Beta-like tracks in a cloud chamber from nickel cathodes after electrolysis

Beta-like tracks in a cloud chamber from nickel cathodes after electrolysis | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Beta-like tracks in a cloud chamber from nickel cathodes after electrolysis Shyam Sunder Lakesar, Raj Ganesh S. Pala, K P Rajeev This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8465270/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Electrochemically induced nuclear activity in hydrogen and deuterium-absorbing metals has been reported intermittently, yet a direct observation of nuclear signatures remains challenging. We electrolyzed light water with nickel cathodes under half-wave rectified RMS potentials of 5 V and 20 V and subsequently analyzed them using a Peltier-cooled diffusion-type Wilson cloud chamber for particle emission. The reacted cathodes emitted β -like particles forming condensation tracks of lengths of 0.6–16 mm and an average activity 0.6 ± 0.1 counts per minute (cpm) for 5 V samples and 1.0 ± 0.1 cpm for 20 V samples. No such emissions were detected from unreacted samples. These results provide empirical evidence that electrochemical reactions can generate radioactive isotopes in condensed matter. Nuclear Physics Beta emission Electrochemical H loading in Ni Nickel cathodes Cloud chamber detection Beta particle detection Radioactive emission Particle track imaging Electrolysis effects induced radioactivity in metals Nuclear particle detection Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 1 Introduction Nuclear fission was first identified in condensed matter containing naturally radioactive isotopes. More recently, reports of nuclear signatures in electrochemically loaded metal-hydride and metal-deuteride systems have renewed interest in how condensed matter environments may influence nuclear processes. Experimental observations include energetic particle emissions 1 – 4 as well as isotopic shifts 5 . Together, these results suggest that certain electrochemical conditions may enhance nuclear reaction probabilities at energies far below those expected from conventional nuclear theory. In standard models, hydrogen nuclei require kinetic energies in the hundreds of keV to MeV range to overcome the Coulomb barrier. In contrast, experimental studies have reported nuclear signatures in metal hydrides under electrochemical conditions that correspond to characteristic energies of the order of a few eV 6 . Strong cathodic potentials drive a substantial amount of deuterium (D) or hydrogen (H) into metallic lattices and increase the local reactant density 7 . Additional excitations can arise from plasma bombardment 8 , 9 or acoustic cavitation 5 . Despite extensive investigations, the direct detection of nuclear products in these experiments remains challenging due to the inherently low emission rates and lack of direct evidence. To address these limitations, we employ a custom-built Peltier-cooled diffusion Wilson cloud chamber (cloud chamber) for detecting charged-particle emissions from electrochemical nickel-hydrogen (Ni/H) systems. This approach enables direct observation of particle trajectories and allows the extraction of particle energies. Although Pd/D systems have historically dominated studies of nuclear effects in metal lattices, Ni/H systems have shown comparable evidence of neutron emission 10 and tritium( 3 H) formation 11 . Here, we report beta-like particle emissions from light water electrolyzed Ni cathodes under low voltage conditions. These results demonstrate that electrolysis can lead to the formation of trace amounts of radioactive isotopes, which are detectable and measurable using a cloud chamber. Given the direct evidence, it might be worthwhile if more comprehensive efforts are directed toward exploring the potential of electrochemically activated nuclear reactions in the areas of energy generation, production of valuable radioactive isotopes, and radioactive waste treatment. 2 Methods Electrolysis experiments were conducted in a custom-built cell powered by an autotransformer supplying a 50 Hz alternating current, which was rectified through a half-wave rectifier. Current and voltage were continuously monitored during the operation (Supplementary note 1.1). To ensure stable electrochemical conditions, an automated electrolyte refilling system maintained a constant liquid level throughout each run. See Fig. 1 (a) (Supplementary note 1.2). The cell employed a graphite anode (99.99% C, 6 mm diameter) and a Ni cathode (99.5% nominal Ni, 1 mm diameter) separated by 2 cm and immersed to a depth of 1 cm in 0.1M KHCO 3 aqueous electrolyte. The electrolyte was prepared using ultrapure Milli-Q water (resistivity: 18.4 MΩcm at 300 K and ICP–MS analysis shows the absence of impurities down to the 1 ppb detection threshold) to minimize the risk of externally introduced contamination (Supplementary note 2). Electrolysis experiments were conducted at 5 V and 20 V, and eight samples were prepared at each of these voltages. Following electrolysis, Ni cathodes were removed, rinsed with deionized water to eliminate surface KHCO 3 , cut, and immediately transferred to the cloud chamber operating at approximately − 40 ◦ C 12 (Fig. 1 (b) and Supplementary note 3). The cloud chamber allowed direct observation of charged particle emissions from the reacted samples. The emissions from each cathode were recorded for 20 minutes using a high-resolution video camera, and the particle trajectories were analyzed frame by frame to extract track length and shape. 3 Results and Discussion Charged particle emissions were observed directly from the nickel cathodes post-electrolysis. See Fig. 2 (see also Supplementary Video 1). The detected tracks distinguished by their narrow width and continuous length (energy) distribution are consistent with β -like particle track characteristics 13 . The condensation track lengths range from 0.6 mm to 16 mm. The mean detection rate for the 5 V samples is 0.6 ± 0.1 cpm and for the 20 V samples, 1.0 ± 0.1 cpm (Supplementary note 5), consistent across replicates and indicative of a reproducible, low-flux emission process. In contrast, the Ni controls prior to electrolysis did not yield any observable tracks (Supplementary Video 2), confirming that the emissions originated from the reacted Ni cathodes. The analysis of the track-lengths yielded the corresponding β -like particle energies of 2–18 keV. See Fig. 3 . This is derived using the empirical range–energy relation 14 (Supplementary note 5): R = 0.407 E 1.38 (1) where R denotes the mean CSDA (continuous slowing-down approximation) range of electrons, expressed as mass thickness (medium density multiplied by track-length in units of mg.cm − 2 ), representing the path-length over which a charged particle loses all of its kinetic energy E (in keV) in the medium. The medium density, corresponding to the supersaturated isopropyl-alcohol vapor in the air inside the cloud chamber, close to the samples, was taken as ρ = 1.1 mg-cm − 3 (Supplementary note 4). The observed spectrum, as per Fig. 3 , is characterized by an endpoint energy of ∼18 keV and a peak energy of ∼5 keV, similar to the known beta decay spectrum of tritium. This alignment indicates that the detected β -like tracks can originate from the formation of tritium during electrolysis. 11 , 15 . The emission rate measured from our cloud chamber were 0.6 ± 0.1 cpm (0.6 Bq from cathodes obtained after 5V electrolysis) and 1.0 ± 0.1 cpm (1 Bq from cathodes obtained after 20V electrolysis). A possible source of tritium could be contamination originating from the electrolyte. Natural light water contains only a trace amount of cosmogenic tritium, with typical concentrations of 1.2 − 2.4 × 10 − 12 ppm in precipitation, corresponding to ∼ 0.14 − 0.29Bqkg − 1 16, 17 . Assuming tritium loading from naturally tritiated water into the nickel lattice during 24h of electrolysis, the resulting tritium loading is bounded between ∼ 1.2 × 10 − 21 and 1.7 × 10 − 18 tritium atoms per Ni atom, corresponding respectively to conservative (H/Ni ≈ 10 − 3 ) and extreme upper-bound (H/Ni ≈ 0.7) hydrogen loading limits 18 . These bounds yield absolute decay activities in the range ∼ 10 − 9 -10 − 6 Bq (Supplementary Note 7), which remain six to nine orders of magnitude below the experimentally observed emission rates. To identify other possible origins of the observed low-energy β tracks, we explored β -decaying isotopes with Q ≤ 100 keV ( Supplementary note 7.3) and ruled them out as well. Contributions from α -particles and γ -rays were also excluded. α -particle induced tracks are characterized by substantially higher ionization density, greater track widths, and discrete energies, which are inconsistent with the observed tracks 19 (Supplementary note 6.1). The contribution of γ -ray interactions generating secondary electrons was excluded on the basis of an energy mismatch (Supplementary note 6.2). Although diffusion-type cloud chambers are generally not regarded as ideal instruments for detecting low-energy β -particles owing to their inherently low detection efficiency (typically below 1%) and strong dependence on thermal stability and vapor supersaturation, we achieved stable operation under optimized conditions. In our setup, we achieved stable conditions for approximately 60 minutes, during which the cold plate was maintained at approximately − 40 ◦ C and consistent isopropyl alcohol supersaturation was observed, as evidenced by the uniform droplet density within the chamber. Hence, with controlled operational conditions, it demonstrates reasonable sensitivity in the low-energy regime compared to conventional detection systems. Conversely, conventional scintillation detectors, including NaI(Tl)- activated crystals, liquid scintillation counters, and plastic scintillators, become ineffective at extremely low count rates due to their detection mechanisms and background noise, making reliable discrimination of true signals challenging (Supplementary note 8). In contrast, a cloud chamber provides direct, track-level visual evidence of individual charged-particle events. Geometrical constraints, operational mechanisms, and user observation biases significantly limit the detection rate for the cloud chamber. These limitations result in an underestimation of activity and energy (Supplementary note 9). Conventional empirical formulas for β -energy estimation were found to yield significant inaccuracies at such low energies, primarily because they neglect scattering effects. We have compared multiple energy estimations (Supplementary note 5). All of these empirical relations provided approximately the same decay energy profile. However, considering the measured track characteristics, the estimated energy range, and the sustained decay activity observed even after 6 months with only ± 1 cpm variation from the initial measurements, the cumulative evidence supports that the detected β -tracks possibly originate from tritium decay. 4 Conclusions Despite numerous suggestive indicators of nuclear activity in electrochemical systems, progress in this field has been hindered by the lack of direct experimental evidence of nuclear activity. We utilized custom-built cloud chambers, which have historically provided critical evidence of nuclear emissions, to investigate the emissions from Ni cathodes used in the electrolysis of light water. Post-electrolysis Ni cathodes emit low-energy β -like particles that are similar to the decay of tritium, suggesting tritium formation under ambient electrochemical conditions. Control experiments prior to electrolysis of Ni confirmed that particle emissions arose exclusively from electrochemical activation. The activity measured is orders of magnitude higher than possible through electrochemical loading of naturally occurring tritium in light water. These observations suggest that nuclear transformations can occur in condensed matter under electrochemical environments at energies far below conventional thresholds. This experiment highlights the cloud chamber as a sensitive method for probing extremely low activity and low-energy charged-particle emission, a regime in which conventional nuclear detection techniques exhibit very low efficiency and limited detection capability. Declarations Author Contributions Shyam Sunder Lakesar designed and performed all experiments, carried out sample analyses, and drafted the manuscript. K. P. Rajeev and Raj Ganesh S. Pala critically reviewed and revised the manuscript. All authors discussed the results and approved the final version of the paper. Acknowledgments The authors thank Raviraj Singh Nehra and Jagdish Jangra for their valuable discussions and constructive feedback during manuscript preparation, which significantly improved the clarity and quality of the work. References Pines V et al (2020) Nuclear fusion reactions in deuterated metals. Phys Rev C 101:044609 Czerski K et al (2024) Indications of electron emission from the deuteron-deuteron threshold resonance. Phys Rev C 109(2):021601 Mosier-Boss P, Gordon F, Forsley L, Zhou D (2017) Detection of high energy particles using CR-39 detectors part 1: results of microscopic examination, scanning, and let analysis. Int J Hydrogen Energy 42(1):416–428 Roussetski A, Lipson A, Saunin E, Tanzella F, McKubre F (2017) Detection of high energy particles using CR-39 detectors part 2: results of in-depth destructive etching analysis. Int J Hydrogen Energy 42(1):429–436 Huang B-J et al (2024) Water can trigger nuclear reaction to produce energy and isotope gases. Sci Rep 14(1):214 Huke A et al (2008) Enhancement of deuteron-fusion reactions in metals and experimental implications. Phys Rev C 78(1):015803 Green T, Quickenden T (1994) Electrolytic preparation of highly loaded deuterides of palladium. J Electroanal Chem 368(1–2):121–131 Chen K-Y et al (2025) Electrochemical loading enhances deuterium fusion rates in a metal target. Nature 644(8077):640–645 McKewon-Green A, Dionne JA (2025) Low-energy nuclear fusion boosted by electrochemistry. Nature Publishing Group UK, London Battaglia A et al (1999) Neutron emission in Ni-H systems. Il Nuovo Cimento A 112(9):921–931 Notoya R, Noya Y, Ohnishi T (1994) Tritium generation and large excess heat evolution by electrolysis in light and heavy water-potassium carbonate solutions with nickel electrodes. Fusion Technol 26(2):179–183 Andrade AF, Souza LW, Perini AP, Neves (2024) L. P. A thermoelectric cloud chamber: redesign and operation. Eur J Phys 45(2):025703 Leone M, Robotti N (2004) A note on the Wilson cloud chamber (1912). Eur J Phys 25(6):781 Cember H, Johnson TE (2009) Introduction to Health Physics, 4th edn. McGrawHill, New York Sankaranarayanan T, Srinivasan M, Bajpai MB, Gupta DS (1996) Investigation of low-level tritium generation in Ni-H 2 O electrolytic cells. Fusion Technol 30(P1):349–354 Wallova G et al (2020) New electrolytic enrichment system for tritium determination in water research institute in Bratislava and its first results of tritium activity in precipitation. J Environ Radioact 216:106177 Sudprasert W et al (2025) Baseline tritium measurements in Thailand’s water bodies: supporting sustainable nuclear energy development. J Environ Radioact 282:107604 Manchester FD (2000) Phase Diagrams of Binary Hydrogen Alloys. ASM International, Materials Park, Ohio Gy˝orfi T, Raics P (2019) Diffusion cloud chamber in education. Int J Nucl Phys 4:015 Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8465270","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":566373557,"identity":"89306f82-55fa-4c48-8c62-88d237e52e1b","order_by":0,"name":"Shyam Sunder Lakesar","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA2ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFAC5gbGBoaa+n4QO6GAKC2MIC3HGGc2gLQYEK+FmXHDARCHGC3y/QcbP86oYGM2Pr868cMDAwZ5frED+LUY3EhsltxwRobN7MbbzRJAhxnOnJ1AQIsEY4PkwzY2HrMbZzeAtCQY3CagBeiw5p8P/zFLGM84u/kHUVoYDiS2SW5sYDYw4O/dRpwtQL+0Wc44dixB4gbvNosEAwnCfpHvP3z4Zk9NTQJ//9nNN39U2MjzSxNyGBxIgFVKEKscBPgPkKJ6FIyCUTAKRhIAAD7NSNZAgWxJAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8685-5621","institution":"Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, India","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shyam","middleName":"Sunder","lastName":"Lakesar","suffix":""},{"id":566373558,"identity":"5d9ed6dc-04d3-4f66-855a-dcc96fe29630","order_by":1,"name":"Raj Ganesh S. 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1640497,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a) Schematic of the electrolytic cell setup: (1) autotransformer, (2) half-wave rectifier (HWR), (3) ammeter, (4) voltmeter, (5) graphite anode (99.99% carbon, 6 mm diameter), (6) nickel cathode (99.5% nominal Ni, 1 mm diameter), (7) automated electrolyte-refilling system containing electrolyte reservoir and pump, (8) electrolyte inlet, and (9) overflow outlet.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(b) Schematic of the cloud chamber: (1) projector light for track illumination, (2) cooling reservoir housing, the Peltier cooling modules and power supplies, (3) Copper plate maintained at approximately −40\u003csup\u003e◦\u003c/sup\u003eC with a thin black vinyl sheet on top, (4) cuboid glass chamber, (5) iso-propyl alcohol-soaked felt used as a source of vapor, (6) high-resolution video camera, (7) water-cooled aluminium heat sink, (8) Peltier cooler TEC1-12715, (9) Peltier cooler TEC1-12706, and (10) 2 mm thick copper plate.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8465270/v1/2bc79970a35145b69623c1d5.jpeg"},{"id":99792965,"identity":"406a5545-a6f7-49bc-b49a-06739cc5c559","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-08 13:30:45","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":886668,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8465270/v1/a6283c5299e4391288f89f8b.jpeg"},{"id":99595918,"identity":"bd2db78f-7955-40b3-aee6-f972f4bddf72","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-06 09:32:53","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":435008,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEnergy distribution of observed charged-particle tracks (1 keV bin size) from samples prepared at (a) 5 V bias and (b) 20 V bias.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8465270/v1/51e67d2ad40368b0ddc5e7f2.jpeg"},{"id":100356123,"identity":"d83280db-b464-4c50-b1db-7f1cbac361fb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 06:53:04","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3274168,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8465270/v1/82ea4512-ed04-43b1-874a-9a4e13988c04.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eBeta-like tracks in a cloud chamber from nickel cathodes after electrolysis\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eNuclear fission was first identified in condensed matter containing naturally radioactive isotopes. More recently, reports of nuclear signatures in electrochemically loaded metal-hydride and metal-deuteride systems have renewed interest in how condensed matter environments may influence nuclear processes. Experimental observations include energetic particle emissions \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2 CR3\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e as well as isotopic shifts \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Together, these results suggest that certain electrochemical conditions may enhance nuclear reaction probabilities at energies far below those expected from conventional nuclear theory. In standard models, hydrogen nuclei require kinetic energies in the hundreds of keV to MeV range to overcome the Coulomb barrier. In contrast, experimental studies have reported nuclear signatures in metal hydrides under electrochemical conditions that correspond to characteristic energies of the order of a few eV\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStrong cathodic potentials drive a substantial amount of deuterium (D) or hydrogen (H) into metallic lattices and increase the local reactant density\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Additional excitations can arise from plasma bombardment\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e or acoustic cavitation\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Despite extensive investigations, the direct detection of nuclear products in these experiments remains challenging due to the inherently low emission rates and lack of direct evidence. To address these limitations, we employ a custom-built Peltier-cooled diffusion Wilson cloud chamber (cloud chamber) for detecting charged-particle emissions from electrochemical nickel-hydrogen (Ni/H) systems. This approach enables direct observation of particle trajectories and allows the extraction of particle energies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough Pd/D systems have historically dominated studies of nuclear effects in metal lattices, Ni/H systems have shown comparable evidence of neutron emission\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and tritium(\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003eH) formation\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Here, we report beta-like particle emissions from light water electrolyzed Ni cathodes under low voltage conditions. These results demonstrate that electrolysis can lead to the formation of trace amounts of radioactive isotopes, which are detectable and measurable using a cloud chamber. Given the direct evidence, it might be worthwhile if more comprehensive efforts are directed toward exploring the potential of electrochemically activated nuclear reactions in the areas of energy generation, production of valuable radioactive isotopes, and radioactive waste treatment.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eElectrolysis experiments were conducted in a custom-built cell powered by an autotransformer supplying a 50 Hz alternating current, which was rectified through a half-wave rectifier. Current and voltage were continuously monitored during the operation (Supplementary note 1.1). To ensure stable electrochemical conditions, an automated electrolyte refilling system maintained a constant liquid level throughout each run. See Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e(a) (Supplementary note 1.2). The cell employed a graphite anode (99.99% C, 6 mm diameter) and a Ni cathode (99.5% nominal Ni, 1 mm diameter) separated by 2 cm and immersed to a depth of 1 cm in 0.1M KHCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e aqueous electrolyte. The electrolyte was prepared using ultrapure Milli-Q water (resistivity: 18.4 MΩcm at 300 K and ICP\u0026ndash;MS analysis shows the absence of impurities down to the 1 ppb detection threshold) to minimize the risk of externally introduced contamination (Supplementary note 2). Electrolysis experiments were conducted at 5 V and 20 V, and eight samples were prepared at each of these voltages.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFollowing electrolysis, Ni cathodes were removed, rinsed with deionized water to eliminate surface KHCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, cut, and immediately transferred to the cloud chamber operating at approximately \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;40\u003csup\u003e◦\u003c/sup\u003eC \u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e(b) and Supplementary note 3). The cloud chamber allowed direct observation of charged particle emissions from the reacted samples. The emissions from each cathode were recorded for 20 minutes using a high-resolution video camera, and the particle trajectories were analyzed frame by frame to extract track length and shape.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3 Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eCharged particle emissions were observed directly from the nickel cathodes post-electrolysis. See Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e (see also Supplementary Video 1). The detected tracks distinguished by their narrow width and continuous length (energy) distribution are consistent with \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e-like particle track characteristics\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The condensation track lengths range from 0.6 mm to 16 mm. The mean detection rate for the 5 V samples is 0.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1 cpm and for the 20 V samples, 1.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1 cpm (Supplementary note 5), consistent across replicates and indicative of a reproducible, low-flux emission process. In contrast, the Ni controls prior to electrolysis did not yield any observable tracks (Supplementary Video 2), confirming that the emissions originated from the reacted Ni cathodes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis of the track-lengths yielded the corresponding \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e-like particle energies of 2\u0026ndash;18 keV. See Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. This is derived using the empirical range\u0026ndash;energy relation\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e (Supplementary note 5):\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.407\u003cem\u003eE\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e1.38\u003c/sup\u003e (1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere R denotes the mean CSDA (continuous slowing-down approximation) range of electrons, expressed as mass thickness (medium density multiplied by track-length in units of mg.cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e), representing the path-length over which a charged particle loses all of its kinetic energy \u003cem\u003eE\u003c/em\u003e (in keV) in the medium. The medium density, corresponding to the supersaturated isopropyl-alcohol vapor in the air inside the cloud chamber, close to the samples, was taken as \u003cem\u003eρ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.1 mg-cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e (Supplementary note 4).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe observed spectrum, as per Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, is characterized by an endpoint energy of \u0026sim;18 keV and a peak energy of \u0026sim;5 keV, similar to the known beta decay spectrum of tritium. This alignment indicates that the detected \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e-like tracks can originate from the formation of tritium during electrolysis.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The emission rate measured from our cloud chamber were 0.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1 cpm (0.6 Bq from cathodes obtained after 5V electrolysis) and 1.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1 cpm (1 Bq from cathodes obtained after 20V electrolysis).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA possible source of tritium could be contamination originating from the electrolyte. Natural light water contains only a trace amount of cosmogenic tritium, with typical concentrations of 1.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2.4 \u0026times; 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;12\u003c/sup\u003e ppm in precipitation, corresponding to \u0026sim; 0.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.29Bqkg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1 16, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Assuming tritium loading from naturally tritiated water into the nickel lattice during 24h of electrolysis, the resulting tritium loading is bounded between \u0026sim; 1.2 \u0026times; 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;21\u003c/sup\u003e and 1.7 \u0026times; 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;18\u003c/sup\u003e tritium atoms per Ni atom, corresponding respectively to conservative (H/Ni\u0026thinsp;\u0026asymp;\u0026thinsp;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e) and extreme upper-bound (H/Ni\u0026thinsp;\u0026asymp;\u0026thinsp;0.7) hydrogen loading limits \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These bounds yield absolute decay activities in the range \u0026sim; 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;9\u003c/sup\u003e-10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;6\u003c/sup\u003e Bq (Supplementary Note 7), which remain six to nine orders of magnitude below the experimentally observed emission rates.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo identify other possible origins of the observed low-energy \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e tracks, we explored \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e-decaying isotopes with \u003cem\u003eQ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;100 keV ( Supplementary note 7.3) and ruled them out as well.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eContributions from \u003cem\u003eα\u003c/em\u003e-particles and \u003cem\u003eγ\u003c/em\u003e-rays were also excluded. \u003cem\u003eα\u003c/em\u003e-particle induced tracks are characterized by substantially higher ionization density, greater track widths, and discrete energies, which are inconsistent with the observed tracks \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e (Supplementary note 6.1). The contribution of \u003cem\u003eγ\u003c/em\u003e-ray interactions generating secondary electrons was excluded on the basis of an energy mismatch (Supplementary note 6.2).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough diffusion-type cloud chambers are generally not regarded as ideal instruments for detecting low-energy \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e-particles owing to their inherently low detection efficiency (typically below 1%) and strong dependence on thermal stability and vapor supersaturation, we achieved stable operation under optimized conditions. In our setup, we achieved stable conditions for approximately 60 minutes, during which the cold plate was maintained at approximately \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;40\u003csup\u003e◦\u003c/sup\u003eC and consistent isopropyl alcohol supersaturation was observed, as evidenced by the uniform droplet density within the chamber. Hence, with controlled operational conditions, it demonstrates reasonable sensitivity in the low-energy regime compared to conventional detection systems. Conversely, conventional scintillation detectors, including NaI(Tl)- activated crystals, liquid scintillation counters, and plastic scintillators, become ineffective at extremely low count rates due to their detection mechanisms and background noise, making reliable discrimination of true signals challenging (Supplementary note 8). In contrast, a cloud chamber provides direct, track-level visual evidence of individual charged-particle events.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeometrical constraints, operational mechanisms, and user observation biases significantly limit the detection rate for the cloud chamber. These limitations result in an underestimation of activity and energy (Supplementary note 9).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConventional empirical formulas for \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e-energy estimation were found to yield significant inaccuracies at such low energies, primarily because they neglect scattering effects. We have compared multiple energy estimations (Supplementary note 5). All of these empirical relations provided approximately the same decay energy profile. However, considering the measured track characteristics, the estimated energy range, and the sustained decay activity observed even after 6 months with only\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1 cpm variation from the initial measurements, the cumulative evidence supports that the detected \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e-tracks possibly originate from tritium decay.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4 Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eDespite numerous suggestive indicators of nuclear activity in electrochemical systems, progress in this field has been hindered by the lack of direct experimental evidence of nuclear activity. We utilized custom-built cloud chambers, which have historically provided critical evidence of nuclear emissions, to investigate the emissions from Ni cathodes used in the electrolysis of light water. Post-electrolysis Ni cathodes emit low-energy \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e-like particles that are similar to the decay of tritium, suggesting tritium formation under ambient electrochemical conditions. Control experiments prior to electrolysis of Ni confirmed that particle emissions arose exclusively from electrochemical activation. The activity measured is orders of magnitude higher than possible through electrochemical loading of naturally occurring tritium in light water. These observations suggest that nuclear transformations can occur in condensed matter under electrochemical environments at energies far below conventional thresholds. This experiment highlights the cloud chamber as a sensitive method for probing extremely low activity and low-energy charged-particle emission, a regime in which conventional nuclear detection techniques exhibit very low efficiency and limited detection capability.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contributions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eShyam Sunder Lakesar designed and performed all experiments, carried out sample analyses, and drafted the manuscript. K. P. Rajeev and Raj Ganesh S. Pala critically reviewed and revised the manuscript. All authors discussed the results and approved the final version of the paper.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors thank Raviraj Singh Nehra and Jagdish Jangra for their valuable discussions and constructive feedback during manuscript preparation, which significantly improved the clarity and quality of the work.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePines V et al (2020) Nuclear fusion reactions in deuterated metals. Phys Rev C 101:044609\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCzerski K et al (2024) Indications of electron emission from the deuteron-deuteron threshold resonance. Phys Rev C 109(2):021601\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMosier-Boss P, Gordon F, Forsley L, Zhou D (2017) Detection of high energy particles using CR-39 detectors part 1: results of microscopic examination, scanning, and let analysis. 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Int J Nucl Phys 4:015\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Beta emission, Electrochemical H loading in Ni, Nickel cathodes, Cloud chamber detection, Beta particle detection, Radioactive emission, Particle track imaging, Electrolysis effects, induced radioactivity in metals, Nuclear particle detection","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8465270/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8465270/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eElectrochemically induced nuclear activity in hydrogen and deuterium-absorbing metals has been reported intermittently, yet a direct observation of nuclear signatures remains challenging. We electrolyzed light water with nickel cathodes under half-wave rectified RMS potentials of 5 V and 20 V and subsequently analyzed them using a Peltier-cooled diffusion-type Wilson cloud chamber for particle emission. The reacted cathodes emitted \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e-like particles forming condensation tracks of lengths of 0.6\u0026ndash;16 mm and an average activity 0.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1 counts per minute (cpm) for 5 V samples and 1.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1 cpm for 20 V samples. No such emissions were detected from unreacted samples. These results provide empirical evidence that electrochemical reactions can generate radioactive isotopes in condensed matter.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Beta-like tracks in a cloud chamber from nickel cathodes after electrolysis","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-06 09:32:48","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8465270/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"fc0c1ee1-5db0-471a-a28b-20573ecf4613","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 6th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":60289973,"name":"Nuclear Physics"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-08T09:00:59+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-06 09:32:48","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8465270","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8465270","identity":"rs-8465270","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}