Integrated Eco-Hydrological and Vegetation Productivity Analysis of Wetland Landscapes in Madhubani, Bihar (2002–2024)

Integrated Eco-Hydrological and Vegetation Productivity Analysis of Wetland Landscapes in Madhubani, Bihar (2002–2024) | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Integrated Eco-Hydrological and Vegetation Productivity Analysis of Wetland Landscapes in Madhubani, Bihar (2002–2024) Manu Raj Sharma, Sonu Kumar Das This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8132463/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 12 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Wetlands are highly productive and biologically diverse systems that enhance water quality, control erosion, maintain stream flows, sequester carbon, and provide a home to at least one-third of all threatened and endangered species. Rainfall and temperature naturally and directly impact them, but other elements that influence these variables include transpiration, evaporation, and vegetation cover. To investigate the impact upon wetlands in the Madhubani district of Bihar, this study utilizes several multi-dimensional variables, viz., actual and potential evapotranspiration (ET and PET), gross and net primary productivity (GPP and NPP), annual rainfall, the Modified Normalized Difference Water Index (MNDWI), and the Soil-Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI). Satellite data of Terra-MODIS 8-day composite (500m) and Landsat series data from the USGS have been used for mapping the changes in wetlands in the Arc-GIS Pro environment. Modified Mann-Kendall (mMK) test and Sen slope have been employed for estimating rainfall trends. The study finds that annual rainfall in Madhubani has decreased over the period 1994–2024, negatively impacting the wetland ecology. The primary productivity witnessed a decreasing trend of GPP and NPP during the years 2002–2024, which resulted in a decreasing trend of seasonal and annual patterns of ET and PET. The past two decades have seen a decline in the spatial distribution of wetlands in Madhubani, resulting from declining trends of annual rainfall, evapotranspiration, and primary productivity. Earth and environmental sciences/Climate sciences Biological sciences/Ecology Earth and environmental sciences/Ecology Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences Earth and environmental sciences/Hydrology Evapotranspiration Primary Productivity Terra-MODIS Ecosystems Modified Mann-Kendall Full Text Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 26 Feb, 2026 Reviews received at journal 15 Dec, 2025 Reviews received at journal 12 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 07 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 05 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 04 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 04 Dec, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 04 Dec, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 04 Dec, 2025 Editor invited by journal 01 Dec, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 25 Nov, 2025 First submitted to journal 25 Nov, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8132463","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":556500165,"identity":"a4e38971-e2f7-493e-a653-6d567cbe48ee","order_by":0,"name":"Manu Raj Sharma","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA8ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBAC9gY2MJ0AJj8AMRs7AS08B5C0MM4AaWEmRQszD5gkpIX9WOKDj3vq8vhnn078bPNrmzwfMwPjh485eLTwpB02nPHscLHEudzN0rl9tw3bmBmYJWduw63FniG9TZrnwIHEhjO8G6Rze24zArWwMfPi0cLD/7z9958DdYnzz/Bu/m3Zc9uesBaJtGPMDAeYEzec4d0mzfDjdiIRWp4lS/YcOJy4EajFsrfhdnIbM2MzXr/w8KcZfvgBdNg8oMNu/Phz23Z+e/PBDx/xaEEFjG1gsoFY9SDwhxTFo2AUjIJRMFIAAEHlU/tpp/o7AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Lalit Narayan Mithila University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Manu","middleName":"Raj","lastName":"Sharma","suffix":""},{"id":556500166,"identity":"58311456-09e8-4061-847f-6b28abcea8e7","order_by":1,"name":"Sonu Kumar Das","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Lalit Narayan Mithila University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sonu","middleName":"Kumar","lastName":"Das","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-11-17 08:08:13","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8132463/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8132463/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":97894389,"identity":"fd690527-523f-40c9-a660-06bca37a9000","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-10 15:32:25","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":4077655,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Manuscript.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/3830c35465f45ca9035f5917.docx"},{"id":97735312,"identity":"064a48b9-c863-422a-b1d7-6f1a76885873","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 19:25:24","extension":"json","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":5147,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"e86150e51dee41348ab4b4dc18615a1a.json","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/a806f2bba659ed5e096b0d41.json"},{"id":97735314,"identity":"361f169f-2d2e-439b-a3ce-6791a8b69f05","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 19:25:24","extension":"xml","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":135098,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"e86150e51dee41348ab4b4dc18615a1a1enriched.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/1bd85cc0c80132210cd5a80c.xml"},{"id":97896154,"identity":"c1d50b2d-0e64-404d-a308-49f8d39791e5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-10 15:35:57","extension":"jpeg","order_by":11,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":574502,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/19d0fabefb0fd2ed180ff99c.jpeg"},{"id":97735320,"identity":"ca24ecde-c830-4c1b-bd38-9024c8057995","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 19:25:24","extension":"jpeg","order_by":12,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":326352,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage10.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/ad54a32395936650e698c59b.jpeg"},{"id":97735313,"identity":"3fdf785f-1921-493b-ba91-4305e4b3aff0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 19:25:24","extension":"jpeg","order_by":13,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":369002,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage11.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/06304ba7bb171b7440714ec3.jpeg"},{"id":97894106,"identity":"35a51e22-71ff-4756-b402-a590a2aaa403","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-10 15:31:56","extension":"jpeg","order_by":14,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":414718,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage12.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/fb6dac0bcf8fd75148cdf3d7.jpeg"},{"id":97735323,"identity":"e0080bad-7d84-46ce-aa1f-ed6666dc6a27","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 19:25:24","extension":"jpeg","order_by":15,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":409342,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage13.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/956f65803ea0acbe927b6590.jpeg"},{"id":97735322,"identity":"d269f19b-b2b1-4a09-9891-23a8effba70f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 19:25:24","extension":"jpeg","order_by":16,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":451046,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage14.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/23a19090009a0d2e6f6866b7.jpeg"},{"id":97735329,"identity":"2df70daa-be3e-4a52-882e-ecb7935ee334","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 19:25:24","extension":"jpeg","order_by":17,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":364626,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage15.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/3e63597fcc4489621d55d232.jpeg"},{"id":97735317,"identity":"07b1cdbd-b483-4074-94da-2c8201e6139f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 19:25:24","extension":"png","order_by":18,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":81230,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/3c08481d2d9da1e04a91e0e7.png"},{"id":97896993,"identity":"97aa8ba0-a7f8-41f3-a747-ddb546973c81","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-10 15:37:19","extension":"png","order_by":19,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":37818,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/161df895db665c9c25cb7995.png"},{"id":97895119,"identity":"d16b5e30-c187-432d-8d78-3b801f2c725a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-10 15:33:37","extension":"png","order_by":20,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":40919,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/f3a8e14e9b114f2f271a2923.png"},{"id":97896395,"identity":"1f25b369-9a6b-46b7-a476-16b77f404d69","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-10 15:36:29","extension":"png","order_by":21,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":44497,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/c1e7346cd8c43a914216f312.png"},{"id":97735326,"identity":"bc715fc2-54c3-4cb6-a09e-7601361ba77a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 19:25:24","extension":"png","order_by":22,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":40876,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/d1b6c7d70bd90f361b8f708c.png"},{"id":97896859,"identity":"4f55aa92-7c19-4890-9a54-ff3d1c91eece","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-10 15:37:08","extension":"png","order_by":23,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":49255,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/7f571a536a899d19f2eba76b.png"},{"id":97896676,"identity":"02dc0b04-b747-41d0-a3de-22796c533200","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-10 15:36:52","extension":"jpeg","order_by":24,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":368532,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/b516c8175f72d4fd8cd2b38a.jpeg"},{"id":97896175,"identity":"b5f4220b-ad75-4a23-8d48-bd1056e9af18","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-10 15:36:01","extension":"jpeg","order_by":25,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":335296,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage9.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/7bc7a3e6e76e95d516ff3bf5.jpeg"},{"id":97895524,"identity":"f3806816-5f92-4793-8bd0-9741dc41b688","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-10 15:34:24","extension":"png","order_by":26,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":98095,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/c5b4d5bbc2cef161e2faa036.png"},{"id":97897025,"identity":"01310dba-7e50-4fee-851d-976caf6fb2bd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-10 15:37:21","extension":"png","order_by":27,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":67062,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/e7f747fcf5823b105d37b0ed.png"},{"id":97895548,"identity":"7b4aeaae-76f2-4ff7-8dbc-69a4e0b855d5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-10 15:34:26","extension":"png","order_by":28,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":76504,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/b7f97d22a2a3fe19dff42dbe.png"},{"id":97895874,"identity":"b9b16aff-4b1e-433e-9b0a-cd7404bbc6d8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-10 15:35:12","extension":"png","order_by":29,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":73698,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/16d5fee09daeeafe13e55679.png"},{"id":97735333,"identity":"7e7e8841-3cc3-46cd-a581-c8b664512595","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 19:25:24","extension":"png","order_by":30,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":73141,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage13.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/fc8c3371423e6e27f1f5fad2.png"},{"id":97735344,"identity":"03ef31f5-35f4-4702-b77c-c45491b4034b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 19:25:24","extension":"png","order_by":31,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":77704,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage14.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/e15e8f59a517cac257edb320.png"},{"id":97894241,"identity":"e2e4a387-6db4-4a29-b9b7-acd398bb3bbd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-10 15:32:05","extension":"png","order_by":32,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":76141,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage15.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/42e43e33610a899c2b77a78e.png"},{"id":97895635,"identity":"350f893d-b946-4509-bfa4-4e87eb566cf7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-10 15:34:35","extension":"png","order_by":33,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":27898,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/935228c43a9390ad127e68dd.png"},{"id":97896673,"identity":"c397f848-cba4-4dd1-85b0-49f574efb9c0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-10 15:36:52","extension":"png","order_by":34,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":8804,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/b024f66562c93756075998bc.png"},{"id":97894418,"identity":"329c2241-b445-4dd5-84db-ff6891de0eec","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-10 15:32:28","extension":"png","order_by":35,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":9873,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/6fccd5fdf1608a318a308bc6.png"},{"id":97895789,"identity":"5c3d55af-16f7-44aa-bc46-66c1e27085f6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-10 15:34:56","extension":"png","order_by":36,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":10203,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/7669aea1013f26d4578e910b.png"},{"id":97894252,"identity":"570e28c7-a4ca-474f-8fed-4b892605b698","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-10 15:32:08","extension":"png","order_by":37,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":9825,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/f7aaa34ebdcd8f351e4adbba.png"},{"id":97735341,"identity":"6c56dc8e-3a05-4a3a-9f22-bb64c4dbd9be","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 19:25:24","extension":"png","order_by":38,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":11391,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/c76fb6df4f8c5c1258d51cb8.png"},{"id":97735347,"identity":"08c9ed1d-295d-4a01-b5e6-b6c3cd16234c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 19:25:25","extension":"png","order_by":39,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":78124,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/77d98353a6a96554801cf885.png"},{"id":97735342,"identity":"2887340a-395c-4151-85ff-540a0746e620","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 19:25:24","extension":"png","order_by":40,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":70792,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/ab83329c04ff4461b4ad42f8.png"},{"id":97735345,"identity":"69cf16e1-dceb-4efe-85de-d7b157105a47","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 19:25:24","extension":"xml","order_by":41,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":132004,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"e86150e51dee41348ab4b4dc18615a1a1structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/b86df70a592cd7040923c271.xml"},{"id":97735346,"identity":"887eb4ee-a524-4c58-aa21-46ed31904bbc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 19:25:24","extension":"html","order_by":42,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":145571,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1/5767cff2a10f3c99a0f9e10a.html"},{"id":98421946,"identity":"1206e9e7-e27f-4912-adcc-809d9f4dfabc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:29:58","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1743498,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8132463/v1_covered_a5a3868f-2c21-4c80-b8a8-86ef9368bba5.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Integrated Eco-Hydrological and Vegetation Productivity Analysis of Wetland Landscapes in Madhubani, Bihar (2002–2024)","fulltext":[],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":true,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":true,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Evapotranspiration, Primary Productivity, Terra-MODIS, Ecosystems, Modified Mann-Kendall","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8132463/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8132463/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eWetlands are highly productive and biologically diverse systems that enhance water quality, control erosion, maintain stream flows, sequester carbon, and provide a home to at least one-third of all threatened and endangered species. Rainfall and temperature naturally and directly impact them, but other elements that influence these variables include transpiration, evaporation, and vegetation cover. To investigate the impact upon wetlands in the Madhubani district of Bihar, this study utilizes several multi-dimensional variables, viz., actual and potential evapotranspiration (ET and PET), gross and net primary productivity (GPP and NPP), annual rainfall, the Modified Normalized Difference Water Index (MNDWI), and the Soil-Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI). Satellite data of Terra-MODIS 8-day composite (500m) and Landsat series data from the USGS have been used for mapping the changes in wetlands in the Arc-GIS Pro environment. Modified Mann-Kendall (mMK) test and Sen slope have been employed for estimating rainfall trends.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study finds that annual rainfall in Madhubani has decreased over the period 1994\u0026ndash;2024, negatively impacting the wetland ecology. The primary productivity witnessed a decreasing trend of GPP and NPP during the years 2002\u0026ndash;2024, which resulted in a decreasing trend of seasonal and annual patterns of ET and PET. The past two decades have seen a decline in the spatial distribution of wetlands in Madhubani, resulting from declining trends of annual rainfall, evapotranspiration, and primary productivity.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Integrated Eco-Hydrological and Vegetation Productivity Analysis of Wetland Landscapes in Madhubani, Bihar (2002–2024)","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-08 19:25:19","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8132463/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-02-26T05:37:56+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-15T06:30:53+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-13T03:25:10+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"300372642347344377277774547443334156889","date":"2025-12-07T14:49:43+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"70218028834871871617860576729155023320","date":"2025-12-05T14:34:47+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"7768990001188548554064177443012778291","date":"2025-12-04T13:32:10+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"309235973430493455480635096472697120486","date":"2025-12-04T13:18:05+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-04T13:14:27+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-12-04T13:12:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-01T14:04:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-11-25T08:00:31+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2025-11-25T07:55:50+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"44d8f227-2b75-4b46-b162-b52e3b43f9d0","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 8th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[{"id":59228013,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Climate sciences"},{"id":59228014,"name":"Biological sciences/Ecology"},{"id":59228015,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Ecology"},{"id":59228016,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences"},{"id":59228017,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Hydrology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-06T09:54:44+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-08 19:25:19","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8132463","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8132463","identity":"rs-8132463","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}