHS-Survey-Respondents.cfm. The survey was approved by the Ethics Committee of the ICF International at Rockville, Maryland, USA, and by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare Ethics Committee. The study is conducted using the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. All LDHS participants provided written informed consent before participation, and all information was collected confidentially. Consent for publication: Not applicable. Competing interests: There are no potential conflicts (financial, professional, or personal) for any of the authors to disclose. Author Contribution: S.T.A.N. conceived the study, developed the methodology, conducted formal analysis, supervised the project, administered the project, and wrote the original draft. S.S. curated the data, contributed to the methodology, and wrote the original draft. S.Y. performed formal analysis, created visualizations, and contributed to the original draft. O.D. provided resources, curated data, and contributed to the original draft. 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Flaskerud, Depression in Men: Issues for Practice and Research, Issues Ment Health Nurs 35 (2014) 635–639. https://doi.org/10.3109/01612840.2014.903015. J.K. Sempungu, M. Choi, E.H. Lee, Y.H. Lee, Changes in Household Size in the Republic of Korea and Depression: A Temporal Analysis, Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health 35 (2023) 214–216. https://doi.org/10.1177/10105395231160340. U. Kollamparambil, A. Oyenubi, Household size and depressive symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic: A gendered analysis, Dev South Afr 42 (2025) 19–35. https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835X.2024.2408651. C.M. Wickens, H.A. Hamilton, T. Elton-Marshall, Y.T. Nigatu, D. Jankowicz, S. Wells, Household- and employment-related risk factors for depressive symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic, Canadian Journal of Public Health 112 (2021) 391–399. https://doi.org/10.17269/s41997-020-00472-6. R. Hamad, L.C.H. Fernald, D.S. Karlan, J. Zinman, Social and economic correlates of depressive symptoms and perceived stress in South African adults, J Epidemiol Community Health (1978) 62 (2008) 538–544. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.2007.066191. V. Argondizo Dos Santos, A.M. Migott, C.H.D. Bau, J.M. Chatkin, Tobacco smoking and depression: Results of a cross-sectional study, British Journal of Psychiatry 197 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.197.5.413. A. Sánchez-Villegas, M. Serrano-Martínez, Á. Alonso, J. De Irala, A. Tortosa, M.Á. Martínez-González, Role of the tobacco use on the depression incidence in the SUN cohort study, Med Clin (Barc) 130 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1157/13117850. T. Flensborg-Madsen Trine, M. Bay von Scholten, E.M. Flachs, E.L. Mortensen, E. Prescott, J.S. Tolstrup, Tobacco smoking as a risk factor for depression. A 26-year population-based follow-up study, J Psychiatr Res 45 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2010.06.006. V. Vong, S. Simpson-Yap, S. Phaiju, R.A. Davenport, S.L. Neate, M.I. Pisano, J.C. Reece, The association between tobacco smoking and depression and anxiety in people with multiple sclerosis: A systematic review, Mult Scler Relat Disord 70 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msard.2023.104501. L.S. Covey, Tobacco cessation among patients with depression, Primary Care - Clinics in Office Practice 26 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0095-4543(05)70124-X. F. Minjauw, M. Rasheduzzaman, P. Baumgartner, P. Dorward, G. Clarkson, A. Cohen, Perceptions of poverty: Evaluating Multidimensional Poverty Assessment Tool derived rankings and global development indicators in five African nations, J Int Dev 36 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.3883. S. Stahlman, A. Grosso, S. Ketende, S. Sweitzer, T. Mothopeng, N. Taruberekera, J. Nkonyana, S. Baral, Depression and Social Stigma Among MSM in Lesotho: Implications for HIV and Sexually Transmitted Infection Prevention, AIDS Behav 19 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-015-1094-y. M. Hollifield, W. Katon, D. Spain, L. Pule, Anxiety and depression in a village in Lesotho, Africa: a comparison with the United States, British Journal of Psychiatry 156 (1990). https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.156.3.343. Kimber Peters, Addressing Mental Health in Lesotho - The Borgen Project, (2024). https://borgenproject.org/mental-health-in-lesotho/ (accessed June 18, 2025). Newsday, Scheunemann on strengthening Lesotho’s mental health services and awareness - Newsdayonline, (2024). https://newsdayonline.co.ls/mental-health-awareness-in-lesotho-2024/ (accessed June 18, 2025). M. Marlow, S. Skeen, X. Hunt, P. Sundin, R.E. Weiss, S. Mofokeng, M. Makhetha, L. Cluver, L. Sherr, M. Tomlinson, Depression, anxiety, and psychological distress among caregivers of young children in rural Lesotho: Associations with food insecurity, household death and parenting stress, SSM - Mental Health 2 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmmh.2022.100167. J. Okyere, C. Ayebeng, K.S. Dickson, Sex differences in help-seeking behavior for depression in Lesotho: findings from a national survey, BMC Psychiatry 25 (2025) 290. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-06749-9. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6945317","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":478811361,"identity":"28f48ad7-91b2-41c5-9c48-e4c0df739e72","order_by":0,"name":"Syed Toukir Ahmed Noor","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA9klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYJACCSA2YGNgPvjgA5DFxk6MlgNgLWzJhjNAWpiJ1cLAwGMmzAPiEtIiPyP54O0PFYeN+aSPpTHb/Nomz8fMwPjhYw5uLQY30pItDpw5bMbGl3zscW7fbcM2ZgZmyZnb8GiRyDGTONh22IaNhy3dOLfnNiNQCxszLx4t8jPyv0G18JhJW/bctieoheFGDhtIixlYC8OP24kEtRiceWZsceZMujHQYcmGvQ23k9uYGZvx+kW+PfnhjYoKa8P5PcCo/PHntu389uaDHz7ic5hAAhKHsQ1MNuBRDwT8B5B5f/ArHgWjYBSMgpEJAHs2Tycds67jAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Shahjalal University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Syed","middleName":"Toukir Ahmed","lastName":"Noor","suffix":""},{"id":478811363,"identity":"d1e09481-5a8e-4654-866d-9334015b6020","order_by":1,"name":"Sazid Siddique","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shahjalal University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sazid","middleName":"","lastName":"Siddique","suffix":""},{"id":478811364,"identity":"28d18dfe-86dd-453d-b909-3d632e9181ca","order_by":2,"name":"Samin Yeasar","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shahjalal University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Samin","middleName":"","lastName":"Yeasar","suffix":""},{"id":478811365,"identity":"b9ef3323-f30f-48c0-b140-44d84990c064","order_by":3,"name":"Oishi Das","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shahjalal University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Oishi","middleName":"","lastName":"Das","suffix":""},{"id":478811366,"identity":"d8e947da-3ad3-4848-a64e-be4240c691d1","order_by":4,"name":"Shahib-Ul-Ahadat Tanvir","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shahjalal University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shahib-Ul-Ahadat","middleName":"","lastName":"Tanvir","suffix":""},{"id":478811368,"identity":"066981f6-ab0d-4741-a082-3731a3a80273","order_by":5,"name":"Raisha Binte Islam","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Dhaka","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Raisha","middleName":"Binte","lastName":"Islam","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-06-21 13:53:15","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6945317/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6945317/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-026-03057-9","type":"published","date":"2026-02-24T15:59:25+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":86249015,"identity":"7152f881-bbb3-4180-b33a-c2cd957a79e8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-08 12:22:03","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":23498,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDistribution of Depressive Symptom Severity Among the Study Population in Lesotho (n= 6481).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6945317/v1/619839d9dc1d101d19ee16a6.jpg"},{"id":103766523,"identity":"066ecdea-6503-4493-8d69-4550b682c1f3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-02 16:14:57","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2097965,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6945317/v1/7c87f9b5-95c4-4911-bf63-1b0d4d31c217.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Prevalence, Determinants, and Care-Seeking Behaviour for Major Depressive Disorder in the Lesotho Population: A Multilevel Analysis from the Lesotho Demographic and Health Survey 2023-24","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eMental health is an essential component of overall well-being, enabling individuals to effectively manage stress, utilize their abilities, work and learn effectively, build relationships, and make a positive impact on society [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Depression is one of the most common and devastating mental health illnesses worldwide [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Depression is a widely recognized mental disorder characterized by a persistent low mood, diminished interest in activities, and a substantial reduction in daily functioning across emotional, social, and physical domains [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Mental health is an important aspect of public health, emphasizing its essential role in the pursuit of global well-being and development objectives [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGlobally, one in eight people, or approximately 970\u0026nbsp;million, suffers from a mental illness [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e], with approximately 82% of instances arising in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Major depressive disorders (MDD) affect an estimated 280\u0026nbsp;million individuals worldwide, representing 3.8% of the global population. The prevalence of depression is 5% in adults and 5.7% in individuals over 60 years of age [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Globally, women are disproportionately affected compared to men, with 6% of women and 4% of men being affected [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, depression affects more than 10% of women during and after pregnancy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Globally, the incidence of depression increased by 59%, from 172.7\u0026nbsp;million in 1990 to 274.8\u0026nbsp;million in 2019 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, depression ranked as the second leading cause of years lived with disability in 2019, accounting for approximately 5.6% of the total global years lived with disability [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. It represented 46.8\u0026nbsp;million disability-adjusted life years, an increase of nearly 61% from 1990 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Although there are effective mental disorder treatments, over 75% of LMICs do not receive them [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudies in the USA and Germany have demonstrated an increase in depression prevalence, especially among women, adolescents, with widening treatment disparity and socioeconomically disadvantaged populations [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR13 CR14 CR15\" citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, LMICs experience more severe forms of depression due to restricted access to care, increased comorbidity, and the significant impact of factors such as poverty, violence, abuse, unemployment, low income, inadequate education, and inefficient healthcare systems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, previous studies have shown that depression is prevalent in South Africa and Kenya; however, several people refrain from seeking support due to financial constraints, stigma, and inadequate knowledge [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. Another study conducted in Ethiopia found that over one-fifth of individuals were at risk of experiencing depression due to socio-demographic factors such as sex, age, and violence [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to a previous study conducted in Lesotho, the prevalence of severe depression among outpatients is estimated to be 23% [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. In rural areas, the prevalence of MDD was 28.8%, with a higher rate of 32.7% among women than among men with 20.2% [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, Lesotho had the highest age-standardized incidence rate of depression among the 195 countries analyzed in 2017, with a rate of 6.59 per 1,000 individuals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, 29.8% of patients co-infected with HIV and tuberculosis (TB) exhibited MDD, suggesting a significant mental health burden [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. In contrast, data from the general population indicated that 87.6% of women and 89.6% of men were classified as having a minimal risk of depression, while 2% of women and 1.8% of men were identified as being at moderate to severe risk [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. The Global Burden of Disease (GBD) study estimated that by 2050, MDD will become the 13th leading cause of disease burden in Lesotho [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough some studies have examined depression in Lesotho, they are mostly limited to specific geographic areas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR30\" citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e] and specific groups, such as healthcare professionals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e] and patients with specific disease conditions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. To our best knowledge, no study has been conducted on a nationally representative sample of the population to estimate the prevalence and factors associated with MDD in Lesotho. However, the Lesotho Demographic and Health Survey (LDHS) has made progress by including mental health data in its most recent round and adding a dedicated section to the published report [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, in this study, our objective was to estimate the prevalence and factors associated with MDD, as well as care-seeking behavior among participants with depressive symptoms in Lesotho using the LDHS 2023-24 data. This study provides a substantial contribution to the understanding of mental health issues in the Lesotho population by offering critical insights into the prevalence of MDD and associated factors.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData source and sampling Technique\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study utilized data from the nationally representative, cross-sectional LDHS 2023-24. The LDHS dataset is publicly available and can be accessed upon request (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.dhsprogram.com/methodology/survey/survey-display-572.cfm\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.dhsprogram.com/methodology/survey/survey-display-572.cfm\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e ) from The DHS Program.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe sampling framework for the 2023\u0026ndash;2024 LDHS was constructed using the 2016 Lesotho Population and Housing Census, which provided a comprehensive listing of all enumeration areas (EAs) across the country. Each EA represents a defined geographic unit, typically a city block in urban settings or a village (or group of villages) in rural regions, and contains approximately 100 households. These EAs were mapped and identified based on census data, including household counts and boundary delineations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLesotho is divided into 10 administrative districts, which are further subdivided into constituencies and community councils. For the LDHS, a stratified, two-stage sampling design was employed. Each district was categorized into urban, peri-urban, and rural strata, resulting in 29 distinct strata, as Butha-Buthe district does not have peri-urban areas. In the first stage, 400 EAs were selected independently across these strata using probability proportional to size, ensuring that the number of households in each EA determined its likelihood of selection. A household listing was then conducted in each selected EA, providing the basis for the second stage of sampling. In the second stage, 25 households were systematically chosen from each EA with equal probability. All women aged 15\u0026ndash;49 who were either usual residents or who had spent the night prior to the survey in the selected households were eligible to participate in the Woman\u0026rsquo;s Questionnaire. In a randomly selected half of the households, all men aged 15\u0026ndash;59 meeting the same residency criteria were eligible for the Man\u0026rsquo;s Questionnaire.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA total of 9,976 households were selected for the sample, of which 9,853 were occupied. Of the occupied households, 9,810 were successfully interviewed, yielding a household response rate of over 99%. Within these households, 6,536 women aged 15\u0026ndash;49 were identified as eligible for individual interviews, and interviews were completed with 98% of these women. Among the subsample of households selected for the male survey, 3,304 eligible men aged 15\u0026ndash;59 were identified, with a 97% interview completion rate. Further details regarding the sampling procedures and response rates are available in the final LDHS 2023\u0026ndash;2024 report [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePopulation and Sample Size\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFrom the households successfully interviewed through the LDHS 2023\u0026ndash;2024 sampling process described above, a total of 6,481 (weighted) respondents of reproductive age who completed the mental health module were included in this analysis. This final sample comprised both men (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3,215) and women (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3,266), ensuring balanced representation within the reproductive age group.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStudy variables and measurements\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eOutcome variables\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eRespondents were assessed for MDD by the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). It is a nine-item self-report tool that evaluates the presence of depression symptoms during the previous two weeks (26), with a total score that ranges from 0 to 27; the symptoms are classified as not depressive (0\u0026ndash;4), mild (5\u0026ndash;9), moderate (10\u0026ndash;14), moderately severe (15\u0026ndash;19), and severe (20\u0026ndash;27). For this study, MDD was classified as present if a participant's score was 10 or above (coded as 1), and absent if their score was less than 10 (coded as 0) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. Our study's PHQ-9 scale showed strong internal consistency, with a Cronbach's Alpha of 0.88.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eExploratory variables\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study examined a comprehensive set of explanatory variables encompassing demographic, socioeconomic, household, and regional factors. Key demographic variables included the respondent\u0026rsquo;s sex (male or female) and age, categorized into the following groups: 15\u0026ndash;19, 20\u0026ndash;24, 25\u0026ndash;29, 30\u0026ndash;34, 35\u0026ndash;39, 40\u0026ndash;44, 45\u0026ndash;49, and 50 years or older. Educational attainment was classified as no education, primary, secondary, or higher education. Occupational status was grouped as either not working or working. Socioeconomic status was assessed using the wealth index, divided into the poorest, poorer, middle, richer, and richest quintiles.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMarital status was categorized as never married or ever married, while religious affiliation was categorized as Catholic or other religions. Additional behavioral and access-related variables included mass media exposure (yes/no), mobile phone ownership (yes or no), and tobacco use (yes/no). Household composition was measured by the number of household members, categorized as four or more, or fewer than four. Place of residence was classified as urban or rural. Finally, regional variation was captured by including the administrative district of residence: Butha-Buthe, Leribe, Berea, Maseru, Mafeteng, Mohale's Hoek, Quthing, Qacha's Nek, Mokhotlong, and Thaba-Tseka.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition to the main explanatory variables, this study also assessed two mental health care indicators among respondents with depressive symptoms: help-seeking behavior (yes, no) and medication use (yes/no). Help-seeking was determined by asking whether individuals had ever tried to seek help for their symptoms, while medication use was measured by whether respondents had taken any prescribed medicine for depression in the past two weeks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e For this study, data cleaning, recording, and analysis were conducted using Stata version 17.0 (StataCorp LP, College Station, Texas) following the DHS guidelines. Sample weights were used, and modifications were made to the intricate survey design, considering the primary sampling units (PSUs) and strata to guarantee the survey's representativeness. The intricate survey design was managed with the help of the Stata \"Svyset\" tool. Moreover, the analysis followed STROBE standards for a cross-sectional study [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics were utilized to outline the distribution of study variables, with frequencies and percentages reported for all categorical data. Associations between categorical variables and MDD were initially examined using chi-squared tests. Given the hierarchical nature of the DHS data, a multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression model was employed, rather than a standard binary logistic regression, in accordance with DHS analytical guidelines, to appropriately account for clustering within the survey design. Variables with a p-value less than 0.20 in bivariate analyses were included in the multivariable model. Multicollinearity was assessed using the variance inflation factor (VIF), which indicated low collinearity, with the highest VIF observed for the wealth index (2.2) and an average VIF of 1.1 across all variables. Results were presented as adjusted odds ratios (AORs) with corresponding 95% confidence intervals to reflect the strength and precision of associations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eAmong 6,481 respondents, 49.6% were men and 50.4% were women. The largest age group was 15\u0026ndash;19 years, comprising 19.5%, while the majority completed secondary level education, accounting for 50.9%. A substantial number of people (41.0%) were unemployed. In terms of marital status, 58.4% were previously married, whereas 41.6% had never been married. Regarding religious affiliation, Catholicism was reported by 36.9% of participants, while 63.1% identified with other faiths. Additionally, a majority of participants (76.9%) reported exposure to mass media. In terms of lifestyle habits, 27.1% of participants reported current tobacco use. More than half of the respondents resided in rural areas (56.9%), with the highest concentration in the Maseru district (32.4%) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBackground Characteristics of the Study Population in Lesotho (\u003cb\u003en\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6481\u003c/b\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeighted frequency\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeighted percentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOverall\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6481\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSex of respondents\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMan\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3215\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e49.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWoman\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3266\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAge of respondents\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u0026ndash;19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1265\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u0026ndash;24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1102\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u0026ndash;29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e826\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e792\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35\u0026ndash;39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e808\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40\u0026ndash;44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e747\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45\u0026ndash;49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e579\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e361\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEducational level of respondents\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo education\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e224\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1992\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3299\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigher\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e966\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRespondent's occupation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot working\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2656\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWorking\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3825\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWealth index\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003epoorest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1008\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003epoorer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1127\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003emiddle\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1337\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ericher\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1538\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003erichest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1469\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCurrent marital status\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNever married\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2698\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEver married\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3783\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e58.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eReligion\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCatholic\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2390\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOthers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4090\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMass media exposure\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1499\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4982\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOwns a mobile telephone\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eno\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1117\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eyes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5363\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e82.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTobacco habit\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4727\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1754\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNumber of household members\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;=4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3408\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3072\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePlace of residence\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUrban\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2794\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3686\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e56.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAdministrative district\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eButha-buthe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e398\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeribe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1211\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBerea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e979\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaseru\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2098\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMafeteng\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e423\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMohale's hoek\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e310\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQuthing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e241\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQacha's nek\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e183\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMokhotlong\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e258\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThaba-tseka\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e379\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e illustrates the prevalence and severity of depressive symptoms among the study population in Lesotho. The majority of participants (74.7%) reported no depressive symptoms, while 25.3% exhibited symptoms of varying severity. Specifically, 19.0% of respondents experienced mild symptoms, 4.7% had moderate symptoms, 1.3% reported moderately severe symptoms, and 0.3% had severe symptoms. Overall, 6.3% of participants were classified as having moderate to severe depressive symptoms, corresponding to the threshold for MDD.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWomen demonstrated a notably higher prevalence of MDD at 7.4%, in contrast to men (5.2%). The prevalence of depressive symptoms was 4.6% among the poorest, 5.1% among the poorer, 5.8% in the middle quintile, increasing to 8.0% among the richer, and 7.1% among the richest. Furthermore, exposure to mass media was significantly associated with depressive symptoms; individuals with mass media exposure had a prevalence of 6.7% (95% CI: 5.7\u0026ndash;7.9), compared to 4.9% (95% CI: 3.9\u0026ndash;6.3) among those with no exposure. A significant urban-rural disparity was observed, with urban residents having a higher prevalence (8.5%) than their rural counterparts (4.6%). In addition, the Mohale's hoek (17.2%) and Quthing (10.6%) districts reported significantly higher prevalence of MDD compared to other districts (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrevalence of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) by Socio-demographic and Other Characteristics Among the Study Population in Lesotho (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6481)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMDD, % [95% CI]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOverall\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.3 [5.5,7.2]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSex of respondents\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMan\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.2 [4.1,6.6]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWoman\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.4 [6.3,8.7]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAge of respondents\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u0026ndash;19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.7 [4.1,7.8]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u0026ndash;24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.3 [5.5,9.5]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u0026ndash;29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.8 [4.6,9.7]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6 [4.2,8.4]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.184\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35\u0026ndash;39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7 [5.0,9.6]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40\u0026ndash;44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.9 [4.0,8.7]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45\u0026ndash;49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5 [3.1,8.0]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.6 [4.3,10.0]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEducational level of respondents\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo education\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.2 [1.8,9.6]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.3 [4.8,8.2]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.171\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.2 [5.2,7.4]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigher\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.1 [5.0,10.1]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRespondent's occupation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot working\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6 [5.0,7.1]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.149\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWorking\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.5 [5.4,7.9]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWealth index\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003epoorest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.6 [3.4,6.3]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003epoorer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.1 [3.8,6.8]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003emiddle\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.8 [4.4,7.6]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.031\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ericher\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8 [6.0,10.5]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003erichest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.1 [5.5,9.0]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCurrent marital status\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNever married\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.3 [5.1,7.8]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEver married\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.3 [5.3,7.4]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.911\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eReligion\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCatholic\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.1 [4.9,7.5]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOthers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.4 [5.4,7.6]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.648\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMass media exposure\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.9 [3.9,6.3]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.7 [5.7,7.9]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.026\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOwns a mobile telephone\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eno\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.1 [4.2,8.7]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eyes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.3 [5.5,7.4]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTobacco habit\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.2 [5.3,7.3]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.5 [5.1,8.2]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.175\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNumber of household members\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;=4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6 [4.9,7.2]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.134\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.7 [5.6,7.9]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePlace of residence\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUrban\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.5 [7.0,10.3]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.6 [3.8,5.7]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAdministrative district\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eButha-buthe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.7 [3.4,6.4]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeribe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.7 [4.2,7.6]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBerea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.6 [4.2,10.2]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaseru\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.3 [4.6,8.5]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMafeteng\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.7 [3.3,6.5]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMohale's hoek\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.2 [12.7,22.8]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQuthing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.6 [7.9,14.1]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQacha's nek\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.1 [4.1,9.0]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMokhotlong\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2 [1.2,3.5]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThaba-tseka\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.7 [1.7,4.3]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMultilevel mixed-effect logistic regression results are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. The model indicated that gender was a significant predictor of depressive symptoms, with women showing 1.75 times higher odds of experiencing these symptoms compared to men (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.75, 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.35, 2.27). Tobacco use was also substantially linked to symptoms of MDD (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.39, 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.05, 1.84). Living in a household with fewer than four individuals was linked to increased odds of experiencing MDD (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.32, 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.05, 1.67). Additionally, living in a rural area demonstrated a protective effect against MDD (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.55, 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.39, 0.77). Furthermore, residing in the Mohale's Hoek district showed a significant association with a higher likelihood of experiencing symptoms of MDD when compared to Maseru (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.19, 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.82, 5.58). In contrast, living in Mokhotlong was linked to reduced odds of such symptoms (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.36, 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.13, 0.97).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDeterminants of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) Among the Study Population in Lesotho using Multilevel Mixed-Effect Logistic Regression Model (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6481)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModel 0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModel 1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModel 2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModel 3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEmpty model\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAOR (95% CI)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAOR (95% CI)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAOR (95% CI)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSex of respondents\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMan\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRef\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRef\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWoman\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.78 (1.38, 2.31)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.75 (1.35, 2.27)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAge of respondents\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u0026ndash;19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRef\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRef\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u0026ndash;24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.26 (0.89, 1.81)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.196\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.3 (0.91, 1.86)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.148\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u0026ndash;29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.09 (0.73, 1.63)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.669\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.13 (0.76, 1.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.99 (0.65, 1.51)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.975\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.02 (0.67, 1.56)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35\u0026ndash;39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.21 (0.8, 1.81)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.368\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.26 (0.83, 1.89)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.277\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40\u0026ndash;44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.94 (0.61, 1.44)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.762\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.93 (0.6, 1.44)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.757\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45\u0026ndash;49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.77 (0.47, 1.26)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.301\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.79 (0.48, 1.29)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.343\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.26 (0.73, 2.17)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.404\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.24 (0.72, 2.15)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.443\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEducational level of respondents\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo education\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRef\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRef\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.19 (0.58, 2.44)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.11 (0.54, 2.29)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.777\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.06 (0.51, 2.19)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.884\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.9 (0.43, 1.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.781\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigher\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.15 (0.53, 2.48)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.718\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.96 (0.44, 2.12)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.919\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRespondent\u0026rsquo;s occupation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot working\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRef\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRef\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWorking\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.13 (0.88, 1.44)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.337\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.04 (0.81, 1.33)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.759\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMass media exposure\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRef\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRef\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.42 (1.07, 1.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.016\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.21 (0.89, 1.64)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.227\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTobacco habit\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRef\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRef\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.36 (1.03, 1.79)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.39 (1.05, 1.84)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.019\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNumber of household members\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;=4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRef\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRef\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.22 (0.97, 1.53)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.092\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.32 (1.05, 1.67)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.016\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWealth index\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003epoorest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRef\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRef\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003epoorer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.05 (0.6, 1.82)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.869\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.08 (0.68, 1.71)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.737\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003emiddle\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.88 (0.5, 1.53)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.645\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.02 (0.63, 1.65)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ericher\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.12 (0.62, 2.02)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.698\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.31 (0.79, 2.18)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003erichest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.93 (0.5, 1.71)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.808\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.07 (0.62, 1.87)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.798\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePlace of residence\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUrban\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRef\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRef\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.59 (0.36, 0.95)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.031\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.55 (0.39, 0.77)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAdministrative district\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaseru\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRef\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRef\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eButha-buthe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.52 (0.21, 1.26)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.147\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.76 (0.39, 1.47)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.412\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeribe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.68 (0.3, 1.56)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.361\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.84 (0.51, 1.4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.505\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBerea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.96 (0.46, 1.99)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.903\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.89 (0.55, 1.43)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMafeteng\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.78 (0.37, 1.66)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.521\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.77 (0.4, 1.48)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.436\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMohale's hoek\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.89 (1.92, 7.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.19 (1.82, 5.58)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQuthing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7 (0.76, 3.79)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.194\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.87 (0.99, 3.54)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.055\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQacha's nek\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.11 (0.5, 2.45)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.797\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.98 (0.44, 2.17)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.958\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMokhotlong\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.41 (0.15, 1.11)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.36 (0.13, 0.97)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.044\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThaba-tseka\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.7 (0.28, 1.76)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.449\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5 (0.22, 1.13)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.095\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMeasures of variation for the random effect Community-level variance (SE)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.94 (0.30)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.83 (0.28)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.46 (0.23)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.51 (0.23)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eICC (SE)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.370 (0.04)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.316 (0.03)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.307 (0.03)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.314 (0.03)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLog-likelihood\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-8136\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-8017\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-8089\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-7971\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAIC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16276\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16068\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16210\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16003\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBIC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16290\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16182\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16318\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16111\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e presents the percentage of participants with depressive symptoms who reported seeking help or taking medication. Overall, 22.9% of individuals sought any form of help, while 10.8% reported using medication. Among the participants, a higher proportion of women (24.9%) reported seeking help compared to men (19.9%). Conversely, a slightly higher percentage of men (11.3%) reported taking medication than women (10.5%). Age-wise, the 40-44-year group had the highest rates for both help-seeking (33.6%) and medication use (20.2%), while the lowest rates were seen among adolescents aged 25\u0026ndash;29 years for medication (4.0%) and 15\u0026ndash;19 years for help-seeking (21.3%). The comparison of economic status indicated clear patterns such as help-seeking behaviors were more common in the middle (25.4%), richer (25.6%), and richest (25.6%) quintiles in comparison to the poorest (17.0%) and poorer (13.4) quintiles. Ever-married individuals showed higher rates of both help-seeking (24.3%) and medication use (13.0%) compared to those who had never been married (20.9% and 7.8%, respectively). Household size and place of residence also played a role. Individuals from households with fewer than four members were more likely to seek help (25.7%) than those from larger households (20.0%). Urban residents reported a slightly higher prevalence of help-seeking (23.7%) compared to rural residents (21.7%). Marked geographic variation was observed across administrative districts. The highest proportions of help-seeking were reported in Butha-buthe (49.5%) and Thaba-tseka (43.6%), with Thaba-tseka also recording the highest medication use (26.2%). In contrast, Mohale's Hoek (7.1%) and Mokhotlong (7.5%) had the lowest rates of help-seeking, and both Qacha\u0026rsquo;s Nek and Mokhotlong reported no medication use.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHelp-Seeking Behaviour and Medication Use Among the Study Population in Lesotho with Depressive Symptoms (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1640).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSought any help\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e% [95% CI]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTook medication\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e% [95% CI]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOverall\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.9 [22.9,22.9]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.8 [10.8,10.8]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSex of respondents\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMan\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.9 [19.9,19.9]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.3 [11.3,11.3]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWoman\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.9 [24.9,24.9]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.5 [10.5,10.5]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAge of respondents\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u0026ndash;19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.3 [21.3,21.3]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.8 [4.8,4.8]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u0026ndash;24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26 [26.0,26.0]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.8 [12.8,12.8]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u0026ndash;29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.8 [20.8,20.8]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4 [4.0,4.0]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.3 [16.3,16.3]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.2 [11.2,11.2]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35\u0026ndash;39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.2 [20.2,20.2]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.9 [12.9,12.9]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40\u0026ndash;44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.6 [33.6,33.6]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.2 [20.2,20.2]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45\u0026ndash;49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.5 [27.5,27.5]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.8 [14.8,14.8]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.4 [15.4,15.4]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.9 [10.9,10.9]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEducational level of respondents\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo education\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.3 [16.3,16.3]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38.6 [38.6,38.6]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.4 [22.4,22.4]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.8 [13.8,13.8]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.7 [21.7,21.7]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.7 [6.7,6.7]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigher\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28 [28.0,28.0]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14 [14.0,14.0]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRespondent\u0026rsquo;s occupation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot working\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.6 [24.6,24.6]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.5 [8.5,8.5]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWorking\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.7 [21.7,21.7]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.3 [12.3,12.3]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWealth index\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003epoorest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17 [17.0,17.0]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.5 [14.5,14.5]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003epoorer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.4 [13.4,13.4]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.5 [8.5,8.5]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003emiddle\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.4 [25.4,25.4]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.3 [11.3,11.3]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ericher\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.6 [25.6,25.6]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.2 [8.2,8.2]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003erichest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.6 [25.6,25.6]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.3 [13.3,13.3]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCurrent marital status\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNever married\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.9 [20.9,20.9]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.8 [7.8,7.8]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEver married\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.3 [24.3,24.3]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13 [13.0,13.0]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eReligion\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCatholic\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.7 [19.7,19.7]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.4 [11.4,11.4]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOthers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.6 [24.6,24.6]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.5 [10.5,10.5]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMass media exposure\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.9 [20.9,20.9]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.1 [10.1,10.1]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.3 [23.3,23.3]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11 [11.0,11.0]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOwns a mobile telephone\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eno\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.9 [25.9,25.9]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17 [17.0,17.0]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eyes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.3 [22.3,22.3]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.6 [9.6,9.6]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTobacco habit\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.4 [23.4,23.4]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.4 [9.4,9.4]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.4 [21.4,21.4]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.5 [14.5,14.5]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNumber of household members\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;=4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20 [20.0,20.0]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.3 [10.3,10.3]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.7 [25.7,25.7]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.4 [11.4,11.4]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePlace of residence\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUrban\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.7 [23.7,23.7]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.3 [10.3,10.3]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.7 [21.7,21.7]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.6 [11.6,11.6]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAdministrative district\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eButha-buthe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e49.5 [49.5,49.5]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.5 [9.5,9.5]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeribe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29.3 [29.3,29.3]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.2 [14.2,14.2]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBerea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.9 [19.9,19.9]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15 [15.0,15.0]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaseru\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.6 [23.6,23.6]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.5 [9.5,9.5]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMafeteng\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.5 [30.5,30.5]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.9 [14.9,14.9]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMohale's hoek\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.1 [7.1,7.1]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.5 [2.5,2.5]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQuthing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.7 [12.7,12.7]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.6 [14.6,14.6]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQacha's nek\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.5 [19.5,19.5]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMokhotlong\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.5 [7.5,7.5]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThaba-tseka\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43.6 [43.6,43.6]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.2 [26.2,26.2]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, we aimed to provide a comprehensive assessment of the mental health landscape in Lesotho, with a specific focus on MDD. Our findings contribute valuable insights into the prevalence, associated factors, and care-seeking behaviours related to depressive symptoms within this population. The observed prevalence of MDD in our sample was 6.3%, which closely aligns with previous estimates from rural Lesotho (6.0%) as reported in a previous study [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. This figure is also comparable to nationally representative surveys from Nepal and Bangladesh, which reported MDD prevalence of 6.0% and 5.0%, respectively [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. These consistent findings across diverse LMICs reinforce the reliability of our prevalence estimates and underscore the global relevance of MDD in similar socio-economic contexts. In addition to prevalence, our study identified several factors significantly associated with depressive symptoms. These included sex, place of residence, number of household members, tobacco use, and administrative district, highlighting the multifaceted and context-specific nature of depression in Lesotho. Notably, our analysis also explored care-seeking behavior among individuals with depressive symptoms, an often-overlooked dimension in mental health research. The identification of key disparities in help-seeking and medication use offers critical evidence to inform targeted interventions and mental health service planning in the country.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe current study found that women were more likely to experience depressive symptoms than men. Specifically, biological factors, such as variations in sex hormones, are probably the cause of this discrepancy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. Gender differences in stress experiences and stress reactivity could be another reason for this finding [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. However, a study conducted in rural Lesotho also found that women had a higher risk of depressive symptoms than men [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. A recent meta-analysis on infertility revealed that women have a considerably a higher risk of getting depression [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. This reinforces the general knowledge that major health and life obstacles may cause women to experience a disproportionate psychological burden. Additionally, this result aligned with similar studies conducted in different countries [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR44 CR45\" citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e]. However, one study reported that men had a higher risk of depression than women [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoreover, number of household members also played a crucial role in determining depressive symptoms among the Lesotho population. The likelihood of experiencing depressive symptoms was higher for respondents with less than four household members compared to four or more. This finding was consistent with some previous studies that found the number of household members to be a risk factor for depression [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR49\" citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]. However, a study conducted in South Africa found that depressive symptoms were higher among respondents with more household members [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study also revealed an important association between tobacco use and a higher odds of MDD. This finding is consistent with that of other studies that identified tobacco use as a risk factor for depression [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR53\" citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e]. According to a comprehensive study, there is strong evidence linking smoking to depression, with current smokers having a 1.3\u0026ndash;2.3-fold higher prevalence of depression [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e]. The primary explanation for the observed link may be attributed to various factors, including the neurobiological impact of nicotine on the brain, psychological behaviour of smoking as a coping mechanism, and social and contextual factors associated with smoking behaviour and mental health outcomes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, smoking may be used by depressed individuals as a stress-reduction or self-medication strategy, which may worsen their symptoms over time [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe present study found that residing in Mohale's Hoek district was associated with significantly higher odds of experiencing depressive symptoms compared to the capital, Maseru, while living in Mokhotlong was linked to reduced odds. These findings underscore the considerable geographic variation in mental health outcomes within Lesotho. Several factors may explain the elevated risk of depression in Mohale's Hoek. Previous literature highlights that rural and remote districts in Lesotho often face greater socioeconomic challenges, including higher rates of poverty, food insecurity, and limited employment opportunities, all of which are well-established risk factors for depression [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR58\" citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e]. Mohale's Hoek, being a predominantly rural and mountainous district, may have fewer economic opportunities and greater barriers to accessing health care, including mental health services, compared to urban centers like Maseru [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, stigma surrounding mental illness, lack of mental health professionals, and limited awareness further compound the problem in rural areas, potentially leading to higher prevalence and lower rates of diagnosis and treatment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e]. The finding that Mokhotlong residents had reduced odds of depressive symptoms is noteworthy and may be attributed to several contextual factors. While Mokhotlong is also a remote and mountainous district, recent interventions, such as community-based mental health programs and integration of mental health care into primary services, may have contributed to improved mental health outcomes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e]. Adapted mental health promotion and resilience-building interventions piloted in Mokhotlong have emphasized community education, early detection, and support, which could mitigate the risk of depression despite ongoing socioeconomic adversity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e]. Social cohesion and strong community networks, which have been shown to be protective against depression, may also play a role in this setting.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHelp-seeking for depressive symptoms in Lesotho remains low, with fewer than one in four individuals with depression reporting that they sought any form of assistance and an even smaller proportion using medication. This limited engagement with mental health care is consistent with findings from other studies in Lesotho and sub-Saharan Africa, where both structural barriers, such as limited service availability, cost, and workforce shortages, and attitudinal barriers, including stigma and lack of mental health literacy, impede access to both informal and formal support [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e]. Women were somewhat more likely than men to seek help, but overall rates of care engagement were modest for both sexes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e]. Socioeconomic status, education, and marital status were also important, with higher help-seeking and medication use among wealthier, more educated, and ever-married individuals, while adolescents, the poorest groups, and never-married participants were less likely to engage with care [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e]. Geographic disparities were pronounced, with some districts reporting substantially higher rates of help-seeking and medication use than others, likely reflecting differences in service availability and community attitudes[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e]. These findings highlight the urgent need for targeted public health strategies in Lesotho to reduce stigma, expand mental health literacy, and improve access to both informal and formal mental health services, particularly for underserved groups and regions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStrengths and limitations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study addresses the prevalence, associated factors and care-seeking behaviour for MDD among the population of Lesotho. These findings provide consistent and generalizable insights into the prevalence of MDD and factors in the region using data from a large, nationally representative sample of 6,481 people. Furthermore, the multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression explains individual and community-level differences, providing a more elegant understanding of depression. These methodological attributes make the results statistically robust and beneficial for mental health policy and intervention in Lesotho. Our study also included the respondents' care-seeking behavior, which can be highly useful in identifying gender disparities in mental health responses and developing specific interventions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite its strengths, this study has several limitations. A major drawback of our study is the cross-sectional design of the LDHS, which inhibits our ability to draw causal inferences. Furthermore, the utilization of self-reported data about depressive symptoms and care-seeking behaviors may result in reporting bias, including stigma or misinterpretation of survey items. However, the assessment of depressed symptoms was based on self-reported severity rather than clinical diagnosis, potentially influencing prevalence estimates for clinically diagnosed MDD. Additionally, the LDHS dataset's absence of contextual or psychosocial factors, such as trauma exposure, social support, and mental health services, may have omitted critical variables.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study highlights a considerable mental health burden in Lesotho, with depressive symptoms affecting diverse segments of the population. Increased risk was evident among women, tobacco users, and those living in smaller households, while residing in Mohale\u0026rsquo;s Hoek district emerged as a particular vulnerability. The persistently low rates of help-seeking and medication use, coupled with notable disparities across districts, underscore the urgent need for comprehensive mental health strategies. To address these challenges, it is essential for policymakers in Lesotho to strengthen community-based mental health services and integrate mental health into primary care, ensuring that support is accessible in both urban and rural areas and tailored to the needs of high-risk groups. Raising public awareness through nationwide campaigns can help reduce stigma and encourage early help-seeking, while targeted interventions should be developed for vulnerable populations such as women and tobacco users. Improving the accessibility and affordability of services and medications, particularly in underprivileged and remote regions, is also critical. Additionally, fostering collaboration between government, non-governmental organizations, and community leaders, alongside establishing robust monitoring and evaluation systems, will be crucial for the effective delivery and continuous improvement of mental health care throughout Lesotho.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements:\u003c/strong\u003e We are grateful to the DHS team for allowing us to conduct the analysis of this study using the Lesotho Demographic and Health Survey 2023-24 dataset.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and material:\u003c/strong\u003e Data are available on request from the DHS program website.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eWe do not need ethical approval as we used the secondary data from DHS. However, details of ethical approval for DHS are available at: https://dhsprogram.com/Methodology/Protecting-the-Privacy-of-DHS-Survey-Respondents.cfm. The survey was approved by the Ethics Committee of the ICF International at Rockville, Maryland, USA, and by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare Ethics Committee. The study is conducted using the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. All LDHS participants provided written informed consent before participation, and all information was collected confidentially.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication:\u003c/strong\u003e Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests:\u003c/strong\u003e There are no potential conflicts (financial, professional, or personal) for any of the authors to disclose.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contribution:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eS.T.A.N. conceived the study, developed the methodology, conducted formal analysis, supervised the project, administered the project, and wrote the original draft. S.S. curated the data, contributed to the methodology, and wrote the original draft. S.Y. performed formal analysis, created visualizations, and contributed to the original draft. O.D. provided resources, curated data, and contributed to the original draft. S.U.A.T. managed software, curated data, and contributed to the original draft. R.B.I. contributed to methodology, validation, and investigation, reviewed and edited the manuscript, and provided supervision. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWHO, Health and Well-Being, (2015). https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/major-themes/health-and-well-being.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWHO, Depressive disorder (depression), (2023). https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/depression.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eR. Dybdahl, L. Lien, Mental health is an integral part of the sustainable development goals, Prev Med Community Health 1 (2018). https://doi.org/10.15761/PMCH.1000104.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eN. Votruba, J. Eaton, M. Prince, G. 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Labhardt, Alcohol use and depression: link with adherence and viral suppression in adult patients on antiretroviral therapy in rural Lesotho, Southern Africa: a cross-sectional study, BMC Public Health 16 (2016) 947. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-3209-4.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eN.H. Nik Hazlina, M.N. Norhayati, I. Shaiful Bahari, N.A. Nik Muhammad Arif, Worldwide prevalence, risk factors and psychological impact of infertility among women: a systematic review and meta-analysis, BMJ Open 12 (2022) e057132. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-057132.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJ. Arias-de la Torre, G. Vilagut, V. Mart\u0026iacute;n, A.J. Molina, J. Alonso, Prevalence of major depressive disorder and association with personal and socio-economic factors. Results for Spain of the European Health Interview Survey 2014\u0026ndash;2015, J Affect Disord 239 (2018) 203\u0026ndash;207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.06.051.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eN. Nobi, M.F.K. Al Mannah, H. Akter, Women\u0026rsquo;s Intensity of Non-Communicable Diseases Compared to Men in Bangladesh, International Journal of Epidemiology And Public Health Research 5 (2025) 1\u0026ndash;5. https://doi.org/10.61148/2836-2810/IJEPHR/0101.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eN.P. Luitel, E.C. Baron, B.A. Kohrt, I.H. Komproe, M.J.D. Jordans, Prevalence and correlates of depression and alcohol use disorder among adults attending primary health care services in Nepal: a cross sectional study, BMC Health Serv Res 18 (2018) 215. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-018-3034-9.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eW.K. Kim, D. Shin, W.O. Song, Depression and Its Comorbid Conditions More Serious in Women than in Men in the United States, J Womens Health 24 (2015) 978\u0026ndash;985. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2014.4919.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJ.H. 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Wells, Household- and employment-related risk factors for depressive symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic, Canadian Journal of Public Health 112 (2021) 391\u0026ndash;399. https://doi.org/10.17269/s41997-020-00472-6.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eR. Hamad, L.C.H. Fernald, D.S. Karlan, J. Zinman, Social and economic correlates of depressive symptoms and perceived stress in South African adults, J Epidemiol Community Health (1978) 62 (2008) 538\u0026ndash;544. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.2007.066191.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eV. Argondizo Dos Santos, A.M. Migott, C.H.D. Bau, J.M. Chatkin, Tobacco smoking and depression: Results of a cross-sectional study, British Journal of Psychiatry 197 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.197.5.413.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eA. S\u0026aacute;nchez-Villegas, M. Serrano-Mart\u0026iacute;nez, \u0026Aacute;. Alonso, J. De Irala, A. Tortosa, M.\u0026Aacute;. 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Pule, Anxiety and depression in a village in Lesotho, Africa: a comparison with the United States, British Journal of Psychiatry 156 (1990). https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.156.3.343.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKimber Peters, Addressing Mental Health in Lesotho - The Borgen Project, (2024). https://borgenproject.org/mental-health-in-lesotho/ (accessed June 18, 2025).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNewsday, Scheunemann on strengthening Lesotho\u0026rsquo;s mental health services and awareness - Newsdayonline, (2024). https://newsdayonline.co.ls/mental-health-awareness-in-lesotho-2024/ (accessed June 18, 2025).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eM. Marlow, S. Skeen, X. Hunt, P. Sundin, R.E. Weiss, S. Mofokeng, M. Makhetha, L. Cluver, L. Sherr, M. Tomlinson, Depression, anxiety, and psychological distress among caregivers of young children in rural Lesotho: Associations with food insecurity, household death and parenting stress, SSM - Mental Health 2 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmmh.2022.100167.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJ. Okyere, C. Ayebeng, K.S. Dickson, Sex differences in help-seeking behavior for depression in Lesotho: findings from a national survey, BMC Psychiatry 25 (2025) 290. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-06749-9.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"social-psychiatry-and-psychiatric-epidemiology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"sppe","sideBox":"Learn more about [Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology](http://link.springer.com/journal/127)","snPcode":"127","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/127/3","title":"Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Depression, Major Depressive Disorder, Lesotho, Care-Seeking Behavior, Multilevel Mixed-Effects Logistic Regression, Mental Health","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6945317/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6945317/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003ePurpose\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe purpose of this study is to estimate the prevalence and associated factors of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), as well as care-seeking behavior among participants with depressive symptoms in Lesotho.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study utilized data from the nationally representative, cross-sectional Lesotho Demographic and Health Survey (LDHS) 2023\u0026ndash;2024. MDD was assessed using the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), with scores of 10 or above classified as present. Multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression was employed to identify factors associated with MDD, accounting for the hierarchical nature of the data.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmong the 6,481 respondents, the weighted prevalence of MDD was 6.3% (95% CI: 5.5\u0026ndash;7.2), with women (7.2%) experiencing a notably higher burden than men (5.4%). Specifically, women had 75% (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.75, 95% CI: 1.35\u0026ndash;2.27) higher odds of MDD compared to men. Individuals residing in households with fewer than four people and those who used tobacco were also more likely to experience MDD. Conversely, rural residence was associated with a lower likelihood of MDD. Geographic disparities were evident, with Mohale's Hoek showing higher odds and Mokhotlong lower odds compared to Maseru. Only 22.9% of those with depressive symptoms sought help, and 10.8% used medication.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study highlights a substantial mental health burden in Lesotho, with MDD influenced by sociodemographic and geographic factors. Low help-seeking rates emphasize the urgent need for comprehensive mental health strategies. Recommendations include strengthening community-based care, integrating mental health into primary care, reducing stigma through awareness, and improving service accessibility and affordability, particularly for vulnerable and underserved populations.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Prevalence, Determinants, and Care-Seeking Behaviour for Major Depressive Disorder in the Lesotho Population: A Multilevel Analysis from the Lesotho Demographic and Health Survey 2023-24","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-07-08 12:13:59","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6945317/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-10-14T12:46:14+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-06T12:18:41+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-22T12:59:04+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"331595137310069836772946765875204378415","date":"2025-09-09T05:44:05+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"39074137135106691289148190591380237446","date":"2025-08-27T06:17:44+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-07-14T06:22:27+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-07-01T05:26:15+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-06-24T14:53:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology","date":"2025-06-21T13:43:26+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"social-psychiatry-and-psychiatric-epidemiology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"sppe","sideBox":"Learn more about [Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology](http://link.springer.com/journal/127)","snPcode":"127","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/127/3","title":"Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"1e95429b-3d1a-47f1-a997-dfcdf04f5716","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 8th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-02T16:11:35+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6945317","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-026-03057-9","journal":{"identity":"social-psychiatry-and-psychiatric-epidemiology","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology"},"publishedOn":"2026-02-24 15:59:25","publishedOnDateReadable":"February 24th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-07-08 12:13:59","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s00127-026-03057-9","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-026-03057-9","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6945317","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6945317","identity":"rs-6945317","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}