Assessment of Rhizosphere Mycobiome Associated with some Medicinal Plants Growing in Kashmir Himalayas

Assessment of Rhizosphere Mycobiome Associated with some Medicinal Plants Growing in Kashmir Himalayas | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Assessment of Rhizosphere Mycobiome Associated with some Medicinal Plants Growing in Kashmir Himalayas Mansoor Ahmad Malik Mansoor, Nusrat Ahmad, Mohd Yaqub Bhat, Abdul Hamid wani This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5338221/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The world of microorganisms has been divided into four main groups based on their importance to human life: therapeutically useful, those related to agriculture, dairy-related products, extremophiles, and industrially important microorganisms. This is because both the world of microorganisms and their isolation are too wide. The isolation and maintenance of pure cultures is a requirement for studying the biochemistry and physiology of microbes. The objective of the study was to identify and isolate rhizospheric soil fungi of medicinal plants that grow in the Kashmir Himalayas, especially Valeriana jatamonsi Jones, Lavatera cashmeriana L., and Artemisia absinthium L. The saprophytic and pathogenic fungi isolated were identified on the basis of cultural characteristics on different cultural media and morphological and microscopic characteristics. These fungi belong to Oomycetes, Zygomycetes, and Ascomycetes. Twenty eight fungal species, viz. Aspergillus niger , A. flavus , A. flavipes , A. terreus , A. fumigatus , Fusarium solani , F. oxysporum , F. acutatum , Pencillium chrysogenum , P. citrinum , P. expansum , P. lanosum, Chaetomium globosum , Alternaria alternata, A. solani , Rhizopus stolonifer , Paecilomyces victoriae , Mucor mucedo , Phytophthora cryptogea , Cladosporium cladosporioides , C. sphaerospermum , Curvularia lunata , Trichoderma harzanium , T. aureoviride, T. koningi , T. pseudokoningi , Scopulariopsis brevicaulis , and Trichothecium roseum were isolated. Some of the novel fungi can be used for their antibiotic or antibacterial properties against pathogenic fungi, and the study will be useful in the crucial discovery of soil-based fungi associated to other medicinal plants. Characterization culture Aspergillus niger Aspergillus flavus Aspergillus flavipes fungi isolation. Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Introduction Soil, which makes up a significant portion of the earth's surface, is home to a wide variety of microorganisms, including nematodes, bacteria, fungi, and mycoplasma. Most of them participate in activities that promote plant growth and make a substantial contribution to maintaining the food web (Rani, 2022). Bacteria made the largest contribution, approximately 1 billion microbial carbons per gramme, followed by actinomycetes (a few hundred million), fungi (10–20 million), algae (10–3 million), protozoa cells (up to 1 million), and nematodes (50 or more) (Bagyaraj et al., 2016; Gupta, 2023). Microorganisms in the soil can change a plant's development and reproduction as well as its population structure (Santos and Olivares, 2021; Ahmed and Al-Mutairi, 2022). Since there is a lot of microbial activity in the rhizosphere—the small area of soil that surrounds active plant roots-organic nutrients and root exudates encourage the growth of microorganisms there. The rhizosphere's microbial diversity affects the health and development of plants (Priyadharsini et al ., 2016; Sharma et al ., 2021). The most common rhizospheric microorganisms are fungi, which also serve as a major source of novel chemicals with antiviral, antibacterial, and anti-mycotic effects (Bagyaraj and Ashwin 2017; Gao et al. 2018; Wang et al. 2018; Li et al . 2018; Ting, 2020; Barkah and Siddalingegowda, 2021; Balkrishna et al., 2022; Asogwa et al., 2024; Srilekha et al., 2024). Similar bioactive chemicals can be produced by the fungi that are associated with the host plant (Mendes et al ., 2013; Shaikh and Mokat, 2018). Both plants and independent organisms produce secondary metabolites as a result of the decomposition of plant matter by bacteria in the rhizosphere and the accumulation of organic materials (Berendsen et al ., 2012; Shaikh and Mokat, 2018; Tyc et al . 2017; Garcia Mier et al . 2019; Adedeji and Babalola, 2020). As a key component of nutrient cycling for the establishment of sustainable ecosystems, fungi are crucial for the formation, maintenance, and enhancement of soil (Rashid et al. , 2016; Devi et al ., 2020; Fall et al ., 2022; Walia et al ., 2022). Rhizosphere microflora can supply low-cost, organic, and sustainable inputs that can boost agricultural productivity for a variety of crops (Meena et al ., 2017; Umesha et al ., 2018; Kalia et al ., 2020). Some plants' rhizosphere fungi efficiently solubilise tricalcium phosphate, or rock phosphate, which helps increase the amount of phosphorus that plants take in for growth (Khan et al ., 2017; Ghosh and Mandal, 2020; Khoshru et al ., 2023). AM fungi improve microbial activity, nitrogen absorption, and functional diversity in the rhizosphere soil of medicinal plants. Although not the quality, they also affect the components of organic matter (Kushwaha et al ., 2020; Wang et al ., 2022). The medicinal plants thrive in their native environment. India is only one of the nations that grow specific medicinal plants that are used to cure a range of diseases (kala et al ., 2006; Van and Wink, 2018). Kashmir's Himalayan region is home to an extensive array of medicinal plants. The functional diversity of microorganisms living in the mycorrhizosphere must be fully understood in order to optimise soil microbial technology for the benefit of plant development and health. In order to improve plant health, the different rhizospheric components can be altered. As a result, they can be used as instruments to address a range of problems that the agro-ecosystems encounter. Therefore, through increased atmospheric carbon dioxide drawdown, the modified rhizosphere can be a helpful tool for stabilizing carbon pools in soil ecosystems and enhancing agricultural output in high-stress situations. Materials and Methods Collection of rhizospheric soil samples Samples of soil from the rhizosphere zone that cling to the roots of Valeriana jatamonsi Jones, Lavatera cashmeriana L., and Artemisia absinthium L. were taken from three distinct locations in the Kashmir Valley: Gulmarg, Sonamarg, and Daksum. At a soil depth of 0–40 cm, the medicinal plants were gently dug up and sterilized polythene bags containing composite soil samples were collected and brought to the Plant Pathology and Mycology Laboratory, Department of Botany, University of Kashmir. For additional analysis, the soil samples were placed in sterile polythene bags and refrigerated at 4±1°C. Isolation of rhizospheric soil fungi The soil dilution plate method was used to isolate fungi from soil samples (Ahmad et al ., 2021; Malik et al ., 2022). To make soil dilutions, one gram of soil from each sample was suspended in 10 ml of sterile distilled water. 10 -3 , 10 -4 , 10 -5 and 10 -6 fungal dilutions were employed to separate and keep the fungal colonies from growing out of control. A one percent streptomycin solution was poured to sterile petri dishes containing sterilized PDA medium, and 1 ml of each concentration's suspension was added. The plates were then incubated at 25±2 o C for 4–5 days. For every treatment, three duplicates were employed. Fungi were easy to separate because they formed widely dispersed surface colonies, particularly at higher dilutions. Identification of soil fungi The rhizosphere soil fungi isolated from the rhizosphere of Valeriana jatamonsi Jones, Lavatera cashmeriana L., and Artemisia absinthium L. were identified in line with Trappe (1982) and Gilman (2008) based on cultural, morphological, and microscopic features. To identify the fungi morphologically, they were cultivated on PDA media and incubated in BOD for 7 days at 25±2°C. The macro- and microscopic characteristics of the colonies, along with cultural and morphological variances such the size of the asexual spores, such as conidia, sporangiophores, and vegetative hyphae, were used to identify the fungi after the incubation period (Boerema et al., 2004). The fungal keys by Quimio (2001) and Wantanabe (2002), along with relevant literature, were utilised to identify pure isolates of fungi. Results Aspergillus niger Van Tieghem Cultural characteristics A. niger colonies grow very rapidly, produced white colonies which then turn black in colour due to conidial production and comprised of a thick layer of upright conidiophores (Fig.1, A). Microscopic characteristics The mycelium of Aspergillus niger is septate and hyaline, with radiating heads. With vesicles that produce sterile cells called metulae that support conidiogenous phialides, it is biseriate. Conidiophores range in length from 400 µm to 300 µm, are hyaline, and have smooth walls. They terminate in a globose vesicle that ranges in diameter from 30 to 75 µm and darken near the apex. Conidia were spherical, oval and globose, brown to black in colour, 4µm -5µm in diameter (Fig.2, A). Aspergillus flavus Link Cultural characteristics Aspergillus flavus colonies are cream on the back and yellow-green on the top. The fungus grew quickly, and colonies had a powdery appearance (Fig.1, B). Microscopic characteristics Based on microscopic analysis, the mycelium was hyaline and septate, and the conidia were smooth, globose to subglobose, and generated thick mycelial mats with a diameter of 3 to 6 µm. Conidiophores don't have colour. Globose to subglobose vesicles are found. The entire vesicle is covered in metulae (Fig.2, B). Aspergillus flavipes (Bainier and Sartory) Thom and Church Cultural characteristics On PDA media, the Aspergillus flavipes colonies had a light brown reverse and a white top surface. The colonies had a cottony feel, and the fungus grew slowly (Fig.1, C). Microscopic characteristics Mycelium was found to be septate and hyaline in microscopic studies. Conidial heads are loosely columnar, with subglobose vesicles radiating from them. Conidia have a diameter of 2.15 to 2.27 µm, are smooth, globose to subglobose, and form thick mycelial mats. Conidiophores are colorless. Metulae cover the entire vesicle (Fig.2, C). Aspergillus terreus Thom Cultural characteristics The colonies of Aspergillus terreus appeared cream white in colour, plain or with radial furrows, velvety, floccose in some strains and the reverse colour of the colony was dark orange (cinnamon-buff to wood brown). The growth of the colony on PDA media was slow attaining 6- 10 cm in 10 days (Fig.1, D). Microscopic characteristics Aspergillus terreus developed globose to subglobose conidia on submerged vegetative mycelium, either singly or in small clusters. The conidial heads were lengthy and columnar. Conidia have a diameter of 2–3 µm. Smooth conidiophores, hemispherical, dome-shaped vesicles, and biseriate phialides; parallel, crowded metulae; and closely packed phialides (Fig.2, D). Aspergillus fumigatus Fresenius Cultural characteristics Although green spores were being produced, the colony's colour was dark green, and its reverse colour was pale yellow. On PDA media, the fungus grew quickly, and colonies had a powdery texture (Fig.1, E). Microscopic characteristics Simple, clavately inflated at the apex, and hyaline, conidiophores produce nodding vesicles and contain catenulate conidia that are born on uniseriate phialides on pale brown vesicles. Phialosporous conidia have a diameter of 2.4 to 2.7 µm and are globose, pale green, and somewhat echinulate. Conidiophores range in height from 55 to 125 µm, whereas vesicles have a diameter of 13.33 to 14.6 µm. Conidial heads are columnar and dark bluish green (Fig.2, E). Fusarium solani (Mart) Sacc. Cultural characteristics On PDA medium, Fusarium solani colonies were cottony white. Because the fungus in the culture media releases some exudation, the colony's reverse colour appears reddish pink (Fig.1, F). Microscopic characteristics Under a microscope, Fusarium solani's filaments were branching, septate, and hyaline. Microconidia and macroconidia are produced by conidiophores, which develop from hyphae that were 16.32 µm - 53.04 µm × 2.04 µm - 4.08 µm long. Macroconidia are long, sickle-shaped with three to five septa that range in diameter from 4.08 to 20.40 µm × 2.04 µm to 4.08 µm. Microconidia are small, oval, and may have two septa or be smooth and curved. The dimensions of microconidia are 3.3 µm -13.43 µm x 2.42 µm - 4.20 µm (Fig.2, F). Fusarium oxysporum (Schl.) emend. Snyder and Hansen Cultural characteristics Typically, the colonies grow quickly, are vividly coloured, pale, and covered in cottony aerial mycelium. One might observe purple colouring in the colouration of the fungal colony. Over time, the tint shifts from pale to yellow to reddish (Fig.1, G). Microscopic characteristics Both macro and micro conidia are produced by thin phialides. Macroconidia are fusiform to sickle shaped, hyaline, two to multiple-celled, and possess an elongated apical cell and a pedicellate basal cell. Macroconidia range in length from 19.8 µm to 61.0 µm and 3.15 µm to 6.0 µm. Microconidia range in size from 5.80 µm to 8.05 µm, have one to two cells, are hyaline, pyriform, to ovoid, straight, or curved (Fig.2, G). Fusarium acutatum Nirenberg and O'Donnell Cultural characteristics Fusarium acutatum colonies on PDA had aerial mycelium and were white or creamish in colour. The colony's reverse colour was light brownish (Fig.1, H). Microscopic characteristics The hyaline, smooth, cylindrical to flask-shaped conidiogenous cells that developed laterally on the aerial hyphae produced microconidia. The microconidia were hyaline, often oval and non-septate (Fig.2, H). Penicillium chrysogenum Thom. Cultural characteristics Initially white, Penicillium chrysogenum colonies on PDA eventually turn blue-green and have a velvety feel. The colony's the bottom is yellowish white (Fig.1, I). Microscopic characteristics Under a microscope, Penicillium chrysogenum's mycelium is made up of a densely branched network of septate, multinucleate, and usually colourless hyphae. Multiple branched conidiophores with individually constricted conidiophores are produced by the mycelia. Chains of single-celled conidia are produced in basipetal succession by a specific conidiogenous cell known as a phialide. Branched metulae can produce phialides singly or in clusters, giving the penicillus a brush-like look. Conidiophores can be rough or hyaline (Fig.2, I). Penicillium citrinum Thom Cultural characteristics Colonies on PDA are radially sulcate, centrally floccose, grow quickly, and occasionally get smaller. The colony's colour ranged from white to greyish green in the centres and white in the periphery (Fig.1, J). Microscopic characteristics Microscopic examination reveals that phialides emerge in compact verticils along which conidiophores are carried from surface to subsurface hyphae. Conidia are smooth or finely roughened, globose to subglobose, and range in diameter from 2.2 to 3.0 µm. There are whorls of metulae. They are ampulliform phialides (Fig.2, J). Penicillium expansum Link ex Thom Cultural characteristics Penicillium expansum colonies on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) started out white and velvety, then turned bluish green as conidia and conidiophores formed (Fig.1, K). Microscopic characteristics Microscopic observations revealed that the mycelium was septate, the conidiophores branched 48 µm to 120 µm long, the metulae formed conidiogenous cells known as phialides or sterigmata, and the conidiophores were terverticillate. Phialides ranged in length from 3.5 to 7.5 µm. Conidia have smooth walls, are globose or ellipsoidal, and range in diameter from 3.0 to 3.5 µm (Fig.2, K). Penicillium lanosum Westling Cultural characteristics Colonies on PDA showed rapid growth and are grayish green with whitish tint. The colony's reverse colour was yellowish pink (Fig.1, L). Microscopic characteristics Conidiophores are erect, hyaline, and branching penicillately with primary and secondary metula, verticillate phialides, and catenulate conidia in each phialide. They are formed from aerial hyphae. 12.5 µm to 62.5 µm × 2.5 µm to 2.8 µm are conidiophores. Phialides measure 10 µm to 13.8 µm × 2.5 µm to 3 µm and are lanceolata, or suddenly sharpened. Phialosporous conidia are globose to subglobose, one-celled, and range in diameter from 2.7 to 4.0 µm (Fig.2, L). Chaetomium globosum Kunze Cultural characteristics Chaetomium globosum produced profuse mycelium on PDA media and the cottony colonies are creamish in color. The reverse color of the colony was light pink (Fig.1, M). Microscopic characteristics Results revealed that Chaetomium globosum produced spherical, ovoidal or obovoidal ascomata. Ascomatal hairs are numerous and unbranched, septate. Spores are limoniform and bilaterally flattened (Fig.2, M). Alternaria alternata (Fr.) Keissl Cultural characteristics Colonies of Alternaria alternata on PDA media were velvety in texture, olive green in colour, and produced a lot of mycelium. Mycelial and conidial production is abundant on PDA (Fig.1, N). Microscopic characteristics Alternaria alternata had multicelled, septate, irregularly branching, hyaline, grey-brownish mycelium. The hyphae of A. alternata are hyaline and slender at first, measuring 2.84 μm in diameter, but they eventually thicken to 4.42 μm. Conidiophores may show up alone or in clusters of two to six. The conidiophores are 4.29 μm in width and 42.26 μm in length. Conidia ranged in colour from light olivaceous to dark brown and were generated in chains of ten or more. Their shapes range from obclavate to ellipsoidal, and they have a muriform apex with 1 to 3 longitudinal and 2–10 transverse septa. A conidial's length is three to five times its width. The chlamydospores produced in the old culture are intercalary, thick-walled, roundish to oval in shape, dark brown in colour, and 7.22 μm in diameter (Fig.2, N). Alternaria solani Sorauer Cultural characteristics After 48 hours of incubation, the fungus formed colonies on PDA media that were elevated, irregular or circular in shape, greyish in colour, and had a velvety texture. The colony's back side was blackish white in colour (Fig.1, O). Microscopic characteristics Microscopic examination revealed that the mycelium was septate and branched. Conidiophores ranged in size from 50 µm to 60 µm and were light brown in hue. Conidiophore tips were where conidia were generated singly. The conidia measured 8.02 µm to 10.03 µm in width and 16.04 µm to 42.10 µm in length. The conidia have 0–2 longitudinal and 1–6 transverse septa (Fig.2, O). Rhizopus stolonifer (Ehrneb.: Fr) Vuill Cultural characteristics Rhizopus stolonifer colonies often grew quickly, filled the petriplates, and reached maturity in three days. It had the usual cottony texture from the front. Initially white, the colony gradually turned grey and then yellowish brown. A light to medium shade of white is used on the back (Fig.1, P). Microscopic characteristics The non-septate, branching mycelium of Rhizopus stolonifer had three different kinds of branches: sporangiospores, rhizoids, and stolans. Brown in colour, sporangiospores are typically unbranched and develop in clusters. Where the sporangiospores and stolans met, rizoids appeared. At the extremities of the sporangiospores, sporangia were discovered. They were round, with hemispherical columella and flattened bottoms. Apophysis was either absent or only occasionally seen. Sporangiospores are unicellular, round to ovoid in shape, hyaline to brown in colour, and smooth. They range in diameter from 4 to 11 µm (Fig.2, P). Paecilomyces victoriae (Szilvinyi) A. H. S. Brown and G. Smith Cultural characteristics The colonies of Paecilomyces victoriae on PDA medium were white and cottony (Fig.1, Q). Microscopic characteristics Conidiophores were hyaline, upright, branching apically, and catenulate conidia carried on terminal phialides. Phialides are either ampulliform, opposite, or occasionally verticillate, with a cylindrical base and an acutely pointed median. There are several different types of conidia, including phialosporous, terminal, subglobose, and widely ellipsoidal (Fig.2, Q). Mucor mucedo Linnaeus Cultural characteristics Mucor mucedo colonies on PDA often ranged in colour from white to grey and grew quickly, reaching heights of several centimetres. Older colonies become grey or brown as a result of spore growth (Fig.1, R). Microscopic characteristics Microscopic investigations revealed that this fungus's mycelium was non-septate and contained sporangiophores, sporangia, and spores. There were no rizoids or stolans, and the sporangiophores are short and upright. Round, grey to black in hue, sporangia are teeming with sporangiophores. Their diameters vary from 50 μm to 300 μm (Fig.2, R). Phytophthora cryptogea Pethybridge and Lafferty Cultural characteristics The fungus produced white cottony colonies on PDA medium, after 72h of incubation at 25 o C ±2 (Fig.1, S). Microscopic characteristics Microscopic analysis revealed that the sporangia were internally proliferated, obovate or ellipsoidal, and slightly or faintly papillate or nonpapillate. Hypothal swellings become globose, and zoospores develop inside sporangia (Fig.2, S). Cladosporium cladosporioides (Fresen.) G. A. de Vries Cultural characteristics Colonies of Cladosporium cladosporioides on PDA were either olivaceous to grey, olivaceous to dull green, or grey. The colony was irregular in shape and had a velvety texture (Fig.1, T). Microscopic characteristics Microscopic examinations revealed that conidiophores were medium brown, straight to slightly flexuose, and up to 350 μm length by 2 μm to 6 μm wide. Conidiophores ranged in size from 2 to 6 μm in width and up to 350 μm in length. The conidia were lengthy, branching chains of aseptate, limoniform or ellipsoid, 3 μm × 11 μm × 2 μm × 5 μm. Conidia were pale olivaceous to brown, spherical to subspherical, and smooth-walled, while some strains had rough walls (Fig.2, T). Cladosporium sphaerospermum Penz. Cultural characteristics The olivaceous green or olivaceous to grey colonies of Cladosporium sphaerospermum were found on PDA. The colony had an uneven shape and a powdery feel (Fig.1, U). Microscopic characteristics Microscopic investigations revealed that the Cladosporium sphaerospermum mycelium is hyaline and forms conidiophores with chains of conidia in tree-like heads. Conidiophores arise laterally from the mycelium or are formed terminally on the hyphae, about 160 μm long, 3-4 μm wide. Conidia are continuous, globose, subglobose, or ellipsoidal, with a diameter of 4-6 μm (Fig.2, U). Curvularia lunata (Wakker) Boedijn Cultural characteristics On potato dextrose agar, Curvularia lunata colonies grow rapidly, mature in 5 days and reaching a diameter of 3 to 9 cm. The colony had a fuzzy texture, and as it grew older, its surface changed from greyish to dark grey. The backside of the colony was heavily coloured and olive green in tone (Fig.1, V). Microscopic characteristics The microscopic examinations revealed that the hyphae were light brown and septate. Conidiophores were brown, simple or branching, and ranged in diameter from 4.5 to 6 µm. The conidia were light to dark brown, elliptical to cylindrical, and had two to four cells. The centre cells were wider than the others (Fig.2, V). Trichoderma harzanium Rifai Cultural characteristics Trichoderma harzanium colonies on PDA were initially white to greyish white before turning dark green. The colony had a cottony texture, was round as a ring, and was aerial from the start. The colony's backside was a light shade of yellow (Fig.1, W). Microscopic characteristics Microscopic inspection revealed that conidiophores were erect, hyaline, branched, and contained spore masses apically at verticillate phialides. One kind of phialide is a short, thick phialide. Phialides measure between 7.2 and 9.8 µm by 2.4 and 2.7 µm. The globose to subglobose to ovate, hyaline conidia of Trichoderma harzanium had a diameter of 2.1 µm to 3 µm × 2.8 µm to 4.8 µm (Fig.2, W). Trichoderma aureoviride Rifai Cultural characteristics On PDA medium, the Trichoderma viride colonies looked fluffy and yellowish green, with the opposite hue being brownish green (Fig.1, X). Microscopic characteristics According to the microscopic analysis, the mycelium was septate, and each phialide had branched conidiophores with spore masses. Common phialides are verticillate, short, and thick, with a diameter of 8.5–11 µm × 2.4–2.7 µm. The ovate, one-celled, hyaline conidia had a diameter of 2.4 µm to 2.7 µm × 2.1 µm to 2.5 µm. Chlamydospores are granulate, subglobose, and pale brown (Fig.2, X). Trichoderma koningi Oud. Cultural characteristics Initially white, colonies on PDA medium eventually turned green. The colony's reverse colour was pale yellow (Fig.1, Y). Microscopic characteristics Conidiophores were found to be hyaline, upright, branching, and to bear spore masses at the apical phialides, according to microscopic investigations. The tapering phialides have a diameter of 7.2 µm to 12.22 µm × 2.1 µm to 2.7 µm. Hyaline, one-celled, ovate or ellipsoidal conidia. The chlamydospores were subglobose, and the conidia had a diameter of 3 µm to 4.5 × 2.4 µm to 3 µm (Fig.2, Y). Trichoderma pseudokoningi Rifai. Cultural characteristics The colonies on PDA medium had a green hue. The colony's reverse colour was pale yellow (Fig.1, Z). Microscopic characteristics Microscopic investigations revealed that conidiophores were hyaline, erect, branched, and had irregularly spaced phialides with spore masses apically. Short and thick, phialides ranged in diameter from 9.7 µm to 12.22 µm× 2.1 µm to 2.9 µm. Chlamydospores were subglobose, conidia were ellipsoidal to ovate, and they were one-celled (Fig.2, Z). Scopulariopsis brevicaulis (Sacc) Brainier Cultural characteristics After 48 hours of incubation on PDA media, the fungus formed colonies that were irregularly shaped, cottony in texture, and pale brown to orange in colour. The colony's reverse side was dark orange in hue (Fig.1, a). Microscopic characteristics Conidiophores were identified by microscopic analysis as hyaline, upright, simple, or branched conidiophores with apical annellations on verticillate or alternating conidiophores with catenulate conidia at the phialides. The conidiophore had a diameter of 2.7 to 3.6 µm and branched between 9 and 16.2 µm. Phialides that are cylindrical and hyaline. Conidia are globose or subglobose, phialosporous, and yellowish or pale brown. Conidia range in diameter from 5.4 to 8.1 µm (Fig.2, a). Trichothecium roseum (Pers.) Link Morphological characteristics Colonies of Trichothecium roseum on PDA grow fast and the colour of the colony was pinkish, powdery due to conidial formation. The reverse color of the colony was colorless to light pink (Fig.1, b). Microscopic characteristics According to the microscopic analyses, the mycelium was branching and septate. Conidia were ellipsoidal to pyriform, two-celled, and measured 16 µm × 21 µm × 3.26 µm × 4.00 µm in diameter. The upper cell was somewhat bigger, smooth and thick-walled, and hyaline. Conidiophores were erect and produced singly. Long, hyaline, and septate conidiophores were formed (Fig.2, b). Discussion The current study made it evident that in the Kashmir Valley's examined areas, 28 soil fungi have been associated to Lavatera cashmeriana L., Valeriana jatamonsi Jones, and Artemisia absinthium L. Aspergillus niger , A. flavus, A. flavipes , A. terreus, A. fumigatus, Fusarium solani, F. oxysporum, F. acutatum , Pencillium chrysogenum , Alternaria alternata , Rhizopus stolonifer , Paecilomyces victoriae , Mucor mucedo , Cladosporium cladosporioides , Curvularia lunata , Trichoderma harzanium , Trichoderma aureoviride and Trichothecium roseum were among the isolates. Similarly, Penicillium citrinum was found associated with Lavatera cashmeriana and Artemisia absinthium. Likewise, Alternaria solani , Phytophthora cryptogea , Trichoderma koningi , Trichoderma pseudokoningi and Scopulariopsis brevicaulis were found associated with Valeriana jatamonsi and Artemisia absinthium. Penicillium expansum and Chaetomium globosum were found associated with Valeriana jatamonsi . Furthermore, Penicillium lanosum and Cladosporium sphaerospermum were found associated with Artemisia absinthium. In an equivalent study on other plants, Fusarium verticillium sp. was found along with the roots of Atractylodes lancea, Dioscorea zingiberensis, Pinellia ternate , Euphorbia pekinensis , and Ophiopogon platyphyllum (Dai et al., 2009 ). Similarly, among the fungal species isolated from the rhizosphere of Santalum album , Thombre et al. ( 2016 ) found that Aspergillus terricola, A. niger , and Penicillium spp. were the most common and abundant. In the tomato root microbiome, Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillus niger exhibited the highest percentage frequency of occurrences, while Rhizopus oryzae and Rhizopus stolonifer showed the lowest percentage frequency of occurrences, Shinkafi and Gobir ( 2018 ) found, which is consistent with our findings. Several researchers carried out similar studies on the rhizosphere soil of additional medicinal plants (Tamilarasi et al., 2008 ; Sagar et al. , 2009; Sundar et al., 2011 ; Burni et al., 2011 ; Sagar et al., 2011 ; Banakar et al., 2012 ; Mir et al., 2017 ). Based on morphological, microscopic, and cultural traits on various cultural media, the saprophytic and pathogenic fungi that were isolated were identified. The classes of Oomycetes, Zygomycetes, and Ascomycetes include these fungi. Similar studies by Schoch et al. ( 2009 ) and Egidi et al. ( 2019 ) revealed that Ascomycota was the most prevalent fungal phylum in every sample, followed by Basidiomycota, a widespread trend in soils worldwide. Ascomycota is both the largest and most common phylum of fungi in terms of species count. Our research aligns with that of Mir et al. ( 2017 ), who discovered several fungi associated with different medicinal plants while working on rhizosphere soil samples. The research results proved that the plants under study had an impact on the rhizosphere's fungal community structure (Wang et al., 2017 ; Schmidt et al., 2019 ; Zhang et al., 2019 ; Fuentes et al., 2020 ). Studying the microbiome is intriguing due to its potential and the need to produce food in a more sustainable way. Numerous research on the frequency and abundance of rhizosphere fungal flora associated with several medicinal and aromatic plants have shown that there are more fungi in the rhizosphere region than in the non-rhizosphere area(Srivastava and Kumar 2013 ; Shaikh and Nadaf 2013 ). These reports show significant variation. The relative abundances of a number of fungal phyla, genera, and functional groups were found to differ statistically significantly between the control soils and the various plant rhizospheres (Xu et al., 2018 ; Ye et al., 2021 ; Ling et al., 2022 ; Aplebaum et al ., 2022). Fungal colonisation, quantity, and distribution in the rhizosphere of medicinal plants might vary depending on the host plant species, growing season, soil properties, local climate, and environmental conditions (Khan et al., 2020 ; Ahmad et al., 2021 ; Han et al., 2021 ; Chen et al., 2021 ; Malik et al., 2022 ). Plant roots influence the soil by releasing carbon-rich exudates and rhizodeposits. In the rhizosphere, a distinct colony of microorganisms thrives. Through their actions, plants can obtain a variety of components from the soil that they need to develop and survive (Priyadharsini et al., 2016 ; Verma et al., 2021 ; Bauddh and Ma, 2022 ; Manivel et al., 2023 ). Conclusion In order to protect plant health and productivity, the current study aimed to characterize the rhizospheric soil fungi associated with Lavatera cashmeriana L., Valeriana jatamonsi Jones, and Artemisia absinthium L. The reason for this is that the productivity and diversity of aboveground plants can be predicted by the richness of belowground microbial species, which can be used to map out areas suitable for Lavatera cashmeriana L., Valeriana jatamonsi Jones, and Artemisia absinthium L. cultivation. Additionally, this research will aid in the identification and isolation of helpful fungal bioagents as well as harmful fungi in order to create environmentally friendly management plans. Declarations Ethical Statement or Responsibilities of Authors This study was conducted in strict accordance with ethical guidelines. All participants provided informed consent, and the research received approval from the appropriate ethics committee. Data handling followed confidentiality standards, and no conflicts of interest influenced the study. All authors contributed meaningfully and approved the final manuscript. Conflict of Interest The authors declare that they have no financial or non-financial competing interests. Funding The authors received no financial assistance during the during the study period. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We would like to extend our gratitude to Dr. Mohad Yaqub Bhat and Professor Abdul Hamid Wani of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Bio-Control Lab, Department of Botany, University of Kashmir for their support in completing this task during the course of the study. Author contributions Mansoor Ahmad Malik : Conceptualization; Methodology; Data collection; Curation and Analysis; Software; Visualization; Writing-Original draft. Nusrat Ahmad : Data collection; Curation and analysis; Writing-Original draft; Writing- Mohd Yaqub Bhat : Review and Editing. Conceptualization; Abdul Hamid Wani : Supervision; Investigation. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version. Data availability All the primary data generated is present in the manuscript. References Adedeji AA. Babalola OO. 2020. Secondary metabolites as plant defensive strategy: A large role for small molecules in the near root region. Planta, 252 (4):61. Ahmad N, Bhat MY, Wani AH, Peer LA. 2021. Rhizosphere Mycobiome Diversity of Medicinal Plants: A Review. The Journal of Plant Science Research, 37(1):175–87. Ahmed N. Al-Mutairi KA. 2022. Earthworms effect on microbial population and soil fertility as well as their interaction with agriculture practices. 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\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAspergillus terreus, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eE) = \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAspergillus fumigatus, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eF) = \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFusarium solani, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eG) = \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFusarium oxysporum\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e, H) = \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFusarium acutatum\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e, I) = \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePenicillium chrysogenum, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eJ) = \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePenicillium citrinum, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eK) =\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePenicillium expansum\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e, L) = \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePenicillium lanosum, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eM) = \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChaetomium globosum, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eN) = \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAlternaria alternata, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eO) = \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAlternaria alternata, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP) = \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRhizopus stolonifer\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e, Q) = \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePaecilomyces victoriae\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e, R) = \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMucor mucedo, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eS) = \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePhytophthora cryptogea, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eT) = \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCladosporium cladosporioides, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eU) = \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCladosporium sphaerospermum, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eV) = \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCurvularia lunata,\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e W) = \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTrichoderma harzanium, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eX) = \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTrichoderma aureoviride, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eY) = \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTrichoderma koningi, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZ) = \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTrichoderma pseudokoningi, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ea) =\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e Scopulariopsis brevicaulis, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eb)=\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTrichothecium roseum\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5338221/v1/4d995d349313582c31aea5fa.png"},{"id":70321476,"identity":"a56b18b2-4e00-4afa-bdb9-14e7be0f153d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-02 06:53:08","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":770907,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFungal cultures on PDA medium: A) = Conidia and conidiophore of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAspergillus niger\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e, B) = Conidia and conidiophore of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAspergillus flavus,\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e C) = Mycelium of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAspergillus flavipes\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e with conidiophore, D) = Mycelium of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAspergillus terreus \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ewith conidia and conidiophore,\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eE) = Mycelium of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAspergillus fumigatus\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e with conidia and conidiophore\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eF) = Sickle shaped conidia of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFusarium solani, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eG) = Conidia of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFusarium oxysporum\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e, H) = Mycelium of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFusarium acutatum\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e with micro conidia, I) = Conidia and conidiophore of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePenicillium chrysogenum, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eJ) = Conidia and conidiophore of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePenicillium citrinum, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eK) =\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMycelium of\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e Penicillium expansum \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ewith conidiophore, L) = Mycelium of\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e Penicillium lanosum\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e with conidiophore and conidia\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eM) = Mycelium of\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e Chaetomium globosum\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e with conidia\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eN) = Conidia of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAlternaria alternata, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eO) = Conidia of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAlternaria solani, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP) = Rhizoids and sporangia of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRhizopus stolonifer\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e, Q) = Conidia and conidiophore of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePaecilomyces victoriae\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e, R) = Sporangiophore and sporangia of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMucor mucedo, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eS) = Mycelium of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePhytophthora cryptogea \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ewith sporangia\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eT) = Mycelium of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCladosporium cladosporioides\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e with conidia and conidiophore\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eU) = Mycelium of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCladosporium sphaerospermum\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e with conidia and conidiophore\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eV) = Mycelium of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCurvularia lunata\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e with conidia and conidiophore\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e,\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e W) = Mycelium of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTrichoderma harzanium\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e with conidia and conidiophore\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eX) = Mycelium of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTrichoderma aureoviride\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e with conidia and conidiophore\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eY) = Mycelium of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTrichoderma koningi\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e with conidia and conidiophore\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZ) = Mycelium of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTrichoderma pseudokoningi\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e with conidia and conidiophore\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ea) =\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMycelium of\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eScopulariopsis brevicaulis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e with conidiophore\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eb)=\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBi-celled conidia of\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e Trichothecium roseum\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5338221/v1/9a78effa7ed2f18c0f663c5e.png"},{"id":71006094,"identity":"9e93e61e-baf3-4f9b-a7fd-010cd6ead786","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-10 06:24:28","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3892396,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5338221/v1/1b37d11e-5653-49c7-ae9f-b1c99c2006a5.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Assessment of Rhizosphere Mycobiome Associated with some Medicinal Plants Growing in Kashmir Himalayas","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSoil, which makes up a significant portion of the earth\u0026apos;s surface, is home to a wide variety of microorganisms, including nematodes, bacteria, fungi, and mycoplasma. Most of them participate in activities that promote plant growth and make a substantial contribution to maintaining the food web (Rani, 2022). Bacteria made the largest contribution, approximately 1 billion microbial carbons per gramme, followed by actinomycetes (a few hundred million), fungi (10\u0026ndash;20 million), algae (10\u0026ndash;3 million), protozoa cells (up to 1 million), and nematodes (50 or more) (Bagyaraj \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2016; Gupta, 2023). Microorganisms in the soil can change a plant\u0026apos;s development and reproduction as well as its population structure (Santos and Olivares, 2021; Ahmed and Al-Mutairi, 2022).\u0026nbsp;Since there is a lot of microbial activity in the rhizosphere\u0026mdash;the small area of soil that surrounds active plant roots-organic nutrients and root exudates encourage the growth of microorganisms there. The rhizosphere\u0026apos;s microbial diversity affects the health and development of plants\u0026nbsp;(Priyadharsini \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2016; Sharma \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021). The most common rhizospheric microorganisms are fungi, which also serve as a major source of novel chemicals with antiviral, antibacterial, and anti-mycotic effects\u0026nbsp;(Bagyaraj and Ashwin 2017; Gao \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e 2018; Wang \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e 2018; Li \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2018; Ting, 2020; Barkah and Siddalingegowda, 2021; Balkrishna \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2022; Asogwa \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2024; Srilekha \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2024). Similar bioactive chemicals can be produced by the fungi that are associated with the host plant\u0026nbsp;(Mendes \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2013; Shaikh and Mokat, 2018). Both plants and independent organisms produce secondary metabolites as a result of the decomposition of plant matter by bacteria in the rhizosphere and the accumulation of organic materials\u0026nbsp;(Berendsen \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2012; Shaikh and Mokat, 2018; Tyc \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2017; Garcia Mier \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2019; Adedeji and Babalola, 2020).\u0026nbsp;As a key component of nutrient cycling for the establishment of sustainable ecosystems, fungi are crucial for the formation, maintenance, and enhancement of soil (Rashid \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 2016; Devi \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2020; Fall \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022; Walia \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022). Rhizosphere microflora can supply low-cost, organic, and sustainable inputs that can boost agricultural productivity for a variety of crops (Meena \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2017; Umesha \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2018; Kalia \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2020). Some plants\u0026apos; rhizosphere fungi efficiently solubilise tricalcium phosphate, or rock phosphate, which helps increase the amount of phosphorus that plants take in for growth (Khan \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2017; Ghosh and Mandal, 2020; Khoshru \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2023). AM fungi improve microbial activity, nitrogen absorption, and functional diversity in the rhizosphere soil of medicinal plants. Although not the quality, they also affect the components of organic matter (Kushwaha \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2020; Wang \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022). The medicinal plants thrive in their native environment. India is only one of the nations that grow specific medicinal plants that are used to cure a range of diseases\u0026nbsp;(kala \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2006; Van and Wink, 2018).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKashmir\u0026apos;s Himalayan region is home to an extensive array of medicinal plants. The functional diversity of microorganisms living in the mycorrhizosphere must be fully understood in order to optimise soil microbial technology for the benefit of plant development and health. In order to improve plant health, the different rhizospheric components can be altered. As a result, they can be used as instruments to address a range of problems that the agro-ecosystems encounter. Therefore, through increased atmospheric carbon dioxide drawdown, the modified rhizosphere can be a helpful tool for stabilizing carbon pools in soil ecosystems and enhancing agricultural output in high-stress situations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCollection of rhizospheric soil samples\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSamples of soil from the rhizosphere zone that cling to the roots of \u003cem\u003eValeriana jatamonsi\u003c/em\u003e Jones, \u003cem\u003eLavatera cashmeriana\u003c/em\u003e L., and \u003cem\u003eArtemisia absinthium\u003c/em\u003e L. were taken from three distinct locations in the Kashmir Valley: Gulmarg, Sonamarg, and Daksum. At a soil depth of 0–40 cm, the medicinal plants were gently dug up and sterilized polythene bags containing composite soil samples were collected and brought to the Plant Pathology and Mycology Laboratory, Department of Botany, University of Kashmir. For additional analysis, the soil samples were placed in sterile polythene bags and refrigerated at\u0026nbsp;4±1°C.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eIsolation of rhizospheric soil fungi\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe soil dilution plate method was used to isolate fungi from soil samples (Ahmad \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021; Malik \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022). To make soil dilutions, one gram of soil from each sample was suspended in 10 ml of sterile distilled water.\u0026nbsp;10\u003csup\u003e-3\u003c/sup\u003e, 10\u003csup\u003e-4\u003c/sup\u003e, 10\u003csup\u003e-5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003eand 10\u003csup\u003e-6\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003efungal dilutions were employed to separate and keep the fungal colonies from growing out of control. A one percent streptomycin solution was poured to sterile petri dishes containing sterilized PDA medium, and 1 ml of each concentration's suspension was added. The plates were then incubated at\u0026nbsp;25±2\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC\u0026nbsp;for 4–5 days. For every treatment, three duplicates were employed. Fungi were easy to separate because they formed widely dispersed surface colonies, particularly at higher dilutions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eIdentification of soil fungi\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe rhizosphere soil fungi isolated from the rhizosphere of \u003cem\u003eValeriana jatamonsi\u003c/em\u003e Jones, \u003cem\u003eLavatera\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003ecashmeriana\u003c/em\u003e L., and \u003cem\u003eArtemisia absinthium\u003c/em\u003e L. were identified in line with Trappe (1982) and Gilman (2008) based on cultural, morphological, and microscopic features. To identify the fungi morphologically, they were cultivated on PDA media and incubated in BOD for 7 days at 25±2°C. The macro- and microscopic characteristics of the colonies, along with cultural and morphological variances such the size of the asexual spores, such as conidia, sporangiophores, and vegetative hyphae, were used to identify the fungi after the incubation period (Boerema et al., 2004). The fungal keys by Quimio (2001) and Wantanabe (2002), along with relevant literature, were utilised to identify pure isolates of fungi.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAspergillus niger\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Van Tieghem\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultural characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA. niger\u003c/em\u003e colonies grow very rapidly, produced white colonies which then turn black in colour due to conidial production and comprised of a thick layer of upright conidiophores (Fig.1, A).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe mycelium of \u003cem\u003eAspergillus niger\u003c/em\u003e is septate and hyaline, with radiating heads. With vesicles that produce sterile cells called metulae that support conidiogenous phialides, it is biseriate. Conidiophores range in length from 400 \u0026micro;m to 300 \u0026micro;m, are hyaline, and have smooth walls. They terminate in a globose vesicle that ranges in diameter from 30 to 75 \u0026micro;m and darken near the apex. Conidia were spherical, oval and globose, brown to black in colour, 4\u0026micro;m -5\u0026micro;m in diameter (Fig.2, A).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAspergillus flavus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Link\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultural characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAspergillus flavus\u003c/em\u003e colonies are cream on the back and yellow-green on the top. The fungus grew quickly, and colonies had a powdery appearance (Fig.1, B).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBased on microscopic analysis, the mycelium was hyaline and septate, and the conidia were smooth, globose to subglobose, and generated thick mycelial mats with a diameter of 3 to 6 \u0026micro;m. Conidiophores don\u0026apos;t have colour. Globose to subglobose vesicles are found. The entire vesicle is covered in metulae (Fig.2, B).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAspergillus flavipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;(Bainier and Sartory) Thom and Church\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultural characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn PDA media, the \u003cem\u003eAspergillus flavipes\u003c/em\u003e colonies had a light brown reverse and a white top surface. The colonies had a cottony feel, and the fungus grew slowly (Fig.1, C).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMycelium was found to be septate and hyaline in microscopic studies. Conidial heads are loosely columnar, with subglobose vesicles radiating from them. Conidia have a diameter of 2.15 to 2.27 \u0026micro;m, are smooth, globose to subglobose, and form thick mycelial mats. Conidiophores are colorless. \u0026nbsp;Metulae cover the entire vesicle (Fig.2, C).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAspergillus terreus\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThom\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultural characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe colonies of \u003cem\u003eAspergillus terreus\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eappeared cream white in colour, plain or with radial furrows, velvety, floccose in some strains and the reverse colour of the colony was dark orange (cinnamon-buff to wood brown). The growth of the colony on PDA media was slow attaining 6- 10 cm in 10 days (Fig.1, D).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAspergillus terreus\u003c/em\u003e developed globose to subglobose conidia on submerged vegetative mycelium, either singly or in small clusters. The conidial heads were lengthy and columnar. Conidia have a diameter of 2\u0026ndash;3 \u0026micro;m. Smooth conidiophores, hemispherical, dome-shaped vesicles, and biseriate phialides; parallel, crowded metulae; and closely packed phialides (Fig.2, D).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAspergillus fumigatus\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFresenius\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultural characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough green spores were being produced, the colony\u0026apos;s colour was dark green, and its reverse colour was pale yellow. On PDA media, the fungus grew quickly, and colonies had a powdery texture (Fig.1, E).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSimple, clavately inflated at the apex, and hyaline, conidiophores produce nodding vesicles and contain catenulate conidia that are born on uniseriate phialides on pale brown vesicles. Phialosporous conidia have a diameter of 2.4 to 2.7 \u0026micro;m and are globose, pale green, and somewhat echinulate. Conidiophores range in height from 55 to 125 \u0026micro;m, whereas vesicles have a diameter of 13.33 to 14.6 \u0026micro;m. Conidial heads are columnar and dark bluish green (Fig.2, E).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eFusarium solani\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(Mart) Sacc. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultural characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn PDA medium, \u003cem\u003eFusarium solani\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ecolonies were cottony white. Because the fungus in the culture media releases some exudation, the colony\u0026apos;s reverse colour appears reddish pink (Fig.1, F).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnder a microscope, \u003cem\u003eFusarium solani\u0026apos;s\u003c/em\u003e filaments were branching, septate, and hyaline. Microconidia and macroconidia are produced by conidiophores, which develop from hyphae that were 16.32 \u0026micro;m - 53.04 \u0026micro;m \u0026times; 2.04 \u0026micro;m - 4.08 \u0026micro;m long. Macroconidia are long, sickle-shaped with three to five septa that range in diameter from 4.08 to 20.40 \u0026micro;m \u0026times; 2.04 \u0026micro;m to 4.08 \u0026micro;m. Microconidia are small, oval, and may have two septa or be smooth and curved. The dimensions of microconidia are 3.3 \u0026micro;m -13.43 \u0026micro;m x 2.42 \u0026micro;m - 4.20 \u0026micro;m (Fig.2, F).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eFusarium oxysporum\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(Schl.) emend. Snyder and Hansen\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultural characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTypically, the colonies grow quickly, are vividly coloured, pale, and covered in cottony aerial mycelium. One might observe purple colouring in the colouration of the fungal colony. Over time, the tint shifts from pale to yellow to reddish\u0026nbsp;(Fig.1, G).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBoth macro and micro conidia are produced by thin phialides. Macroconidia are fusiform to sickle shaped, hyaline, two to multiple-celled, and possess an elongated apical cell and a pedicellate basal cell. Macroconidia range in length from 19.8 \u0026micro;m to 61.0 \u0026micro;m and 3.15 \u0026micro;m to 6.0 \u0026micro;m. Microconidia range in size from 5.80 \u0026micro;m to 8.05 \u0026micro;m, have one to two cells, are hyaline, pyriform, to ovoid, straight, or curved (Fig.2, G).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eFusarium acutatum\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNirenberg and O\u0026apos;Donnell\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultural characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFusarium acutatum\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ecolonies on PDA had aerial mycelium and were white or creamish in colour. The colony\u0026apos;s reverse colour was light brownish\u0026nbsp;(Fig.1, H).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe hyaline, smooth, cylindrical to flask-shaped conidiogenous cells that developed laterally on the aerial hyphae produced microconidia. The microconidia were hyaline, often oval and non-septate (Fig.2, H).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ePenicillium chrysogenum\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThom.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultural characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInitially white, \u003cem\u003ePenicillium chrysogenum\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ecolonies on PDA eventually turn blue-green and have a velvety feel. The colony\u0026apos;s the bottom is yellowish white (Fig.1, I).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnder a microscope, \u003cem\u003ePenicillium chrysogenum\u0026apos;s\u003c/em\u003e mycelium is made up of a densely branched network of septate, multinucleate, and usually colourless hyphae. Multiple branched conidiophores with individually constricted conidiophores are produced by the mycelia. Chains of single-celled conidia are produced in basipetal succession by a specific conidiogenous cell known as a phialide. Branched metulae can produce phialides singly or in clusters, giving the penicillus a brush-like look. Conidiophores can be rough or hyaline (Fig.2, I).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ePenicillium citrinum\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThom\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultural characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eColonies on PDA are radially sulcate, centrally floccose, grow quickly, and occasionally get smaller. The colony\u0026apos;s colour ranged from white to greyish green in the centres and white in the periphery (Fig.1, J).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMicroscopic examination reveals that phialides emerge in compact verticils along which conidiophores are carried from surface to subsurface hyphae. Conidia are smooth or finely roughened, globose to subglobose, and range in diameter from 2.2 to 3.0 \u0026micro;m. There are whorls of metulae. They are ampulliform phialides (Fig.2, J).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ePenicillium expansum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Link ex Thom\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultural characteristics \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePenicillium expansum\u003c/em\u003e colonies on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) started out white and velvety, then turned bluish green as conidia and conidiophores formed (Fig.1, K).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMicroscopic observations revealed that the mycelium was septate, the conidiophores branched 48 \u0026micro;m to 120 \u0026micro;m long, the metulae formed conidiogenous cells known as phialides or sterigmata, and the conidiophores were terverticillate. Phialides ranged in length from 3.5 to 7.5 \u0026micro;m. Conidia have smooth walls, are globose or ellipsoidal, and range in diameter from 3.0 to 3.5 \u0026micro;m\u0026nbsp;(Fig.2, K).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ePenicillium lanosum\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWestling\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultural characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eColonies on PDA showed rapid growth and are grayish green with whitish tint.\u0026nbsp;The colony\u0026apos;s reverse colour was yellowish pink\u0026nbsp;(Fig.1, L).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConidiophores are erect, hyaline, and branching penicillately with primary and secondary metula, verticillate phialides, and catenulate conidia in each phialide. They are formed from aerial hyphae. 12.5 \u0026micro;m to 62.5 \u0026micro;m \u0026times; 2.5 \u0026micro;m to 2.8 \u0026micro;m are conidiophores. Phialides measure 10 \u0026micro;m to 13.8 \u0026micro;m \u0026times; 2.5 \u0026micro;m to 3 \u0026micro;m and are lanceolata, or suddenly sharpened. Phialosporous conidia are globose to subglobose, one-celled, and range in diameter from 2.7 to 4.0 \u0026micro;m (Fig.2, L).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eChaetomium globosum\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eKunze\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultural characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eChaetomium globosum\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eproduced profuse mycelium on PDA media and the cottony colonies are creamish in color. The reverse color of the colony was light pink (Fig.1, M).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResults revealed that\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Chaetomium globosum\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eproduced spherical, ovoidal or obovoidal ascomata. Ascomatal hairs are numerous and unbranched, septate. Spores are limoniform and bilaterally flattened (Fig.2, M).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAlternaria alternata\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(Fr.) Keissl\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultural characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eColonies of \u003cem\u003eAlternaria alternata\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eon PDA media were velvety in texture, olive green in colour, and produced a lot of mycelium. Mycelial and conidial production is abundant on PDA (Fig.1, N).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAlternaria alternata\u003c/em\u003e had multicelled, septate, irregularly branching, hyaline, grey-brownish mycelium. The hyphae of \u003cem\u003eA. alternata\u003c/em\u003e are hyaline and slender at first, measuring 2.84 \u0026mu;m in diameter, but they eventually thicken to 4.42 \u0026mu;m. Conidiophores may show up alone or in clusters of two to six. The conidiophores are 4.29 \u0026mu;m in width and 42.26 \u0026mu;m in length. Conidia ranged in colour from light olivaceous to dark brown and were generated in chains of ten or more. Their shapes range from obclavate to ellipsoidal, and they have a muriform apex with 1 to 3 longitudinal and 2\u0026ndash;10 transverse septa.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA conidial\u0026apos;s length is three to five times its width. The chlamydospores produced in the old culture are intercalary, thick-walled, roundish to oval in shape, dark brown in colour, and 7.22 \u0026mu;m in diameter (Fig.2, N).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAlternaria solani\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSorauer\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultural characteristics\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter 48 hours of incubation, the fungus formed colonies on PDA media that were elevated, irregular or circular in shape, greyish in colour, and had a velvety texture. The colony\u0026apos;s back side was blackish white in colour\u0026nbsp;(Fig.1, O).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMicroscopic examination revealed that the mycelium was septate and branched. Conidiophores ranged in size from 50 \u0026micro;m to 60 \u0026micro;m and were light brown in hue. Conidiophore tips were where conidia were generated singly. The conidia measured 8.02 \u0026micro;m to 10.03 \u0026micro;m in width and 16.04 \u0026micro;m to 42.10 \u0026micro;m in length. The conidia have 0\u0026ndash;2 longitudinal and 1\u0026ndash;6 transverse septa\u0026nbsp;(Fig.2, O).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eRhizopus stolonifer\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(Ehrneb.: Fr) Vuill\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultural characteristics\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRhizopus stolonifer\u003c/em\u003e colonies often grew quickly, filled the petriplates, and reached maturity in three days. It had the usual cottony texture from the front. Initially white, the colony gradually turned grey and then yellowish brown. A light to medium shade of white is used on the back (Fig.1, P).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe non-septate, branching mycelium of \u003cem\u003eRhizopus stolonifer\u003c/em\u003e had three different kinds of branches: sporangiospores, rhizoids, and stolans. Brown in colour, sporangiospores are typically unbranched and develop in clusters. Where the sporangiospores and stolans met, rizoids appeared. At the extremities of the sporangiospores, sporangia were discovered. They were round, with hemispherical columella and flattened bottoms. Apophysis was either absent or only occasionally seen. Sporangiospores are unicellular, round to ovoid in shape, hyaline to brown in colour, and smooth. They range in diameter from 4 to 11 \u0026micro;m (Fig.2, P).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ePaecilomyces victoriae\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(Szilvinyi) A. H. S. Brown and G. Smith\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultural characteristics\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe colonies of \u003cem\u003ePaecilomyces victoriae\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eon PDA medium were white and cottony\u0026nbsp;(Fig.1, Q).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConidiophores were hyaline, upright, branching apically, and catenulate conidia carried on terminal phialides.\u0026nbsp;Phialides are either ampulliform, opposite, or occasionally verticillate, with a cylindrical base and an acutely pointed median. There are several different types of conidia, including phialosporous, terminal, subglobose, and widely ellipsoidal (Fig.2, Q).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eMucor mucedo\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLinnaeus \u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultural characteristics\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMucor mucedo\u003c/em\u003e colonies on PDA often ranged in colour from white to grey and grew quickly, reaching heights of several centimetres. Older colonies become grey or brown as a result of spore growth (Fig.1, R).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMicroscopic investigations revealed that this fungus\u0026apos;s mycelium was non-septate and contained sporangiophores, sporangia, and spores. There were no rizoids or stolans, and the sporangiophores are short and upright. Round, grey to black in hue, sporangia are teeming with sporangiophores. Their diameters vary from 50 \u0026mu;m to 300 \u0026mu;m (Fig.2, R).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ePhytophthora cryptogea\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePethybridge and Lafferty\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultural characteristics\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe fungus produced white cottony colonies on PDA medium, after 72h of incubation at 25\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC \u0026plusmn;2 (Fig.1, S).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMicroscopic analysis revealed that the sporangia were internally proliferated, obovate or ellipsoidal, and slightly or faintly papillate or nonpapillate. Hypothal swellings become globose, and zoospores develop inside sporangia (Fig.2, S).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCladosporium cladosporioides\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(Fresen.) G. A. de Vries\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultural characteristics\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eColonies of \u003cem\u003eCladosporium cladosporioides\u003c/em\u003e on PDA were either olivaceous to grey, olivaceous to dull green, or grey. The colony was irregular in shape and had a velvety texture (Fig.1, T).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMicroscopic examinations revealed that conidiophores were medium brown, straight to slightly flexuose, and up to 350 \u0026mu;m length by 2 \u0026mu;m to 6 \u0026mu;m wide. Conidiophores ranged in size from 2 to 6 \u0026mu;m in width and up to 350 \u0026mu;m in length. The conidia were lengthy, branching chains of aseptate, limoniform or ellipsoid, 3 \u0026mu;m \u0026times; 11 \u0026mu;m \u0026times; 2 \u0026mu;m \u0026times; 5 \u0026mu;m. Conidia were pale olivaceous to brown, spherical to subspherical, and smooth-walled, while some strains had rough walls (Fig.2, T).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCladosporium sphaerospermum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Penz.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultural characteristics\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe olivaceous green or olivaceous to grey colonies of \u003cem\u003eCladosporium sphaerospermum\u003c/em\u003e were found on PDA. The colony had an uneven shape and a powdery feel (Fig.1, U).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMicroscopic investigations revealed that the \u003cem\u003eCladosporium sphaerospermum\u003c/em\u003e mycelium is hyaline and forms conidiophores with chains of conidia in tree-like heads. Conidiophores arise laterally from the mycelium or are formed terminally on the hyphae, about 160 \u0026mu;m long, 3-4 \u0026mu;m wide. \u0026nbsp;Conidia are continuous, globose, subglobose, or ellipsoidal, with a diameter of 4-6 \u0026mu;m (Fig.2, U).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCurvularia lunata\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(Wakker) Boedijn\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultural characteristics\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn potato dextrose agar, \u003cem\u003eCurvularia lunata\u003c/em\u003e colonies grow rapidly, mature in 5 days and reaching a diameter of 3 to 9 cm. The colony had a fuzzy texture, and as it grew older, its surface changed from greyish to dark grey. The backside of the colony was heavily coloured and olive green in tone (Fig.1, V).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe microscopic examinations revealed that the hyphae were light brown and septate. Conidiophores were brown, simple or branching, and ranged in diameter from 4.5 to 6 \u0026micro;m. The conidia were light to dark brown, elliptical to cylindrical, and had two to four cells. The centre cells were wider than the others (Fig.2, V).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrichoderma harzanium\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRifai\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultural characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrichoderma harzanium\u003c/em\u003e colonies on PDA were initially white to greyish white before turning dark green. The colony had a cottony texture, was round as a ring, and was aerial from the start. The colony\u0026apos;s backside was a light shade of yellow (Fig.1, W).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMicroscopic inspection revealed that conidiophores were erect, hyaline, branched, and contained spore masses apically at verticillate phialides. One kind of phialide is a short, thick phialide. Phialides measure between 7.2 and 9.8 \u0026micro;m by 2.4 and 2.7 \u0026micro;m. The globose to subglobose to ovate, hyaline conidia of \u003cem\u003eTrichoderma harzanium\u003c/em\u003e had a diameter of 2.1 \u0026micro;m to 3 \u0026micro;m \u0026times; 2.8 \u0026micro;m to 4.8 \u0026micro;m (Fig.2, W).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrichoderma aureoviride\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRifai\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultural characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn PDA medium, the Trichoderma viride colonies looked fluffy and yellowish green, with the opposite hue being brownish green (Fig.1, X).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to the microscopic analysis, the mycelium was septate, and each phialide had branched conidiophores with spore masses. Common phialides are verticillate, short, and thick, with a diameter of 8.5\u0026ndash;11 \u0026micro;m \u0026times; 2.4\u0026ndash;2.7 \u0026micro;m. The ovate, one-celled, hyaline conidia had a diameter of 2.4 \u0026micro;m to 2.7 \u0026micro;m \u0026times; 2.1 \u0026micro;m to 2.5 \u0026micro;m. Chlamydospores are granulate, subglobose, and pale brown (Fig.2, X).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrichoderma koningi\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOud.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultural characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInitially white, colonies on PDA medium eventually turned green. The colony\u0026apos;s reverse colour was pale yellow\u0026nbsp;(Fig.1, Y).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConidiophores were found to be hyaline, upright, branching, and to bear spore masses at the apical phialides, according to microscopic investigations. The tapering phialides have a diameter of 7.2 \u0026micro;m to 12.22 \u0026micro;m \u0026times; 2.1 \u0026micro;m to 2.7 \u0026micro;m. Hyaline, one-celled, ovate or ellipsoidal conidia. The chlamydospores were subglobose, and the conidia had a diameter of 3 \u0026micro;m to 4.5 \u0026times;\u0026nbsp;2.4 \u0026micro;m to 3 \u0026micro;m (Fig.2, Y).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrichoderma pseudokoningi\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRifai.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultural characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe colonies on PDA medium had a green hue. The colony\u0026apos;s reverse colour was pale yellow (Fig.1, Z).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMicroscopic investigations revealed that conidiophores were hyaline, erect, branched, and had irregularly spaced phialides with spore masses apically. Short and thick, phialides ranged in diameter from 9.7 \u0026micro;m to 12.22 \u0026micro;m\u0026times; 2.1 \u0026micro;m to 2.9 \u0026micro;m. Chlamydospores were subglobose, conidia were ellipsoidal to ovate, and they were one-celled\u0026nbsp;(Fig.2, Z).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eScopulariopsis brevicaulis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(Sacc) Brainier\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCultural characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter 48 hours of incubation on PDA media, the fungus formed colonies that were irregularly shaped, cottony in texture, and pale brown to orange in colour. The colony\u0026apos;s reverse side was dark orange in hue (Fig.1, a).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConidiophores were identified by microscopic analysis as hyaline, upright, simple, or branched conidiophores with apical annellations on verticillate or alternating conidiophores with catenulate conidia at the phialides. The conidiophore had a diameter of 2.7 to 3.6 \u0026micro;m and branched between 9 and 16.2 \u0026micro;m. Phialides that are cylindrical and hyaline. Conidia are globose or subglobose, phialosporous, and yellowish or pale brown. Conidia range in diameter from 5.4 to 8.1 \u0026micro;m (Fig.2, a).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrichothecium roseum\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(Pers.) Link \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMorphological characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eColonies of \u003cem\u003eTrichothecium roseum\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eon PDA grow fast and the colour of the colony was pinkish, powdery due to conidial formation. The reverse color of the colony was colorless to light pink (Fig.1, b).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to the microscopic analyses, the mycelium was branching and septate. Conidia were ellipsoidal to pyriform, two-celled, and measured 16 \u0026micro;m \u0026times; 21 \u0026micro;m \u0026times; 3.26 \u0026micro;m \u0026times; 4.00 \u0026micro;m in diameter. The upper cell was somewhat bigger, smooth and thick-walled, and hyaline. Conidiophores were erect and produced singly. Long, hyaline, and septate conidiophores were formed (Fig.2, b).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe current study made it evident that in the Kashmir Valley's examined areas, 28 soil fungi have been associated to \u003cem\u003eLavatera cashmeriana L., Valeriana jatamonsi\u003c/em\u003e Jones, and \u003cem\u003eArtemisia absinthium\u003c/em\u003e L. \u003cem\u003eAspergillus niger\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eA. flavus, A. flavipes\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eA. terreus, A. fumigatus, Fusarium solani, F. oxysporum, F. acutatum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ePencillium chrysogenum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eAlternaria alternata\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eRhizopus stolonifer\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ePaecilomyces victoriae\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eMucor mucedo\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCladosporium cladosporioides\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCurvularia lunata\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eTrichoderma harzanium\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eTrichoderma aureoviride\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrichothecium roseum\u003c/em\u003e were among the isolates. Similarly, \u003cem\u003ePenicillium citrinum\u003c/em\u003e was found associated with \u003cem\u003eLavatera cashmeriana\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eArtemisia absinthium.\u003c/em\u003e Likewise, \u003cem\u003eAlternaria solani\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ePhytophthora cryptogea\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eTrichoderma koningi\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eTrichoderma pseudokoningi\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eScopulariopsis brevicaulis\u003c/em\u003e were found associated with \u003cem\u003eValeriana jatamonsi\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eArtemisia absinthium. Penicillium expansum\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eChaetomium globosum\u003c/em\u003e were found associated with \u003cem\u003eValeriana jatamonsi\u003c/em\u003e. Furthermore, \u003cem\u003ePenicillium lanosum\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eCladosporium sphaerospermum\u003c/em\u003e were found associated with \u003cem\u003eArtemisia absinthium.\u003c/em\u003e In an equivalent study on other plants, \u003cem\u003eFusarium verticillium\u003c/em\u003e sp. was found along with the roots of \u003cem\u003eAtractylodes lancea, Dioscorea zingiberensis, Pinellia ternate\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eEuphorbia pekinensis\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eOphiopogon platyphyllum\u003c/em\u003e (Dai et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, among the fungal species isolated from the rhizosphere of \u003cem\u003eSantalum album\u003c/em\u003e, Thombre et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) found that \u003cem\u003eAspergillus terricola, A. niger\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003ePenicillium\u003c/em\u003e spp. were the most common and abundant. In the tomato root microbiome, \u003cem\u003eAspergillus fumigatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAspergillus niger\u003c/em\u003e exhibited the highest percentage frequency of occurrences, while \u003cem\u003eRhizopus oryzae\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eRhizopus stolonifer\u003c/em\u003e showed the lowest percentage frequency of occurrences, Shinkafi and Gobir (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) found, which is consistent with our findings. Several researchers carried out similar studies on the rhizosphere soil of additional medicinal plants (Tamilarasi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Sagar \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 2009; Sundar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Burni et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Sagar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Banakar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Mir et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Based on morphological, microscopic, and cultural traits on various cultural media, the saprophytic and pathogenic fungi that were isolated were identified. The classes of Oomycetes, Zygomycetes, and Ascomycetes include these fungi. Similar studies by Schoch et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) and Egidi et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) revealed that Ascomycota was the most prevalent fungal phylum in every sample, followed by Basidiomycota, a widespread trend in soils worldwide. Ascomycota is both the largest and most common phylum of fungi in terms of species count. Our research aligns with that of Mir et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), who discovered several fungi associated with different medicinal plants while working on rhizosphere soil samples.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe research results proved that the plants under study had an impact on the rhizosphere's fungal community structure (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Schmidt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Fuentes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Studying the microbiome is intriguing due to its potential and the need to produce food in a more sustainable way. Numerous research on the frequency and abundance of rhizosphere fungal flora associated with several medicinal and aromatic plants have shown that there are more fungi in the rhizosphere region than in the non-rhizosphere area(Srivastava and Kumar \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Shaikh and Nadaf \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). These reports show significant variation. The relative abundances of a number of fungal phyla, genera, and functional groups were found to differ statistically significantly between the control soils and the various plant rhizospheres (Xu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Ye et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Ling et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Aplebaum \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022). Fungal colonisation, quantity, and distribution in the rhizosphere of medicinal plants might vary depending on the host plant species, growing season, soil properties, local climate, and environmental conditions (Khan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Ahmad et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Han et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Malik et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Plant roots influence the soil by releasing carbon-rich exudates and rhizodeposits. In the rhizosphere, a distinct colony of microorganisms thrives. Through their actions, plants can obtain a variety of components from the soil that they need to develop and survive (Priyadharsini et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Verma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Bauddh and Ma, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Manivel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn order to protect plant health and productivity, the current study aimed to characterize the rhizospheric soil fungi associated with \u003cem\u003eLavatera cashmeriana\u003c/em\u003e L., \u003cem\u003eValeriana jatamonsi\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eJones, and \u003cem\u003eArtemisia absinthium\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eL. The reason for this is that the productivity and diversity of aboveground plants can be predicted by the richness of belowground microbial species, which can be used to map out areas suitable for \u003cem\u003eLavatera cashmeriana\u003c/em\u003e L., \u003cem\u003eValeriana jatamonsi\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eJones, and \u003cem\u003eArtemisia absinthium\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eL. cultivation. Additionally, this research will aid in the identification and isolation of helpful fungal bioagents as well as harmful fungi in order to create environmentally friendly management plans.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Statement or Responsibilities of Authors\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted in strict accordance with ethical guidelines. All participants provided informed consent, and the research received approval from the appropriate ethics committee. Data handling followed confidentiality standards, and no conflicts of interest influenced the study. All authors contributed meaningfully and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of Interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no financial or non-financial competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors received no financial assistance during the during the study period.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eACKNOWLEDGEMENT\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe would like to extend our gratitude to Dr. Mohad Yaqub Bhat and Professor Abdul Hamid Wani of Mycology and Plant Pathology,\u0026nbsp;Bio-Control Lab,\u0026nbsp;Department of Botany, University of Kashmir\u0026nbsp;for their support in completing this task\u0026nbsp;during the course of the study.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMansoor Ahmad Malik\u003c/strong\u003e: Conceptualization; Methodology; Data collection; Curation and\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnalysis; Software; Visualization; Writing-Original draft.\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eNusrat Ahmad\u003c/strong\u003e: Data collection; Curation and analysis; Writing-Original draft; Writing-\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eMohd Yaqub Bhat\u003c/strong\u003e: Review and Editing. Conceptualization; \u003cstrong\u003eAbdul Hamid Wani\u003c/strong\u003e: Supervision; Investigation. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll the primary data generated is present in the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdedeji AA. Babalola OO. 2020. Secondary metabolites as plant defensive strategy: A large role for small molecules in the near root region. Planta, \u003cem\u003e252\u003c/em\u003e(4):61.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAhmad N, Bhat MY, Wani AH, Peer LA. 2021. Rhizosphere Mycobiome Diversity of Medicinal Plants: A Review. The Journal of Plant Science Research, 37(1):175\u0026ndash;87.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAhmed N. Al-Mutairi KA. 2022. 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Scientific reports, 9(1):6558.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Characterization, culture, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus flavipes fungi, isolation. ","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5338221/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5338221/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe world of microorganisms has been divided into four main groups based on their importance to human life: therapeutically useful, those related to agriculture, dairy-related products, extremophiles, and industrially important microorganisms. This is because both the world of microorganisms and their isolation are too wide. The isolation and maintenance of pure cultures is a requirement for studying the biochemistry and physiology of microbes. The objective of the study was to identify and isolate rhizospheric soil fungi of medicinal plants that grow in the Kashmir Himalayas, especially \u003cem\u003eValeriana jatamonsi\u003c/em\u003e Jones, \u003cem\u003eLavatera cashmeriana\u003c/em\u003e L., and \u003cem\u003eArtemisia absinthium\u003c/em\u003e L. The saprophytic and pathogenic fungi isolated were identified on the basis of cultural characteristics on different cultural media and morphological and microscopic characteristics. These fungi belong to Oomycetes, Zygomycetes, and Ascomycetes. Twenty eight fungal species, viz. \u003cem\u003eAspergillus niger\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eA. flavus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eA. flavipes\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eA. terreus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eA. fumigatus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eFusarium solani\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eF. oxysporum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eF. acutatum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ePencillium chrysogenum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eP. citrinum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eP. expansum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eP. lanosum, Chaetomium globosum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eAlternaria alternata,\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eA. solani\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eRhizopus stolonifer\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ePaecilomyces victoriae\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eMucor mucedo\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ePhytophthora cryptogea\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCladosporium cladosporioides\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eC. sphaerospermum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCurvularia lunata\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eTrichoderma harzanium\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eT. aureoviride,\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eT. koningi\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eT. pseudokoningi\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eScopulariopsis brevicaulis\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eTrichothecium roseum \u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;were isolated. Some of the novel fungi can be used for their antibiotic or antibacterial properties against pathogenic fungi, and the study will be useful in the crucial discovery of soil-based fungi associated to other medicinal plants.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Assessment of Rhizosphere Mycobiome Associated with some Medicinal Plants Growing in Kashmir Himalayas","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-12-02 06:53:03","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5338221/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"79888891-3fd1-45bd-9338-49b325cfb113","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 2nd, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-12-10T06:24:13+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-12-02 06:53:03","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5338221","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5338221","identity":"rs-5338221","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}