Motivational factors influencing participation in mass running events: a comparative study of females and males runners with disabilities

Motivational factors influencing participation in mass running events: a comparative study of females and males runners with disabilities | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Motivational factors influencing participation in mass running events: a comparative study of females and males runners with disabilities Magdalena Koper, Mateusz Rozmiarek, Joanna Poczta, Ewa Malchrowicz-Mośko, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4472598/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 16 Sep, 2024 Read the published version in BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation → Version 1 posted 4 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background While the motivations of individuals without impairments for participating in mass running events are well-documented, there is a lack of current research exploring why people with physical disabilities engage in these events. This study aims to identify the motives for participation among people with physical disabilities, taking into account factors such as sex, age (emerging adults vs. middle-aged adults), time since injury or illness, and type of movement during a mass running events (wheelchair vs. standing). Methods In total, 119 runners (51.3% male; mean age of 36 years) completed the Polish version of the Motivations of Marathoners Scale questionnaire. The study was carried out using the diagnostic survey method. Online survey forms were sent to 31 organizations from the Greater Poland region, including sports clubs for individuals with disabilities and runners’ clubs open to both individuals with and without disabilities. Results This study uncovered distinct motivational differences based on age and category of runner. For participants aged under 35 compared to those over 35, significant differences were noted in the motives of recognition (Z = − 2.834, p = 0.005) and affiliation (Z = − 2.534, p = 0.011). Similarly, when comparing wheelchair users with standing runners, notable disparities were observed in motives related to weight (Z = − 5.109, p = < 0.001) and personal goal achievement (Z = − 2.613, p = 0.009). There was also a significant positive relationship between the time since injury or illness and five out of nine subscales of the Motivations of Marathoners Scale (i.e. affiliation: r = 0.256, p = 0.007; recognition: r = 0.239, p = 0.011). The study found no correlation between gender and the motivations of people with physical disabilities for participating in mass running events. Conclusions When organizing and promoting running events for people with physical disabilities, it is important to consider factors such as the age of runners, time since injury, severity of disability, and mode of mobility. Additionally, it should be noted that no significant differences are found based on gender, indicating that both male and female participants are driven by similar motivations when it comes to participating in these events. mass running events people with physical disabilities motivations participation motives Background The motives for participating in mass running events (MREs), such as marathons, have been extensively studied. However, there is a notable lack of recent research on the reasons why people with physical disabilities (PWPD), particularly those using wheelchairs, choose to participate in these events. An increasing number of people worldwide are striving to improve their health and fitness through long-distance running, generating a significant social phenomenon [ 1 ]. Regular runners lead a regulated lifestyle, enjoy better health [ 2 ] and, in accordance with their training regimens, often feel the need to participate in running events, such as marathons), half marathons, triathlons or even ultramarathons [ 3 , 4 ]. Researchers have sought to uncover the motivations behind the need to run marathons, a strenuous and mentally demanding task that may incurs significant personal and financial costs [ 5 ]. One pertinent diagnostic tool, the Motivation for Marathoners Scale (MOMS), developed by Masters et al., is among the tools specifically designed to serve this purpose [ 6 , 7 ]. The emergent data indicated differences in running motivations based on gender [ 8 ], age [ 9 ], nationality [ 10 ], type of running event (i.e., traditional versus nontraditional) [ 11 ], runners’ place of residence (e.g., local runners vs. sports tourists) [ 12 ], and years of running experience [ 13 ]. To gain better insight into motivations for running, researchers have appraised runners’ motives through the conceptual framework of the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) [ 6 ]. According to SDT, people’s motivational behavior varies with the extent of their regulation of self-determination. Ryan and Deci [ 14 ] emphasized that any individual’s motivation may be assessed on a continuum by gauging one’s satisfaction of three key psychological needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Relevantly, items of the MOMS, measured in nine dimensions, accurately reflect motives for running, as expressed in the three-need model postulated in the SDT. MOMS’ affiliation and recognition represent motives that stem from the SDT’s need for relatedness; MOMS’ personal goal achievement and competition may refer to the SDT’s need for competence; and the remaining MOMS items align with the SDT’s need for autonomy. Thus, it can be concluded that runners, participate in running to fulfill their basic needs. Nonetheless, the intriguing question is whether such beneficial consequences can be observed in marathon runners with physical disabilities. Previous studies reviewing motivations for sport participation among people with disabilities have indicated that participants value competition, improved fitness, and socializing [ 15 ]. Study by Szyman and Molik [ 16 ] examining wheelchair basketball athletes indicated that top motives included reasons related to competitive sport, e.g., “improve my ability,” whereas other motives related to the excitement of sport and enjoyment derived from interacting with teammates. Furthermore, Furst et al. [ 17 ] revealed that adult wheelchair athletes who participated in triathlons most often did so for fun (41%), physical development/health improvement (36%), love of competition (27%), and socializing (27%). Interestingly, different groups of athletes report slightly different motives. The results from Brasile and Hedrick [ 18 ] showed that the highest-ranked motivation aspects reported by wheelchair basketball players reflected their enjoyment, excitement of play and focus on testing and improving their abilities—in other words, sports-related aspects. Similarly, a study on wheelchair rugby players showed that players drew their motivation chiefly from team interactions and socializing with friends [ 19 ]. Moreover, the range of studies on motivation for sport among PWPD suggest that motivation is shaped by factors such as the type of disability (congenital vs. acquired) [ 20 ], stage of sports career (initiation, development, mastery) [ 21 ], age [ 18 ], gender [ 22 ], severity of disability [ 23 ], type of sport discipline [ 19 ], and level of participation (recreational vs. competitive vs. elite) [ 24 ]. While individuals without disabilities are well-studied, and those with disabilities are increasingly researched in terms of their physical activity, sport participation, and psychological aspects [ 25 – 29 ], the area of motivation for participation in MREs among people with disabilities has not been explored. This is particularly surprising given the growing popularity of this activity. Most previous studies on motivation in people with disabilities have primarily focused on competitive athletes. In contrast, MREs organized in Poland are increasingly attended by both professionals and amateurs, attracting individuals without disabilities and PWPD alike. Therefore, this study aims to address this research gap by providing data on the reasons why PWPD participate in MREs. In light of described research question, the present study aimed to establish the motives for PWPD’s participation in MREs in relation to the following factors: gender, age, time since injury/illness and type of movement during running. Since previous research on runners demonstrated gender- and age-dependent differences in running motivation [ 8 , 9 ], we hypothesized that these factors would also influence the motivations of PWPD participating in MRE. Additionally, we assumed that an increased time since injury or diagnosis would correlate with higher motivation scores in the area of socialization [ 30 ]. We have also presumed that different types of movement during running (wheelchair/standing), reflecting the severity of a participant’s disability, will pose different motives in regard to MRE participation. Methods Procedure The online study utilized the diagnostic survey method. Survey forms were distributed to 31 organizations in the Greater Poland region, including sports clubs for PWPD, runners' clubs, and running events open to individuals with and without disabilities. The following inclusion criteria were used: age of majority (18 years), physical disability, and former participation in at least one MRE (over distances ranging from 10 km to the marathon). The data collection took place from December 2020 until March 2021. The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, with all participants treated according to the American Psychological Association’s ethics code. Completion of the questionnaire was taken as implied consent to participate in the study, as the introductory statement clearly indicated that by participating, respondents agreed to have their data used for research purposes. The Bioethics Committee confirmed that, according to national regulations, the study involved no experiments and thus did not need to undergo an ethics review. Permissions to conduct the study were obtained from representatives of 31 participating organizations from the Greater Poland region. The survey was anonymous, voluntary and confidential. The respondents were informed about the nature and aims of the survey. Measures The study used the Polish-adapted version of the MOMS [ 31 ], with permission obtained from the author. The MOMS contains 56 items, with nine dimensions (or specific reasons for running) divided into broader groups of four motives: Physical health: general health orientation (six items) and weight concerns (four items), Achievement: personal goal achievement (six items) and competition (four items); Social motives: recognition (six items) and affiliation (six items), Psychological motivations included psychological coping (nine items), self-esteem (eight items), and life meaning (seven items). Responses to items on the MOMS are provided on a 7-point Likert-type scale, where 1 indicates no importance to the respondent and 7 represents the highest level of importance. The MOMS has been extensively used in previous research [ 5 , 8 , 9 ]. The measure has been previously adapted to local conditions [ 3 ]. In our study, the internal consistency of all the MOMS subscales was assessed as good, with Cronbach's alpha ranging from 0.763 to 0.975. Demographic variables such as gender, age, educational level and employment status, as well as the type of MRE, type of disability, and use of assistive devices during the study, were collected using a self-designed questionnaire. The details are presented in Table 1 . Data analysis Descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, frequency, percent) were used to describe the demographic characteristics of the study participants and their MOMS scores. Cronbach's alpha coefficient (α) was calculated to measure the internal consistency of the MOMS subscales. The variable age (years) was dichotomized into the following groups: (1) emerging adults, i.e., less than 35 years, and (2) middle-aged adults, i.e., 35 years or more. This approach reflects Erickson’s stages of psychosocial development, matching a specific series of phases in the human life cycle [ 32 ]. This division into age groups has been used in other similar studies on runners’ motivation [ 3 ]. Regarding the question “What equipment do you use during the marathon run?”, the categories “other supporting equipment, e.g., prosthesis, orthosis” (N = 10) and “none” (N = 60) were merged into one called “standing” runners (N = 70); no differences in the MOMS subscales were registered between the merged groups. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficients (r) were used to assess the significance and power of relationships between motivation (the MOMS subscale scores) and the time since injury or illness. Mann–Whitney tests (Z) were performed on all of the MOMS subscales to assess differences between genders (male/female), age groups (emerging adults/middle-aged adults) and type of movement during the run (wheelchair/standing). To describe differences related to age groups and methods of mobility on the MOMS subscale scores, the effect sizes (Cohen’s d coefficient) were calculated as the difference between means divided by the within standard deviation of the difference [ 33 ]. Using Cohen’s criteria, effect sizes ≥ 0.20 and < 0.50 were considered small, those ≥ 0.50 and < 0.80 were considered medium, and those ≥ 0.80 were considered large. The level of statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. All the statistical analyses were performed using the Statistical Package for the Social Science (IBM SPSS Statistics, version 26). Participants A total of 119 PWPD participated in this study (51.3% male). The mean age of the study participants was 36 years (SD = 8.7; range: 18–56). The majority of the respondents had secondary education (46%) and were professionally active (48%). The PWPD who participated in the study most often took part in 10-km runs (44%) and half-marathons (32%). The most frequent disabilities/illnesses declared by respondents were multiple sclerosis (35%) and paraplegia (17%). The mean time since injury or illness was 10 years (SD = 9.2; range: 1–43). Forty percent of the runners used manual wheelchairs (wheelchair runners), while 60% ran without any assistive devices or reported using other supporting equipment, e.g., prostheses or orthoses, during the run (standing runners). The detailed sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents are presented in Table 1 . Table 1 Socio-demographic characteristics of PWPD running in MRE (N = 119) People with physical disabilities (N = 119) Variables N (%) Gender Men Women 61 58 (51.3) (48.7) Age < 35 years ≥ 35 years 52 67 (43.7) (56.3) Education Primary Vocational Secondary Bachelor degree Master degree 7 14 55 14 29 (5.9) (11.8) (46.2) (11.8) (24.4) Employment status Student Employed Unemployed Pensioner 14 57 14 34 (11.8) (47.9) (11.8) (28.6) Participation in MRE Marathons Half-marathons 15 km runs 10 km runs 20 38 31 52 (16.8) (31.9) (26.1) (43.7) Disability Paraplegia Tetraplegia Spina bifida (myelomeningocele) Cerebral palsy Amputation of one upper limb Amputation of both upper limbs Amputation of one lower limb Amputation of both lower limbs Multiple sclerosis Muscle dystrophy Poliomyelitis 20 4 4 6 18 2 9 6 41 8 1 (16.8) (3.4) (3.4) (5.0) (15.1) (1.7) (7.6) (5.0) (34.5) (6.7) (0.8) Assistive device use during the run Manual wheelchair Orthosis, prosthesis None 47 10 60 (40.2) (8.5) (51.3) ****Table 1 near here**** Results Motivation for PWPD to participate in MRE According to the results of our study, the motivations of female runners are not different from those of male runners with disabilities (p > 0.05 for all the MOMS subscales). Regardless of sex, PWPD indicated that self-esteem, psychological coping and health orientation were their most important motives for running. Having analyzed the relationship between age and the motivations of runners with disabilities, we found that the motives for recognition (p = 0.005, d = 0.49) and affiliation (p = 0.011, d = 0.49) were more important for older runners (≥ 35 years) than for younger runners (< 35 years) (Table 2 ). Considering the criterion of mobility during running events (wheelchair vs. standing), our data revealed differences among the four groups of motives (Table 3 ). Health orientation (p = 0.012, d = 0.36), weight concern (p < 0.001, d = 1.00) and personal goal achievement (p = 0.009, d = 0.43) were considered more important by people who did not use wheelchairs during runs. However, recognition was deemed more important by PWPD who used wheelchairs during runs (p = 0.051, d = 0.37). Table 2 Differences in motivation (the MOMS subscales scores) between runners by age group (N = 119). Age < 35 (N = 52) Age ≥ 35 (N = 67) MOMS Mean SD Mean SD Test Z P value Health orientation 4.69 0.97 4.78 1.04 –0.075 0.940 Weight concern 3.89 1.52 3.79 1.55 –0.622 0.534 Personal goal achievement 4.13 1.30 4.32 1.25 –0.629 0.529 Competition 3.10 1.67 3.63 1.58 –1.807 0.071 Recognition 3.81 1.41 4.50 1.42 –2.834 0.005 Affiliation 3.43 1.38 4.15 1.55 –2.534 0.011 Psychological coping 4.80 1.00 4.90 0.79 –0.022 0.982 Life meaning 4.32 1.02 4.54 0.93 –1.021 0.307 Self-esteem 4.90 1.03 5.14 0.91 –1.263 0.207 Bold values indicate statistically significant results. Table 3 Differences in motivation (the MOMS subscales scores) between runners by the manner of mobility during marathons (N = 119). Wheelchair (N = 47) Standing (N = 70) MOMS Mean SD Mean SD Test Z P value Health orientation 4.56 1.07 4.91 0.86 –2.503 0.012 Weight concern 3.06 1.45 4.43 1.29 –5.109 < 0.001 Personal goal achievement 3.96 1.31 4.49 1.15 –2.613 0.009 Competition 3.29 1.64 3.55 1.61 –1.036 0.300 Recognition 4.54 1.34 4.02 1.47 –1.950 0.051 Affiliation 4.08 1.56 3.75 1.44 –1.102 0.270 Psychological coping 4.81 0.83 4.94 0.84 –1.578 0.115 Life meaning 4.39 1.02 4.54 0.86 –1.476 0.140 Self-esteem 5.00 0.94 5.12 0.92 –0.959 0.338 Bold values indicate statistically significant results ****Table 2 near here**** ****Table 3 near here**** The criterion of time since injury or illness was significantly associated with the following groups of motives: health orientation, competition, recognition, affiliation and self-esteem (Table 4 ). For all these motives, a longer experience of disability was positively associated with the importance attached to the abovementioned motives. Table 4 Correlation between MOMS and the time since injury or illness in PWPD (N = 119). Time since injury or illness MOMS r P value Health orientation 0.229 0.016 Weight concern 0.057 0.553 Personal goal achievement 0.117 0.224 Competition 0.188 0.049 Recognition 0.239 0.011 Affiliation 0.256 0.007 Psychological coping 0.024 0.803 Life meaning 0.020 0.835 Self-esteem 0.208 0.029 Bold values indicate statistically significant results. ****Table 4 near here**** Discussion The aim of our study was to identify the motivations of PWPD participating in MREs in relation to their sex, age, time since injury/illness, and manner of locomotion during running. Participants reported self-esteem, psychological coping, and health orientation as their primary motivations for running, all seemingly driven by their need for autonomy [ 34 ]. The results also validate the widespread belief that PWPD engage in sports to enhance their fitness, thereby improving their daily living activities and ability to manage life challenges. All categories of motives examined exhibited mean values above the midpoint of the scale, confirming that the sports motivations of PWPD are multidimensional. Our results are partially consistent with previous findings in this area: health reasons were identified as the most important motivations for practicing sport in wheelchair basketball players [ 23 ], wheelchair athletes participating in triathlons [ 17 ], Dutch Paralympic athletes [ 35 ] and athletes playing boccia [ 19 ]. It is important to note that, in addition to the motivations assessed for participating in MRE, another significant factor is the level of engagement, which varies from recreational to competitive to elite. For many runners, mass running is no longer a mere physical activity but a lifestyle, shaping their social relationships and improving their quality of life and mental well-being. Since many people report their need to break down their mental barriers and improve their self-esteem, our research group attached great importance to running as a means to improve self-esteem and a psychological coping mechanism. In our study, we found no difference in the motivations between female and male runners with disabilities. This contrasts with the findings by Zhou et al. [ 36 ], which suggested that male and female runners in China have differing motives for engaging in sports. A similar study on the motivations of elite wheelchair athletes from the United States, Great Britain, and Japan indicated sex differences in motivational factors like friendship, achievement, and status [ 22 ], with the most pronounced differences observed between male and female Japanese athletes. Furthermore, our findings diverge from those of previous studies on the motivations of able-bodied runners. For instance, León-Guereño et al. [ 37 ] noted that male amateur runners focused more on personal goal achievement and competition when participating in marathons, whereas female amateur runners emphasized psychological coping. Greek female marathon runners also reported a higher importance placed on psychological coping, personal goal achievement, and self-esteem compared to their male counterparts [ 37 ]. Additionally, an American study conducted twenty-five years ago found distinct motivational differences between genders, with concerns such as weight, affiliation, self-esteem, life meaning, and psychological coping being more significant for women [ 38 ]. Studies have consistently shown such gender differences in motivations across various types of MRE and populations, including goal orientation, ego-related goals, weight concerns, affiliation, and self-esteem [ 3 , 9 , 12 , 39 ]. According to SDT, studies on runners without disabilities indicate that women usually report running motives connected to the need for relatedness and autonomy, whereas men report motives related to their need for competence. It is puzzling why the respondents with disabilities in our study did not report these gendered differences. As we mentioned earlier, the SDT postulates that environmental factors responsible for the satisfaction of three key needs (competence, autonomy, and relatedness) produce self-determined motivational consequences. Therefore, it is likely that the specific environmental challenges faced by PWPD made our respondents attach greater importance to motives that stem from their need for autonomy, regardless of their gender. On the other hand, it is possible that our respondents held specific social expectations about their sport participation, hoping that their participation in a given sport discipline (e.g., marathon running) would enable them to meet their specific needs (e.g., autonomy) [ 40 ]. However, this issue warrants further investigation. Furthermore, we found that recognition and affiliation were more significant motivations for individuals aged 35 and older compared to those younger than 35. This result partially matches those of previous studies. In general, recognition (a wish to, e.g., earn respect for one’s peers or people in general, win praise) matters a great deal for young people, while affiliation (motivations such as, e.g., to participate in activities with family or friends, to meet people and share experiences) means more for older people [ 38 ]. Our study proved that seniors valued affiliation and recognition, capitalizing on their need for relatedness. In a similar vein, studies on wheelchair basketball and rugby players have shown that increasing age is positively correlated with increased social motivation (e.g., “being with friends”) [ 19 ]. Similarly, Brasile and Hedrick [ 18 ] also found positive correlations between the age of wheelchair basketball players and the stress they experienced in their responses on social aspects behind their motivation for participation. If younger runners meet new people on the internet or at the university, then older runners have fewer opportunities for socializing and winning social prestige. According to a diagnostic survey among marathon runners in Poland, age influenced responses in three dimensions: the stated importance of health orientation and affiliation correlated with increased age, while self-esteem was given the greatest importance in the 19–25 age group [ 37 ]. A study conducted by León-Guereño et al. [ 37 ] established that older runners reported greater significance of affiliation as a motive; our study corroborated this finding, with affiliation reportedly more important for runners aged 35 years or older in comparison with the younger cohort. Generally, previous studies among people without disabilities have shown that the age range of runners is important in regard to their participation motives, especially with regard to their achievement motives, such as competition and personal goal achievement, which are more often linked to younger athletes [ 8 ]. Regarding the criterion of mobility during running events (wheelchair vs. standing), we identified differences across four motivation groups. Health orientation, weight concerns and personal goal achievement were more important for people who did not use a wheelchair during the run, whereas wheelchair users reported greater importance of motives associated with recognition. Consequently, the locomotion criterion matters for wheelchair users, who had to overcome a number of additional difficulties in order to take part in an MRE—for example, to reach the venue with their expensive equipment and/or an assistant. The desire for recognition among participants may be driven by their need to challenge what is often described as the media's marginalization of sports events for athletes with disabilities. These athletes frequently report that despite their achievements, they receive only limited prestige and social acknowledgment [ 41 ]. Moreover, some audiences still perceive sports events involving athletes with disabilities merely as entertainment and recreation, not recognizing them as legitimate sports. This perception contributes to the tangible social marginalization of athletes with disabilities, which is part of the wider issue of social exclusion faced by people with disabilities. Our results also showed that time since injury or illness influenced the reported scores for the following groups of motives: health orientation, competition, recognition, affiliation and self-esteem. The research showed that the longer the disability experience lasted, the more important the abovementioned motives became. It is worth emphasizing that within the SDT paradigm, the abovementioned motives belong to all three key needs (autonomy, competence and relatedness). One may be tempted to conclude that as newly impaired athletes adapt to their disability, their expectations for the potential benefits that sport can provide soar; consequently, their motivations become stronger and more complex. Moreover, as shown by previous studies, the motivations of people with disabilities for sport participation are dynamic and can shift over time [ 42 ]. Study limitations We recognize certain limitations of this study. First, our main limitation was that we did not collect data through disability classification or disability assessment. The next limitation concerned the type of discipline—we focused on runners only—and the stage of sport careers—for which we did not interview professionals. Finally, our research was limited to only one region of Poland—Greater Poland—which is known for its plain topography, which may influence the motivation for running. Study implications The differences in motivation we identified between running PWPD, relevant for athletes, matter even more for event organizers, coaches, sports psychologists and health professionals: using our study, they will all be able to improve their understanding of what motivates PWPD to run, as well as how to help them achieve their goals and challenge them to meet their specific needs. Recently, there has been an upsurge in the popularity of running, with many runners most likely looking for physical and mental training specialists to help them overcome new personal fitness challenges. Future studies should examine other sociodemographic factors that may contribute new information about the studied groups. Furthermore, another promising avenue of research would be to assess the motivations of runners among PWPD in the context of their disability (congenital vs. acquired; PWPD vs visually impaired people vs people with hearing impairment), stage of sports career (initiation, development, mastery), severity of disability, type of discipline, and sport engagement level (recreational vs. competitive vs. elite). Conclusion The most important motives for PWPD to participate in MREs, regardless of sex, are connected with self-esteem, psychological coping, and health orientation, all stemming from the need for autonomy. However, all studied categories of motives are relatively important, confirming that the sports motivations of PWPD are multidimensional. To promote running among PWPD effectively, it is essential to consider demographic factors such as age and health status, including the time since injury and severity of disability, which impact the manner of locomotion during a run. This approach will enable organizers to better support participants during running events by meeting their needs and enhancing their motivations for participation. The results obtained provide a solid foundation for further research on this topic. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate Participants were treated ethically by the guidelines in the American Psychological Association’s code of ethics regarding anonymity and consent and in accordance with the generally accepted principles for the conduct of research contained in the Declaration of Helsinki. The study did not require formal approval from the Bioethics Committee because, according to the rules in Poland, the Bioethics Committee does not consider applications for standardized surveys used for their intended purpose when statistically selected survey items are analyzed in the study. Consent for publication Not applicable. Availability of data and materials The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Authors' contributions MR, JP and E M-M contributed to the data collection and project administration. MK, TT and JP prepared the original draft of the manuscript. MK and TT contributed to the analysis and interpretation of the data. All authors (MK, MR, JP, E M-M, TT) contributed to the study conception and design, data collection or data interpretation, and critical revision of the manuscript; approved the final manuscript; and agreed to be accountable for all aspects of the work. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Acknowledgments We would like to thank Magdalena Lewandowska for her support in the statistical analysis of the data. References Abbas A. The embodiment of class, gender and age through leisure: A realist analysis of long distance running. Leisure Stud. 2004;23:159–75. O’Keefe JH, O’Keefe EL, Lavie CJ. The Goldilocks Zone for Exercise: Not Too Little, Not Too Much. Mo Med. 2018;115:98–105. Malchrowicz-Mośko E, Waśkiewicz Z. The Impact of Family Life and Marital Status on the Motivations of Ultramarathoners: The Karkonosze Winter Ultramarathon Case Study. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17. Wicker P, Hallmann K, Prinz J, Weimar D. 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Urbański P, Conners R, Tasiemski T. Leisure time physical activity in persons with spinal cord injury across the seasons. Neurol Res. 2020;:1–7. Kasińska Z, Urbański PK, Tasiemski T. Sports Injuries Among Players of The Polish National Team in Amputee Football in The Annual Training Cycle. J Hum Kinet. 2022;81:211–9. Urbański P, Rogoza R, Brewer B, Tasiemski T. Coping with the COVID-19 pandemic by Paralympic athletes preparing for elite sport events: A longitudinal study. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2023;33:512–20. Jacobsson LJ, Westerberg M, Malec JF, Lexell J. Sense of coherence and disability and the relationship with life satisfaction 6–15 years after traumatic brain injury in northern Sweden. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation. 2011;21:383–400. Dybała M. The Polish adaptation of the Motives of Runners for Running Questionnaire. Rozprawy Naukowe. 2013;40:118–28. Erikson EH, Identity. Youth and Crisis. New York: W. W. Norton Company; 1968. Cohen J. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. 2nd edition. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 1988. Teixeira PJ, Carraça EV, Markland D, Silva MN, Ryan RM. Exercise, physical activity, and self-determination theory: A systematic review. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Activity. 2012;9:78. Jaarsma EA, Geertzen JHB, Jong R, Dijkstra PU, Dekker R. Barriers and facilitators of sports in Dutch Paralympic athletes: An explorative study. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2014;24:830–6. Zhou J, Yuan F, Yu T, Liu F. Why Are the Disabled People Willing to Participate in Sports: Taking Chinese Disabled Table Tennis Players as the Object of Investigation? Adv Phys Educ. 2016;6:88–98. León-Guereño P, Tapia-Serrano MA, Castañeda-Babarro A, Malchrowicz-Mośko E. Do Sex, Age, and Marital Status Influence the Motivations of Amateur Marathon Runners? The Poznan Marathon Case Study. Front Psychol. 2020;11:2151. Ogles BM, Masters KS, Richardson SA. Obligatory running and gender: an analysis of participative motives and training habits. / Caractere imperatif de la course et sexe: une analyse des motifs de participation et des habitudes d’entrainement. Int J Sport Psycol. 1995;26:233–48. Manzano-Sánchez D, Postigo-Pérez L, Gómez-López M, Valero-Valenzuela A. Study of the Motivation of Spanish Amateur Runners Based on Training Patterns and Gender. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17:8185. Lins S, Melo CF, Alves SG, Silva RL. Our Voices, Our Meaning: The Social Representations of Sports for Brazilian Athletes With Disabilities. Adapted Phys Activity Q. 2019;36:42–60. Kolotouchkina O, Llorente-Barroso C, García-Guardia ML, Pavón J, Disability. Sport, and Television: Media Visibility and Representation of Paralympic Games in News Programs. Sustainability. 2021;13:256. Gaskin CJ, Andersen MB, Morris T. Sport and physical activity in the life of a man with cerebral palsy: Compensation for disability with psychosocial benefits and costs. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2010;11:197–205. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 16 Sep, 2024 Read the published version in BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 29 May, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 28 May, 2024 Submission checks completed at journal 27 May, 2024 First submitted to journal 24 May, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4472598","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":308175119,"identity":"3abc062b-a0fa-4f0e-8eb8-7aacc5ee0601","order_by":0,"name":"Magdalena Koper","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA2klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACCTBZwcDA3gAXY27ArhZFyxkGBp4DcDFGIrQwtpGiRbK99+Djynl2iT0MvAcf/txhl8cg3YhfizTPuWTDs9uSgVr4kg0kzyQXM8gcxK9FTiLHTLJxG3PufgYeMwnDNubEBolEglrMfzbOqc/tAWlJbKsnrEUaaAtjY8NhiJaDbYcJa5HsOZcs2XDseH0PM1+yYWPb8cQ2Qn6RON578GNDTbUxD3svMMTaqhP7pZsP4NUCjBAozQxlsEkQ0IDQAmcQ1jIKRsEoGAUjDAAA19BDmOes3poAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Poznan University of Physical Education","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Magdalena","middleName":"","lastName":"Koper","suffix":""},{"id":308175120,"identity":"6ea8ba82-9a02-426d-aef5-2d5623ad3764","order_by":1,"name":"Mateusz Rozmiarek","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Poznan University of Physical Education","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mateusz","middleName":"","lastName":"Rozmiarek","suffix":""},{"id":308175121,"identity":"f1f99938-0e86-4c63-b735-9ae7e478b84d","order_by":2,"name":"Joanna Poczta","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Poznan University of Physical Education","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Joanna","middleName":"","lastName":"Poczta","suffix":""},{"id":308175122,"identity":"54c2d298-010d-4e77-9664-455503d84e93","order_by":3,"name":"Ewa Malchrowicz-Mośko","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Poznan University of Physical Education","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ewa","middleName":"","lastName":"Malchrowicz-Mośko","suffix":""},{"id":308175123,"identity":"8cd52223-5ad8-41f6-97ca-ccbb0bac018d","order_by":4,"name":"Tomasz Tasiemski","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Poznan University of Physical Education","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Tomasz","middleName":"","lastName":"Tasiemski","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-05-24 12:57:29","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4472598/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4472598/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s13102-024-00981-8","type":"published","date":"2024-09-16T15:58:07+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":65104450,"identity":"b1a1345f-d538-414b-99ce-dcf1a0e4f491","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-23 16:13:31","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":591789,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4472598/v1/e272e859-f6db-4d07-a7ed-7c1039558b2b.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Motivational factors influencing participation in mass running events: a comparative study of females and males runners with disabilities","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe motives for participating in mass running events (MREs), such as marathons, have been extensively studied. However, there is a notable lack of recent research on the reasons why people with physical disabilities (PWPD), particularly those using wheelchairs, choose to participate in these events. An increasing number of people worldwide are striving to improve their health and fitness through long-distance running, generating a significant social phenomenon [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Regular runners lead a regulated lifestyle, enjoy better health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e] and, in accordance with their training regimens, often feel the need to participate in running events, such as marathons), half marathons, triathlons or even ultramarathons [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Researchers have sought to uncover the motivations behind the need to run marathons, a strenuous and mentally demanding task that may incurs significant personal and financial costs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. One pertinent diagnostic tool, the Motivation for Marathoners Scale (MOMS), developed by Masters et al., is among the tools specifically designed to serve this purpose [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. The emergent data indicated differences in running motivations based on gender [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e], age [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e], nationality [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e], type of running event (i.e., traditional versus nontraditional) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e], runners\u0026rsquo; place of residence (e.g., local runners vs. sports tourists) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e], and years of running experience [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo gain better insight into motivations for running, researchers have appraised runners\u0026rsquo; motives through the conceptual framework of the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. According to SDT, people\u0026rsquo;s motivational behavior varies with the extent of their regulation of self-determination. Ryan and Deci [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e] emphasized that any individual\u0026rsquo;s motivation may be assessed on a continuum by gauging one\u0026rsquo;s satisfaction of three key psychological needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Relevantly, items of the MOMS, measured in nine dimensions, accurately reflect motives for running, as expressed in the three-need model postulated in the SDT. MOMS\u0026rsquo; affiliation and recognition represent motives that stem from the SDT\u0026rsquo;s need for relatedness; MOMS\u0026rsquo; personal goal achievement and competition may refer to the SDT\u0026rsquo;s need for competence; and the remaining MOMS items align with the SDT\u0026rsquo;s need for autonomy. Thus, it can be concluded that runners, participate in running to fulfill their basic needs. Nonetheless, the intriguing question is whether such beneficial consequences can be observed in marathon runners with physical disabilities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrevious studies reviewing motivations for sport participation among people with disabilities have indicated that participants value competition, improved fitness, and socializing [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. Study by Szyman and Molik [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e] examining wheelchair basketball athletes indicated that top motives included reasons related to competitive sport, e.g., \u0026ldquo;improve my ability,\u0026rdquo; whereas other motives related to the excitement of sport and enjoyment derived from interacting with teammates. Furthermore, Furst et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e] revealed that adult wheelchair athletes who participated in triathlons most often did so for fun (41%), physical development/health improvement (36%), love of competition (27%), and socializing (27%). Interestingly, different groups of athletes report slightly different motives. The results from Brasile and Hedrick [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e] showed that the highest-ranked motivation aspects reported by wheelchair basketball players reflected their enjoyment, excitement of play and focus on testing and improving their abilities\u0026mdash;in other words, sports-related aspects. Similarly, a study on wheelchair rugby players showed that players drew their motivation chiefly from team interactions and socializing with friends [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, the range of studies on motivation for sport among PWPD suggest that motivation is shaped by factors such as the type of disability (congenital vs. acquired) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e], stage of sports career (initiation, development, mastery) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e], age [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e], gender [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e], severity of disability [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e], type of sport discipline [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e], and level of participation (recreational vs. competitive vs. elite) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile individuals without disabilities are well-studied, and those with disabilities are increasingly researched in terms of their physical activity, sport participation, and psychological aspects [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR26 CR27 CR28\" citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e], the area of motivation for participation in MREs among people with disabilities has not been explored. This is particularly surprising given the growing popularity of this activity. Most previous studies on motivation in people with disabilities have primarily focused on competitive athletes. In contrast, MREs organized in Poland are increasingly attended by both professionals and amateurs, attracting individuals without disabilities and PWPD alike. Therefore, this study aims to address this research gap by providing data on the reasons why PWPD participate in MREs. In light of described research question, the present study aimed to establish the motives for PWPD\u0026rsquo;s participation in MREs in relation to the following factors: gender, age, time since injury/illness and type of movement during running. Since previous research on runners demonstrated gender- and age-dependent differences in running motivation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e], we hypothesized that these factors would also influence the motivations of PWPD participating in MRE. Additionally, we assumed that an increased time since injury or diagnosis would correlate with higher motivation scores in the area of socialization [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. We have also presumed that different types of movement during running (wheelchair/standing), reflecting the severity of a participant\u0026rsquo;s disability, will pose different motives in regard to MRE participation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eProcedure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe online study utilized the diagnostic survey method. Survey forms were distributed to 31 organizations in the Greater Poland region, including sports clubs for PWPD, runners' clubs, and running events open to individuals with and without disabilities. The following inclusion criteria were used: age of majority (18 years), physical disability, and former participation in at least one MRE (over distances ranging from 10 km to the marathon). The data collection took place from December 2020 until March 2021.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, with all participants treated according to the American Psychological Association\u0026rsquo;s ethics code. Completion of the questionnaire was taken as implied consent to participate in the study, as the introductory statement clearly indicated that by participating, respondents agreed to have their data used for research purposes. The Bioethics Committee confirmed that, according to national regulations, the study involved no experiments and thus did not need to undergo an ethics review. Permissions to conduct the study were obtained from representatives of 31 participating organizations from the Greater Poland region. The survey was anonymous, voluntary and confidential. The respondents were informed about the nature and aims of the survey.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMeasures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study used the Polish-adapted version of the MOMS [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e], with permission obtained from the author. The MOMS contains 56 items, with nine dimensions (or specific reasons for running) divided into broader groups of four motives:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical health: general health orientation (six items) and weight concerns (four items),\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAchievement: personal goal achievement (six items) and competition (four items);\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial motives: recognition (six items) and affiliation (six items),\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003ePsychological motivations included psychological coping (nine items), self-esteem (eight items), and life meaning (seven items).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResponses to items on the MOMS are provided on a 7-point Likert-type scale, where 1 indicates no importance to the respondent and 7 represents the highest level of importance. The MOMS has been extensively used in previous research [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. The measure has been previously adapted to local conditions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. In our study, the internal consistency of all the MOMS subscales was assessed as good, with Cronbach's alpha ranging from 0.763 to 0.975.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDemographic variables such as gender, age, educational level and employment status, as well as the type of MRE, type of disability, and use of assistive devices during the study, were collected using a self-designed questionnaire. The details are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, frequency, percent) were used to describe the demographic characteristics of the study participants and their MOMS scores. Cronbach's alpha coefficient (α) was calculated to measure the internal consistency of the MOMS subscales. The variable age (years) was dichotomized into the following groups: (1) emerging adults, i.e., less than 35 years, and (2) middle-aged adults, i.e., 35 years or more. This approach reflects Erickson\u0026rsquo;s stages of psychosocial development, matching a specific series of phases in the human life cycle [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. This division into age groups has been used in other similar studies on runners\u0026rsquo; motivation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Regarding the question \u0026ldquo;What equipment do you use during the marathon run?\u0026rdquo;, the categories \u0026ldquo;other supporting equipment, e.g., prosthesis, orthosis\u0026rdquo; (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10) and \u0026ldquo;none\u0026rdquo; (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60) were merged into one called \u0026ldquo;standing\u0026rdquo; runners (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70); no differences in the MOMS subscales were registered between the merged groups. Spearman\u0026rsquo;s rank correlation coefficients (r) were used to assess the significance and power of relationships between motivation (the MOMS subscale scores) and the time since injury or illness. Mann\u0026ndash;Whitney tests (Z) were performed on all of the MOMS subscales to assess differences between genders (male/female), age groups (emerging adults/middle-aged adults) and type of movement during the run (wheelchair/standing). To describe differences related to age groups and methods of mobility on the MOMS subscale scores, the effect sizes (Cohen\u0026rsquo;s d coefficient) were calculated as the difference between means divided by the within standard deviation of the difference [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Using Cohen\u0026rsquo;s criteria, effect sizes\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;0.20 and \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.50 were considered small, those\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;0.50 and \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.80 were considered medium, and those\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;0.80 were considered large. The level of statistical significance was set at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05. All the statistical analyses were performed using the Statistical Package for the Social Science (IBM SPSS Statistics, version 26).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 119 PWPD participated in this study (51.3% male). The mean age of the study participants was 36 years (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8.7; range: 18\u0026ndash;56). The majority of the respondents had secondary education (46%) and were professionally active (48%). The PWPD who participated in the study most often took part in 10-km runs (44%) and half-marathons (32%). The most frequent disabilities/illnesses declared by respondents were multiple sclerosis (35%) and paraplegia (17%). The mean time since injury or illness was 10 years (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9.2; range: 1\u0026ndash;43). Forty percent of the runners used manual wheelchairs (wheelchair runners), while 60% ran without any assistive devices or reported using other supporting equipment, e.g., prostheses or orthoses, during the run (standing runners). The detailed sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocio-demographic characteristics of PWPD running in MRE (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;119)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeople with physical disabilities (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;119)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGender\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMen\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWomen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(51.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(48.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAge\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 35 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge; 35 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(43.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(56.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEducation\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVocational\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBachelor degree\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaster degree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(5.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(11.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(46.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(11.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(24.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEmployment status\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudent\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmployed\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePensioner\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(11.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(47.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(11.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(28.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eParticipation in MRE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarathons\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHalf-marathons\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15 km runs\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 km runs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(16.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(31.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(26.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(43.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDisability\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParaplegia\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTetraplegia\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpina bifida (myelomeningocele)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCerebral palsy\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmputation of one upper limb\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmputation of both upper limbs\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmputation of one lower limb\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmputation of both lower limbs\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultiple sclerosis\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMuscle dystrophy\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoliomyelitis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(16.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(3.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(3.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(5.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(15.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(1.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(7.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(5.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(34.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(6.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAssistive device use during the run\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eManual wheelchair\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrthosis, prosthesis\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(40.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(8.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(51.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e****Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e near here****\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMotivation for PWPD to participate in MRE\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to the results of our study, the motivations of female runners are not different from those of male runners with disabilities (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 for all the MOMS subscales). Regardless of sex, PWPD indicated that self-esteem, psychological coping and health orientation were their most important motives for running. Having analyzed the relationship between age and the motivations of runners with disabilities, we found that the motives for recognition (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.005, d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.49) and affiliation (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.011, d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.49) were more important for older runners (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;35 years) than for younger runners (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;35 years) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Considering the criterion of mobility during running events (wheelchair vs. standing), our data revealed differences among the four groups of motives (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Health orientation (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.012, d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.36), weight concern (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.00) and personal goal achievement (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.009, d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.43) were considered more important by people who did not use wheelchairs during runs. However, recognition was deemed more important by PWPD who used wheelchairs during runs (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.051, d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.37).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDifferences in motivation (the MOMS subscales scores) between runners by age group (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;119).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;35 (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;52)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;35 (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;67)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMOMS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTest Z\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHealth orientation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;0.075\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.940\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeight concern\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;0.622\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.534\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePersonal goal achievement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;0.629\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.529\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompetition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;1.807\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.071\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecognition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;2.834\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.005\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAffiliation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;2.534\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.011\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePsychological coping\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;0.022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.982\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLife meaning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;1.021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.307\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-esteem\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;1.263\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.207\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003eBold values indicate statistically significant results.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDifferences in motivation (the MOMS subscales scores) between runners by the manner of mobility during marathons (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;119).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWheelchair (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;47)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStanding (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMOMS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTest Z\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHealth orientation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;2.503\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.012\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeight concern\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;5.109\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePersonal goal achievement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;2.613\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.009\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompetition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;1.036\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecognition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;1.950\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.051\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAffiliation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;1.102\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.270\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePsychological coping\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;1.578\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.115\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLife meaning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;1.476\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.140\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-esteem\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;0.959\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.338\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003eBold values indicate statistically significant results\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e****Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e near here****\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e****Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e near here****\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe criterion of time since injury or illness was significantly associated with the following groups of motives: health orientation, competition, recognition, affiliation and self-esteem (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). For all these motives, a longer experience of disability was positively associated with the importance attached to the abovementioned motives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCorrelation between MOMS and the time since injury or illness in PWPD (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;119).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTime since injury or illness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMOMS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003er\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHealth orientation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.229\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.016\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeight concern\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.057\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.553\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePersonal goal achievement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.117\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.224\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompetition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.188\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.049\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecognition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.239\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.011\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAffiliation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.256\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.007\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePsychological coping\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.803\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLife meaning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.835\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-esteem\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.208\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.029\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003eBold values indicate statistically significant results.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e****Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e near here****\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe aim of our study was to identify the motivations of PWPD participating in MREs in relation to their sex, age, time since injury/illness, and manner of locomotion during running. Participants reported self-esteem, psychological coping, and health orientation as their primary motivations for running, all seemingly driven by their need for autonomy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. The results also validate the widespread belief that PWPD engage in sports to enhance their fitness, thereby improving their daily living activities and ability to manage life challenges. All categories of motives examined exhibited mean values above the midpoint of the scale, confirming that the sports motivations of PWPD are multidimensional.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur results are partially consistent with previous findings in this area: health reasons were identified as the most important motivations for practicing sport in wheelchair basketball players [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e], wheelchair athletes participating in triathlons [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e], Dutch Paralympic athletes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e] and athletes playing boccia [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. It is important to note that, in addition to the motivations assessed for participating in MRE, another significant factor is the level of engagement, which varies from recreational to competitive to elite. For many runners, mass running is no longer a mere physical activity but a lifestyle, shaping their social relationships and improving their quality of life and mental well-being. Since many people report their need to break down their mental barriers and improve their self-esteem, our research group attached great importance to running as a means to improve self-esteem and a psychological coping mechanism.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn our study, we found no difference in the motivations between female and male runners with disabilities. This contrasts with the findings by Zhou et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e], which suggested that male and female runners in China have differing motives for engaging in sports. A similar study on the motivations of elite wheelchair athletes from the United States, Great Britain, and Japan indicated sex differences in motivational factors like friendship, achievement, and status [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e], with the most pronounced differences observed between male and female Japanese athletes. Furthermore, our findings diverge from those of previous studies on the motivations of able-bodied runners. For instance, Le\u0026oacute;n-Guere\u0026ntilde;o et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e] noted that male amateur runners focused more on personal goal achievement and competition when participating in marathons, whereas female amateur runners emphasized psychological coping. Greek female marathon runners also reported a higher importance placed on psychological coping, personal goal achievement, and self-esteem compared to their male counterparts [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, an American study conducted twenty-five years ago found distinct motivational differences between genders, with concerns such as weight, affiliation, self-esteem, life meaning, and psychological coping being more significant for women [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. Studies have consistently shown such gender differences in motivations across various types of MRE and populations, including goal orientation, ego-related goals, weight concerns, affiliation, and self-esteem [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to SDT, studies on runners without disabilities indicate that women usually report running motives connected to the need for relatedness and autonomy, whereas men report motives related to their need for competence. It is puzzling why the respondents with disabilities in our study did not report these gendered differences. As we mentioned earlier, the SDT postulates that environmental factors responsible for the satisfaction of three key needs (competence, autonomy, and relatedness) produce self-determined motivational consequences. Therefore, it is likely that the specific environmental challenges faced by PWPD made our respondents attach greater importance to motives that stem from their need for autonomy, regardless of their gender. On the other hand, it is possible that our respondents held specific social expectations about their sport participation, hoping that their participation in a given sport discipline (e.g., marathon running) would enable them to meet their specific needs (e.g., autonomy) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. However, this issue warrants further investigation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, we found that recognition and affiliation were more significant motivations for individuals aged 35 and older compared to those younger than 35. This result partially matches those of previous studies. In general, recognition (a wish to, e.g., earn respect for one\u0026rsquo;s peers or people in general, win praise) matters a great deal for young people, while affiliation (motivations such as, e.g., to participate in activities with family or friends, to meet people and share experiences) means more for older people [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. Our study proved that seniors valued affiliation and recognition, capitalizing on their need for relatedness. In a similar vein, studies on wheelchair basketball and rugby players have shown that increasing age is positively correlated with increased social motivation (e.g., \u0026ldquo;being with friends\u0026rdquo;) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Similarly, Brasile and Hedrick [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e] also found positive correlations between the age of wheelchair basketball players and the stress they experienced in their responses on social aspects behind their motivation for participation. If younger runners meet new people on the internet or at the university, then older runners have fewer opportunities for socializing and winning social prestige. According to a diagnostic survey among marathon runners in Poland, age influenced responses in three dimensions: the stated importance of health orientation and affiliation correlated with increased age, while self-esteem was given the greatest importance in the 19\u0026ndash;25 age group [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. A study conducted by Le\u0026oacute;n-Guere\u0026ntilde;o et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e] established that older runners reported greater significance of affiliation as a motive; our study corroborated this finding, with affiliation reportedly more important for runners aged 35 years or older in comparison with the younger cohort. Generally, previous studies among people without disabilities have shown that the age range of runners is important in regard to their participation motives, especially with regard to their achievement motives, such as competition and personal goal achievement, which are more often linked to younger athletes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding the criterion of mobility during running events (wheelchair vs. standing), we identified differences across four motivation groups. Health orientation, weight concerns and personal goal achievement were more important for people who did not use a wheelchair during the run, whereas wheelchair users reported greater importance of motives associated with recognition. Consequently, the locomotion criterion matters for wheelchair users, who had to overcome a number of additional difficulties in order to take part in an MRE\u0026mdash;for example, to reach the venue with their expensive equipment and/or an assistant. The desire for recognition among participants may be driven by their need to challenge what is often described as the media's marginalization of sports events for athletes with disabilities. These athletes frequently report that despite their achievements, they receive only limited prestige and social acknowledgment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, some audiences still perceive sports events involving athletes with disabilities merely as entertainment and recreation, not recognizing them as legitimate sports. This perception contributes to the tangible social marginalization of athletes with disabilities, which is part of the wider issue of social exclusion faced by people with disabilities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur results also showed that time since injury or illness influenced the reported scores for the following groups of motives: health orientation, competition, recognition, affiliation and self-esteem. The research showed that the longer the disability experience lasted, the more important the abovementioned motives became. It is worth emphasizing that within the SDT paradigm, the abovementioned motives belong to all three key needs (autonomy, competence and relatedness). One may be tempted to conclude that as newly impaired athletes adapt to their disability, their expectations for the potential benefits that sport can provide soar; consequently, their motivations become stronger and more complex. Moreover, as shown by previous studies, the motivations of people with disabilities for sport participation are dynamic and can shift over time [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy limitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe recognize certain limitations of this study. First, our main limitation was that we did not collect data through disability classification or disability assessment. The next limitation concerned the type of discipline\u0026mdash;we focused on runners only\u0026mdash;and the stage of sport careers\u0026mdash;for which we did not interview professionals. Finally, our research was limited to only one region of Poland\u0026mdash;Greater Poland\u0026mdash;which is known for its plain topography, which may influence the motivation for running.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy implications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe differences in motivation we identified between running PWPD, relevant for athletes, matter even more for event organizers, coaches, sports psychologists and health professionals: using our study, they will all be able to improve their understanding of what motivates PWPD to run, as well as how to help them achieve their goals and challenge them to meet their specific needs. Recently, there has been an upsurge in the popularity of running, with many runners most likely looking for physical and mental training specialists to help them overcome new personal fitness challenges. Future studies should examine other sociodemographic factors that may contribute new information about the studied groups. Furthermore, another promising avenue of research would be to assess the motivations of runners among PWPD in the context of their disability (congenital vs. acquired; PWPD vs visually impaired people vs people with hearing impairment), stage of sports career (initiation, development, mastery), severity of disability, type of discipline, and sport engagement level (recreational vs. competitive vs. elite).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe most important motives for PWPD to participate in MREs, regardless of sex, are connected with self-esteem, psychological coping, and health orientation, all stemming from the need for autonomy. However, all studied categories of motives are relatively important, confirming that the sports motivations of PWPD are multidimensional. To promote running among PWPD effectively, it is essential to consider demographic factors such as age and health status, including the time since injury and severity of disability, which impact the manner of locomotion during a run. This approach will enable organizers to better support participants during running events by meeting their needs and enhancing their motivations for participation. The results obtained provide a solid foundation for further research on this topic.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants were treated ethically by the guidelines in the American Psychological Association\u0026rsquo;s code of ethics regarding anonymity and consent and in accordance with the generally accepted principles for the conduct of research contained in the Declaration of Helsinki. The study did not require formal approval from the Bioethics Committee because, according to the rules in Poland, the Bioethics Committee does not consider applications for standardized surveys used for their intended purpose when statistically selected survey items are analyzed in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMR, JP and E M-M contributed to the data collection and project administration. MK, TT and JP prepared the original draft of the manuscript. MK and TT contributed to the analysis and interpretation of the data. All authors (MK, MR, JP, E M-M, TT) contributed to the study conception and design, data collection or data interpretation, and critical revision of the manuscript; approved the final manuscript; and agreed to be accountable for all aspects of the work. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe would like to thank Magdalena Lewandowska for her support in the statistical analysis of the data.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbbas A. The embodiment of class, gender and age through leisure: A realist analysis of long distance running. Leisure Stud. 2004;23:159\u0026ndash;75.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eO\u0026rsquo;Keefe JH, O\u0026rsquo;Keefe EL, Lavie CJ. The Goldilocks Zone for Exercise: Not Too Little, Not Too Much. Mo Med. 2018;115:98\u0026ndash;105.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMalchrowicz-Mośko E, Waśkiewicz Z. The Impact of Family Life and Marital Status on the Motivations of Ultramarathoners: The Karkonosze Winter Ultramarathon Case Study. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWicker P, Hallmann K, Prinz J, Weimar D. Who takes part in triathlon? An application of lifestyle segmentation to triathlon participants. Int J Sport Manage Mark. 2012;12.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOgles BM, Masters KS. A Typology of Marathon Runners Based on Cluster Analysis of Motivations. 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Psychol Sport Exerc. 2010;11:197\u0026ndash;205.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-sports-science-medicine-and-rehabilitation","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ssmr","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation](http://bmcsportsscimedrehabil.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/ssmr/default.aspx","title":"BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"mass running events, people with physical disabilities, motivations, participation motives","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4472598/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4472598/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile the motivations of individuals without impairments for participating in mass running events are well-documented, there is a lack of current research exploring why people with physical disabilities engage in these events. This study aims to identify the motives for participation among people with physical disabilities, taking into account factors such as sex, age (emerging adults vs. middle-aged adults), time since injury or illness, and type of movement during a mass running events (wheelchair vs. standing).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn total, 119 runners (51.3% male; mean age of 36 years) completed the Polish version of the Motivations of Marathoners Scale questionnaire. The study was carried out using the diagnostic survey method. Online survey forms were sent to 31 organizations from the Greater Poland region, including sports clubs for individuals with disabilities and runners\u0026rsquo; clubs open to both individuals with and without disabilities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study uncovered distinct motivational differences based on age and category of runner. For participants aged under 35 compared to those over 35, significant differences were noted in the motives of recognition (Z = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2.834, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.005) and affiliation (Z = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2.534, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.011). Similarly, when comparing wheelchair users with standing runners, notable disparities were observed in motives related to weight (Z = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5.109, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) and personal goal achievement (Z = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2.613, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.009). There was also a significant positive relationship between the time since injury or illness and five out of nine subscales of the Motivations of Marathoners Scale (i.e. affiliation: r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.256, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.007; recognition: r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.239, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.011). The study found no correlation between gender and the motivations of people with physical disabilities for participating in mass running events.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen organizing and promoting running events for people with physical disabilities, it is important to consider factors such as the age of runners, time since injury, severity of disability, and mode of mobility. Additionally, it should be noted that no significant differences are found based on gender, indicating that both male and female participants are driven by similar motivations when it comes to participating in these events.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Motivational factors influencing participation in mass running events: a comparative study of females and males runners with disabilities","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-06-07 18:01:14","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4472598/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2024-05-29T11:11:49+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-05-28T12:22:52+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-05-27T09:26:50+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation","date":"2024-05-24T12:56:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-sports-science-medicine-and-rehabilitation","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ssmr","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation](http://bmcsportsscimedrehabil.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/ssmr/default.aspx","title":"BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"38678b63-1c22-45d9-a32a-010882f82179","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 7th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-09-23T16:09:10+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-4472598","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s13102-024-00981-8","journal":{"identity":"bmc-sports-science-medicine-and-rehabilitation","isVorOnly":false,"title":"BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation"},"publishedOn":"2024-09-16 15:58:07","publishedOnDateReadable":"September 16th, 2024"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-06-07 18:01:14","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s13102-024-00981-8","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s13102-024-00981-8","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4472598","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4472598","identity":"rs-4472598","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}