Extraction of lineaments using satellite imagery for a seismic zone of the Sarpol Zahab Region

Extraction of lineaments using satellite imagery for a seismic zone of the Sarpol Zahab Region | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Extraction of lineaments using satellite imagery for a seismic zone of the Sarpol Zahab Region Randa Ali, Basheer A. Elubid, Dafalla S. Dafalla, Muhammad Kamran, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4170041/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 23 Oct, 2024 Read the published version in Remote Sensing in Earth Systems Sciences → Version 1 posted 8 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The work focused on the results of the automated extraction of lineaments and the study of geology and structural geology in the Sarpol Zahab region. Remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) were used to extract faults and structural geology. We used principal component analysis (PCA) and directional filtering techniques applied to the Landsat 8 OLI satellite image to extract lineaments and structural geology in the study area. The shading was used to create a lineament map and a map of the structural geology of the research region. The predominant direction of the faults and lineaments is NW-SE. The density maps show a large concentration in the northwest, Southeast, and southern parts of the Sarpol Zahab area (near the MFF). We have validated these results by comparing them with geological maps and two validation criteria. First, the lithological component shows that the lineaments are often concentrated on rocks, as in the NW-SE trending surface anticlines of limestones in the Southeast and the Oligocene to Miocene sandstones and conglomerates in the West. Another component is the overlay of the lineaments on the slope map. This shows a conspicuous concentration of lineaments where the slopes are steep, and the sudden slope change is most likely the result of faulting activity. The structural lineament extraction method is acknowledged as a benefit for this kind of study and is thought to be a utility reference method with accuracy in striatal lineament selection. Landsat 8 OLI Sarpol Zahab lineament principal component analysis (PCA) Zagros Front fault. Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16 Figure 17 1. INTRODUCTION Remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are techniques widely used in geological studies in most of their fields (hydrogeology, lithological mapping, geomorphology, and structure, etc.). With their different approaches, both methods offer the possibility to collect statistical data for any research and to carry out analyses and studies over vast areas without directly touching the land. Geological mapping, which includes lithology and fracture networks, is essential for geological studies. Numerous studies have shown the importance of optical remote sensing technologies for geological mapping (Sabins 1999; Ali and Pour 2014). The lineaments are either linear or curvilinear discontinuities and are directly related to compound faults and fractures. They are associated with various tectonic structures and geomorphologic features. Many authors worldwide have applied the idea of extracting lineaments from digital satellite images for multiple purposes, such as structural and tectonic investigations (Si Mhamdi et al. 2017; Sedrette and Rebai 2016; Madani 2001). The main techniques used to enhance satellite imagery for lineament extraction are principal component analysis (PCA), directional filtering, and shading. PCA also distinguishes between geologic features and lithologic units (Mars and Rowan 2006; Ali and Pour 2014; Mathew and Ariffin 2018; Safari et al. 2018). The technique follows image processing and digitizes visually detected lineaments (Harris et al. 2005) The Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) satellite sensor and the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) digital terrain module, which covers the research region, were used for this work. The Landsat 8 OLI sensor was selected due to its resolution and clarity, as well as its geographical coverage and its application in several publications by different authors. Several steps and methods were used in the preprocessing and processing this data. Radiometric, atmospheric, and geometric adjustments were applied to the Landsat 8 OLI image. Directional filtering was performed on a 3x3 matrix of the first principal component analysis (PCA1) and the panchromatic band using the ENVI Classic application. The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) was shaded using ArcGIS 10.8. Finally, the lineaments were extracted using the PCI Geomantica 2015-line extraction algorithm module. The research region is approximately 140 kilometers southwest of Kermanshah province and a few kilometers east of the Iran-Iraq border (Figure 1). The M w 7.3 Sarpol-Zahab earthquake ruptured, causing an oblique (dextral thrust) fault with gentle dipping (11 ͦ) eastward under the northwestern Lurestan arc. This inquiry aims to map the structural and geological features of the studied region. Furthermore, the relationship between the distribution of the major faults and the lineament distribution is formed to improve the structural aspect of this region and offer better knowledge of geotectonic evolution. Insert Figure 1 Here 2. GEOLOGY, STRUCTURE, SEISMICITY, AND TECTONIC SETTING This section examines the geology of the Lurestan Arc, which significantly influences earthquake faulting in the Simply Folded Belt (SFB) (Elliott et al. 2015; Nissen et al. 2011). Its crustal structure, past seismic activity, and structural links to the Kirkuk and Dezful regions are also discussed. The Lurestan Arc stretches up to 200 km wide and 300 km long and is a notable feature in the northwest of the SFB. It is generally one kilometer higher than the surrounding region and lies 1,000 to 1,500 meters (Figure 2). Insert Figure 2 Here 2.1. Geology The stratigraphy of the Lurestan Arc preserves the geologic formation of the northeastern Arabian margins from the Paleozoic rifting that led to the opening of the Mesozoic Neote-Thys Ocean, the final closure of the ocean, and the beginning of the collision of the continent with the Central Iranian Plateau in the late Eocene (Alavi 2004). The Lurestan arc has cover thicknesses of ∼6–10 km (Blanc et al. 2003; McQuarrie 2004; Homke et al. 2009; Vergés et al. 2011; Sadeghi and Yassaghi 2016). in comparison, the Mesopotamian foreland SW of the arc has cover thicknesses of ∼11–14 km (Sherkati et al. 2006; Casciello et al. 2009; Farzipour-Saein et al. 2009; Emami et al. 2010; Sadeghi and Yassaghi 2016). The major causes of the difference are usually attributed to vertical offset and exhumation across two major basement-cored reverse faults. The Mountain Front Fault marks the frontal outcrop of Oligocene-Miocene Asmari limestone in the region, and the Zagros Foredeep Fault, which runs along the foreland deformation front ((Berberian 1995); Figure 2). In contrast to the Fars arc, there is no clear evidence of basal Infracambrian Hormuz salt deposits in the northwest SFB (Kent 1979; Edgell 1991). Nonetheless, mechanical study indicates that the Lurestan arc has the same decoupling horizon, allowing the deformation front to proceed southwest across the Arabian plate (McQuarrie, 2004). The Mesozoic strata of the Lurestan Arc differ from those in other areas of the Iranian Zagros in that they contain more pelagic shales and fewer neritic limestones (Casciello et al. 2009; Sherkati et al. 2006). There are three main detachment-forming horizons in the Lurestan cover sequence, and each one leads to folds with distinct wavelengths (Casciello et al., 2009; Farzipour-Saein et al., 2009; Vergés et al., 2011a). The Cretaceous Bangestan Group is exposed on surface anticlines and consists of resistant limestones oriented NW-SE, Shahbazan-Asmari formations in the Oligocene to Miocene. Conversely, synclines generally show Aghajary and Bakhtyari sandstones and conglomerates, as well as Gachsaran evaporites of the Pliocene age. Figure 13 also provides a deeper insight into the geological map. 2.2. Structure Seismicity distribution leads to further investigation of structural relationships between the Lurestan arc and adjoining embayments. According to various studies, the Dezful embayment has a significantly thicker sedimentary cover (at 12 ± 3 km) and a higher stratigraphic exposure level towards the south than Lurestan (Ahmadhadi et al. 2007; Blanc et al. 2003; Sherkati et al. 2006). The Balarud line is a structural step or flexure accommodating difference (Figure 2). The Balarud line's E-W direction is rare in the Zagros, where most basement and cover structures are NW-SE or N-S. It truncates and occasionally deflects NW-SE trending folds on each side as if the steep stratigraphic difference prevents folds from migrating across it (Allen and Talebian 2011). Surface geology and seismicity do not support a continuous fault along the Balarud line (Hessami et al. 2001; Sepehr and Cosgrove 2004). Instead, focal mechanisms and epicenters suggest an en-system arrangement of W-to-NW striking reverse or oblique-reverse faults. To the north, the basement depths in the Kirkuk embayment may be slightly higher than in Lurestan, at 10 ± 2 km (Bretis et al. 2011; De Vera et al. 2009; Hinsch and Bretis 2015; Koshnaw et al. 2017; Obaid and Allen 2017; Sadeghi and Yassaghi 2016). However, the Kirkuk embayment exposes younger rocks than the surrounding areas of the Lurestan arc, and fold axes are shortened along the border, indicating a deep-seated structural division. According to (Berberian 1995), this boundary consists of right-stepping, NW-striking parts of the Mountain Front Fault (see Figure 2). As opposed to this, (Hessami et al. 2001) and (Bahroudi and Talbot 2003) describe the boundary as a single, continuous right-lateral fault known as the Khanaqin fault. This fault follows the same roughly N-S structural trend as lineaments traced in the central Arabian plate. Among the first significant occurrences along this trend are the Qasre Shirin (2013), Sarpol Zahab (2017), and Mandali (2018) sequences. 2.3. Seismicity Many earthquakes occurred in the Mandali and Sarpolzahab regions before the 2017–2018 earthquakes. The most notable occurrences of 2013 were those close to Qasre Shirin in November. These included Mw 5.7 and 5.8 earthquakes on November 22 and an Mw 5.5 event on November 24. A week later, there were over 40 M >3 earthquakes. The two largest earthquakes occurred on November 22, 2013, and their nodal planes had modest (about 10◦ and 18◦) NE dips. The steeper (∼81◦ and ∼72◦) SW dipping nodal planes are most likely the auxiliary planes, given the strong reverse sensation of motion in both earthquakes. The direction of the dip of the third major Qasre Shrin earthquake, which occurred on November 24, 2013, is uncertain due to its nodal plane dips, around 40◦E or 58◦W. Since the resultant slip vector more closely reflects the ∼SW slip vector azimuths of the earthquakes on November 22, 2013. The events studied using teleseismic waveforms, and InSAR has a shallow centroid depth of about ∼14–16 km, suggesting that the lower sediment is fractured (Maggi et al. 2000; Nissen et al. 2011; Talebian and Jackson 2004; Copley et al. 2015; Motagh et al. 2015). The biggest earthquake in the Zagros Simply Folded Belt was the M/7.3 Sarpol Zahab earthquake on November 12, 2017. The rupture concentrated southward for about 40 km along an oblique (dextral-thrust) fault. That dips approximately 11°E beneath the northwest Lurestan arc. Slip is limited to basement depths of around 10–20 km, below approximately 6 –15 km thick sedimentary cover. The large slip area made feasible by the basement location and gentle dip angle can account for the enormous scale of the earthquakes compared to those in the main Fars arc of the Zagros, where shallower and steeper faults are constrained in their rupture extent by weak sedimentary. Earthquakes have also occurred in the Kirkuk area. The events in Kirkuk have shown center-of-mass depths of about 13–25 km and M ∼4-5. These results are consistent with subsurface activity (Abdulnaby et al. 2014). There are a few seismic events near the Mandali series of 2018. Specifically, the 2018 earthquakes are a concentrated group of earthquakes in late August 2014. The biggest of the prior occurrences was an Mw 4.9 earthquake on August 22, 2014. The earthquake that struck on August 22, 2014, just west of the fault plane formed on January 11, 2018, may have ruptured the nearby (up-dip) section of the Zagros Foredeep Fault. 2.4. Tectonic Evolution A recent synthesis of GPS data and geologic constraints on plate circuits suggests that the convergence occurred at a rate of about 20 km/Myr since at least 22 Ma, following the separation of Arabia from Africa (Nubia) (Tatar et al. 2002; Nilforoushan et al. 2003; Vernant et al. 2004a; Vernant et al. 2004b). It agrees with stratigraphic and structural limitations in the Zagros region near the plate suture, which support a minimum age of 23–25 Ma for the Neo-Tethyan Ocean's final closure. This observation is in line with the 19.7 Ma synorogenic sandstones of the Razak Formation, which have been precisely dated by magneto stratigraphy (Vernant et al. 2004a), and the Lower Miocene sedimentation in the Zagros that replaced the Oligocene carbonates. Additionally, evidence for a flexural unconformity in the Middle Miocene or a little earlier is provided by published seismic lines from the Persian Gulf, supporting the conclusions above (Soleimany and Sàbat 2010). Together, these concurrent data show that the northern Zagros was experiencing uplift, erosion, and contraction and that the ultimate suture occurred in the early Miocene. Numerous pieces of evidence provide supportive information on a constructional episode that happened in the Arabian margin before the Early Miocene. For instance, the Zagros carbonates sequence has an unconformity long-recognized middle Eocene-late Oligocene or Late Eocene-Lower Miocene (Berberian and Berberian 1981). It extends the 15 Ma middle-late Eocene erosional or non-depositional hiatus documented to the northwest in the Lurestan area (Homke et al. 2010). The foreland basin's coarsening upward sedimentation began in the late Oligocene, close to the suture zone, according to a recent reevaluation of the stratigraphy of the coarse-grained facies (Fakhari et al. 2008). This finding clearly shows that the large unconformity in the northern Zagros resulted in tectonic loading somewhere between the middle Eocene and the late Oligocene. According to (Khadivi et al. 2010) and (Mouthereau et al. 2007), this event occurred before the Zagros foreland basin reached the Miocene overfilled stage. As a result, it most likely marks the beginning of the current Zagros collision, which should be dated to the Late Eocene-Early Oligocene transition at about 35 Ma. A recent analysis of deformation chronology to the north of the suture zone confirms collisional shortening beginning in the Late Eocene-Oligocene. This is further corroborated by the discovery of detrital zircons in the late Oligocene conglomerates deposited in the northern Zagros with U/Pb ages of 45–50 Ma, sourced from the supervening Iranian micro plate (Horton et al. 2008). Miocene sediments' apatite fission track ages point to a fast cooling in the NW Zagros belt at about 38 Ma (Homke et al. 2010). The rapid cooling and sedimentation occurred in the High Zagros between 19–15 Ma and 12–8 Ma, utilizing helium dating on detrital zircon and apatite in the Dezful region of the northern Zagros. The youngest grain age of 22 Ma indicates that the Arabian edge is exhumed between 20 and 10 Ma, and uplift and exhumation in the Zagros and Iranian plateaus were both by around 20 Ma. As a result, it was compared to the initial collision's 35 Ma (Gavillot et al. 2010). Although the precise sequential timing of collision events is still in question, there is no doubt that a marine gateway connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Indo-Pacific Ocean existed at least until the early Miocene in Central Iran and until ca. 15 Ma on the Arabian margin in the Zagros, about 20 Ma after the initial collision. A continent-continent collision that started in the Tertiary gave rise to the Zagros fold and thrust belt (ZFTB), continued shortening of the mountain range, and formation of the Zagros foreland basin. The SW-NE oriented contraction resulted in the formation of NE dipping thrusts, NW-SE trending folds, and SW-verging folds in the Phanerozoic sedimentary cover. Above this basement is a separation zone for the Infra-Cambrian Hormuz evaporates (Alavi 1994) . 3. DATA SET AND METHODOLOGY 3.1. Data Set The primary data source for this work is a Landsat 8 OLI; it has 11 bands 8 of the bands (OLI 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9) with a spatial resolution of 30 m and a TIRS 10 and TIRS 11 with a spatial resolution of 100 m. The panchromatic band 8 has a spatial resolution of 15 m. This image covers the Sarpol Zahab region and reflects the summer season to minimize cloud cover, with Path 168 ROW 36 and an acquisition date of 2020-09-011. Only bands 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 are used in this study (Table 1). In addition, the digital terrain model of the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) with a resolution of 30 meters is used. These data are all downloaded from the website (https://usgs.gov). We also utilized the geologic map with 1/200 000 and 1/50 000 scales for the National Iranian Oil Company (Ashayeri et al., 2020), which included the study area map. We digitized the main lineaments affecting the study area (Figure 2) using the geological maps to obtain an initial overview of the distribution of local tectonic structures. These data were projected into the WGS 1984 UTM zone 29. Insert Table 1 Here 3.2. Methodology The lineaments were automatically extracted using remote sensing techniques applied to satellite data (Landsat 8 OLI and SRTM images). This data was preprocessed, including geometric, radiometric, and atmospheric corrections, to lessen the effects of distortions during the satellite's picture collection. Lastly, we analyzed a scene, utilizing several techniques to extract lineaments automatically. This step is summed up in diagrams (Figure 3). We applied directional filtering to the first principal component (PCA1) and the panchromatic band (B8) using the 3*3 matrix. The effects of shading on SRTM were investigated. Subsequently, the "line extraction" tool of the Geomantica 2015 software was used to extract the line segments from the set automatically. Table 2 lists some of the basic parameters of the software. The results were confirmed by a more thorough review process that excluded anthropogenic interventions such as walls, paths, and roads) as well as non-structural linear forms such as cliffs, ridges, and ravines) and geological maps of the study area. Insert Table2 Here Insert Figure 3 Here 4. PROCESSING 4.1. Principle Compotes Analysis The principal component analysis method is a statistical approach commonly used in geological research (Gabr et al. 2010; Pour and Hashim 2011; Pour and Hashim 2012; Adiri et al. 2017). In this technique, the information found in the original tapes can be assembled into new tapes called principal components (Gabr et al., 2010; Adiri et al., 2017). Consequently, PCA enhances and distinguishes specific spectral signatures from a background (Gabr et al., 2010). In this study, we focus on PCA1 because it is sharp and has a more significant percentage of variance on the PCA1 axis than on the PCA2 axis, which is higher than on the PCA3 axis. Figure 4 shows the first component (PCA1), and Figure 6 shows the panchromatic band 8. 4.2. Directional Filtering One of the treatments used is directional filtering, which consists of image enhancement. The aim of using directional filters is to reveal the linear characteristics to reduce blurring and smooth the image (Abdelouhed et al. 2021). In geological applications, these filters reveal near-bottom fractures with a wide spatial wavelength range from 10 to 100 meters (Algouti et al. 2022). The current study, a 3*3 matrix is used as a directional filter to determine the order in which the structures should be created. This is applied in four different orientations (N0°, N45°, N90° and N315°) to the PCA1 (Figure 5) and the panchromatic band 8 (Figure7). Insert Figure 4 Here Insert Figure 5 Here 4.3. Shading Analytical hill shading is a method for creating shaded topographic images of the elevations of the earth's surface. It replicates the reflection of artificial light coming from a point source of illumination at a specific elevation (inclination) and azimuth (declination) (Masoud and Koike 2006). This study applies shading to the SRTM covering our study region. The angles N0°, N45°, N90°, and N315° are then selected (Figure 8 ). Lineaments can be seen from the boundaries between shaded and unshaded regions ((Masoud and Koike 2006; Algouti et al. 2022). Insert Figure 6 Here Insert Figure 7Here 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Based on visual interpretation with the color combination of R G and B bands 5, 4, and 7, we identified three lithological divisions, which are Quaternary deposits (Qt), Bakhtyari (Bk), and Asmari Formation (As). Each lithological unit has a distinct texture, color, and relief. The Qt mainly comprises gravel, sand, silt, and clay along the river (coarse and fine grain). The Qt is characterized by blue, light red, and dark red colors (Figure 9). Blue represents the built-up areas, and light to dark red represents the agricultural areas and other vegetation covers. The Qt unit covers the majority area of the study area. It extends from the middle part near the Alvand River to the south area. This area extends approximately 45.62% of the study area. Insert Figure 8 Here The Bk is classified as a conglomerate, sandstone, and shale. Bk was found in the research region. According to the Landsat satellite image, Bk is dark and pale blue with a few dark red spots. The heavy red indicates the land is densely vegetated, whereas the light blue patch denotes open areas. Bk is also known for its small-height hills. This lithological unit accounts for approximately 3.45% of the studied area. It consists of limestone and is the oldest rock formation in the study area. It was formed between the Oligocene and the Miocene. The Landsat 8 image indicates it by the light green color with a few light blue spots (Figure 9). The light green color refers to the marks on the frontal outcrop, which has a rough texture. It is mainly distributed in the middle part of the study site. It is located in the core of the anticline. The total area is about 39.67% of the study area. Because both units have comparable visual morphology, color, texture, and relief, Qt and Bk are difficult to distinguish from Landsat 8. However, the Bk deposits can be located using the association notion. Qt primarily accumulates on the foot slope of denudation hills, where the denudation processes form it. As a result, the narrow flat zones that lie on the border between mountainous and flat lands are frequently referred to as Qt. Moreover, because of the alluvial processes close to the denudation hills, it has poor material sorting and a high clay concentration. Insert Figure 9 Here The lineament maps were created with the help of automated lineament extraction. All linear shapes that did not match the geological or structural lineaments were removed from the maps, and the previous processing was retained. This method was applied to the four directional filters of PCA1, the panchromatic band (B8), and the four SRTM shadings of the digital terrain module. Alongside these maps, we will find data representing the number, length, and frequency of lineaments as a function of length in the survey space and directional roses formed by the proportion of cumulative lineament lengths. The first principal component (PCA1) results show a map with 1195 line segments (Figure 10-a), with an average length of 13332.54 m, a minimum length of 349 m, and a maximum length of about 2533 m. The proportions between 80% and 100% dominate the overall distribution of lineaments (Figure 10-c). According to the directional roses of the lineaments for PCA1 (Figure 10-d), the NW-SE direction is the most pronounced. Insert Figure 10 Here The panchromatic band yielded 14172 line segments with a minimum length of 450 m, a maximum length of 12822.88 m, and an average length of 19902180.13 (Figure 11-a). The panchromatic lineament typically follows the same direction as the PC1, with a minority approaching the NE-SW and N-S directions ( Figure 11-d). For the class between 500 and 1000 m, the distribution frequency reached 100%. Insert Figure 11 Here The lineaments derived from SRTM around 1115 (Figure 12-a) range from 530 m to 5657 km, with an average length of 3364417 m. The class with lengths between 981 m and 1.5 km (60-80%) dominates the lineament population (Figure 12-c). The directional diagram (Figure 12-d) shows two main routes, NW-SE and approximately E-W. All directional roses of PCA1, the panchromatic band, and STRM have similar patches showing NW-SE dominance. This orientation corresponds to the major faults shown in the geologic maps of the research area (Figure 3). Insert Figure 12 Here The density maps show the places where the lineaments are most pronounced. The northwest-southeast and southern parts of the area All directional roses of PCA1, the panchromatic band, and STRM have similar patches showing NW-SE dominance. This orientation corresponds to the major faults indicated in the geologic maps of the study area. Figure (13) shows the highest densities. As this is one of the areas that has undergone numerous orogenic cycles, the topography in this area is highly fractured. The density maps produced from PCA1, STEM, and the panchromatic band (Figures 13, b,c, and d, respectively) closely correspond to the main fault map (Figure 13-a). Insert Figure 13 Here According to (Alavi 2008), three families dominate the distribution of lineaments in this area. The direction of an essential family varies between NW-SE, NE-SW to E-W, and N-S, which is consistent with the general direction of the major faults. The structure of the first directional group is associated with the latest Neoproterozoic and earliest Cambrian (550–540 Ma). These faults have displaced pan-African structures within the Arabian Shield to the northeast. The Recent Main Fault (MRF) and other blind faults extending northwest to Southeast are part of the Zagros Orogen (NW-SE). The second group that trended from NE-SW to E-W formed during the Permian and Triassic openings of the Neo-Tethys Ocean. This group follows the general trend of transformation faults (NE-SW). The third group comprises structures formed during the Pan-African orogen (670–570 Ma). Examples of these faults are ZFTBs that run in an N-S direction. Based on the correlation of our remote sensing results, we can see that all data sets provide similar or identical results. We used geologic maps of major faults in the target region to confirm our results. In addition, we rely on two other aspects that play a role in validating these conclusions. The first is the lithologic map, and the second is the comparison of the lineaments with the slope map. When the lineaments are superimposed on the lithologic map of the study region, we can see that most of the lineaments are concentrated in the areas composed of competent rocks. In contrast, the lineaments become weaker in the less complicated and brittle formations. In the NW-SE trending surface anticlines, which form “whaleback” limestones that are mostly resistant, there is a conspicuous concentration of lineaments in this area. In the north, the Oligocene and Miocene sandstones and conglomerates of Agha Jari and Bakhtyari contain a high concentration of geological lineaments. At the same time, the friable Cretaceous to Quaternary formations (sandstones, marls, and boulders) have barely perceptible geological lineaments (see Figure 14). The morphology and geomorphology of the land are most likely caused by tectonic processes leading to the dips and depressions created by the movement of faults. It becomes clear by comparing the lineaments with the slope maps, one of the validations of lineaments. Insert Figure 14 Here The slope maps were created from the digital terrain module (Figure 15) with the lineaments from the PCA1, the panchromatic band, and the STRM. The overlay shows that most lineaments are concentrated in areas with steep slopes and substantial variations in topographic profile, especially in the southwest (Sarpol Zahab) and the northeastern part. In contrast, the areas with low slopes (the central area) show a decrease in lineaments. The reversal faults resulting in significant frontal escarpments in the Zagros SFB are called the Mountain Front Fault (Berberian 1995; Figure 15). Insert Figure 15 Here The Sarpol Zahab (2017) earthquake offered significant insights and mapped new limits on the dynamics in the area. It refers to the fault associated with the Sarpol Zahab earthquake as the “Sarpol Zahab fault”. It differs significantly from the Mountain Front Fault and the other faults in the other Zagros parts. The Mountain Front Fault has steeper fault planes (∼20-60◦) compared to the Sarpol Zahab fault (∼11◦), which is the first difference (Ali et al. 2022). Second, most earthquakes on the Mountain Front Fault had reverse processes, but the Sarpol Zahab earthquake had a SW-directed slip that was highly oblique to the local roughly N-S range front topography. Finally, the Mountain Front Fault uplifts from the basement into the lower to middle sedimentary cover, where shallow centroid depths are observed (Nissenetal., 2011), where it affects the evolution of major surface anticlines ( Berberian, 1995 ; Blanc et al., 2003). Consequently, the Mountain Front Fault in the Sarpol Zahab region had previously been mapped as a set of short, NW-striking segments that paralleled the regional direction of fold axes (Figures 16). As shown in Figure 16 b, the N-S Sarpol Zahab fault angles sharply with overlying folds, from which the fault must be detached. Following the Sarpol Zahab earthquake, Barnhart et al. (2018) observed an afterslip near the up-dip limit of co-seismic slip on a sub-horizontal structure located at ∼10 to 14 km depth, which supports this interpretation. Insert Figure 16 Here 6. CONCLUSION In geological research, the automated extraction of lineaments is considered an essential and valuable technique. This method of extracting lineaments provides valuable insights into the region's tectonic history and geodynamics. This study relies on the Landsat 8 OLI sensor, widely used in research due to its spectral potential and spatial coverage. We determined the PCA1 and panchromatic band, including the STRM. All of this data was processed in a specialized way to extract the most likely structural lineaments that comprise the study region. Remote sensing and the Geographic Information System are used in structural line mapping by automatic lineament extraction, which also speeds up the discovery of fractured zones. This technique also generates length, density, and distribution frequency statistics. In addition, other studies, including hydrogeological studies, mining research, and so on, can benefit from this work as a reference. Declarations FUNDING : No funding ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors acknowledge Southwest Jiaotong University for providing knowledge. We sincerely thank Professor Chen and Wu for helping us. The Landsat 8 OLI data were downloaded from (https://usgs.gov, accessed on 20200911), and The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission v.4 Digital Elevation Model (SRTM-4 DEM) from (https://srtm.csi.cgiar.org/srtmdata/). The research figures were carried out using the Generic Mapping Tool (GMT) and Arc GIS. CONFLICTS OF INTEREST : The authors declare no conflict of interest. References Abdelouhed F, Ahmed A, Abdellah A, Mohammed I (2021) Lineament mapping in the ikniouen area (Eastern Anti-Atlas, Morocco) using Landsat-8 Oli and SRTM data. Remote sensing applications: society and environment 23:100606. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsase.2021.100606 Abdulnaby W, Mahdi H, Numan NM, Al-Shukri H (2014) Seismotectonics of the Bitlis–Zagros fold and thrust belt in northern Iraq and surrounding regions from moment tensor analysis. 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Tectonics 25 (4). doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/2004TC001766 Si Mhamdi H, Raji M, Maimouni S, Oukassou M (2017) Fractures network mapping using remote sensing in the Paleozoic massif of Tichka (Western High Atlas, Morocco). Arabian Journal of Geosciences 10:1-14. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-017-2912-5 Soleimany B, Sàbat F (2010) Style and age of deformation in the NW Persian Gulf. Petroleum Geoscience 16 (1):31-39 Talebian M, Jackson J (2004) A reappraisal of earthquake focal mechanisms and active shortening in the Zagros mountains of Iran. Geophysical Journal International 156 (3):506-526. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2004.02092.x Tatar M, Hatzfeld D, Martinod J, Walpersdorf A, Ghafori‐Ashtiany M, Chéry J (2002) The present‐day deformation of the central Zagros from GPS measurements. Geophysical research letters 29 (19):33-31-33-34. doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/2002GL015427 Vergés J, Goodarzi M, Emami H, Karpuz R, Efstathiou J, Gillespie P (2011) Multiple detachment folding in Pusht-e Kuh arc, Zagros: Role of mechanical stratigraphy. doi:https://doi.org/10.1306/13251333M942899 Vernant P, Nilforoushan F, Chery J, Bayer R, Djamour Y, Masson F, Nankali H, Ritz J-F, Sedighi M, Tavakoli F (2004a) Deciphering oblique shortening of central Alborz in Iran using geodetic data. Earth and planetary science letters 223 (1-2):177-185 doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2004.04.017 Vernant P, Nilforoushan F, Hatzfeld D, Abbassi MR, Vigny C, Masson F, Nankali H, Martinod J, Ashtiani A, Bayer R, Tavakoli F, J Ce ( 2004b) present-day crustal deformation and plate kinematics in the Middle East constrained by GPS measurements in Iran and northern Oman. Geophysical Journal International 157 (Issue 1):381-398 doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2004.02222.x Tables Tables 1 and 2 are available in the Supplementary Files section. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Table1.docx Table2.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 23 Oct, 2024 Read the published version in Remote Sensing in Earth Systems Sciences → Version 1 posted Reviews received at journal 27 May, 2024 Reviews received at journal 01 May, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 29 Apr, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 23 Apr, 2024 Reviewers invited by journal 22 Apr, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 08 Apr, 2024 Submission checks completed at journal 07 Apr, 2024 First submitted to journal 26 Mar, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4170041","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":289041340,"identity":"ba75765d-9841-4321-8b77-1b3334ddd23c","order_by":0,"name":"Randa Ali","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA7klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACdsYGIMnMYN/efAwswMZOSAszVIsBz7E0BoYEoBZmglqgpIFEjhlYCwMhLfzNzG0ffu6wljeXyPn24OOPbfJ8zAyMHz7m4NYicZixeWbvmXTDnT1vtxvOSLht2MbMwCw5cxsea4BaGHjbDjM2HM/dJs2TcJsRqIWNmRePFnmgFsa/bYftGw7kPANpsSeoxQCohRloS+KGEzlsIC2JBLUYgrTItqUnz+w5ZiY5I+12chszYzNev8gdb3/M+LbN2rafvfmZxAeb27bz25sPfviIz/tYADhyR8EoGAWjYBRQAgB8dU5kTZcj7wAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Southwest Jiaotong University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Randa","middleName":"","lastName":"Ali","suffix":""},{"id":289041341,"identity":"de1e2139-e018-406c-aa86-dfa83c4ca552","order_by":1,"name":"Basheer A. 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13:05:02","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4170041/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4170041/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s41976-024-00148-6","type":"published","date":"2024-10-23T15:57:24+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":54515614,"identity":"9cb17bb6-27a3-4dc9-9957-84816029596a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-11 16:28:58","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":3800157,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe location map of the study (a) National scale, (b)At the regional scale, and (c) The digital elevation module (DEM).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4170041/v1/15f0bc816fd19d07ee060705.jpg"},{"id":54515623,"identity":"8054ecec-3971-4378-94bc-326451cde7f3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-11 16:28:59","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":124984,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMapped active faults in the Lurestan arc.\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003eBlack lines are faults; surface projections of Berberian's (1995) “master blind thrusts” are dashed (DEF = Dezful Embayment Fault; MFF = Mountain Front Fault; ZFF = Zagros Foredeep Fault).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4170041/v1/781b0bbdfb370e019c4a2455.jpg"},{"id":54516548,"identity":"d5065ae9-0338-46f0-99d3-513c7f4c9e6d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-11 16:36:59","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":3565862,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe diagram shows the automated lineament extraction operation.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4170041/v1/1a61103437a2c24df6f9c233.jpg"},{"id":54515635,"identity":"57f2f74a-1d06-4a14-83ff-8d234fc39122","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-11 16:28:59","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":11721834,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe first principal component (PCA1) image\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4170041/v1/1228314dc743be2f83a394d6.jpg"},{"id":54515640,"identity":"052eb037-0c40-4f7e-a155-a5039cf3b479","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-11 16:29:00","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":16248818,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe four directional Filters of the first principal component images are (a) N0°, (b) N45°, (c) N90°, and (d) N315°.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4170041/v1/50f73fbbb9fda497d2e2f185.jpg"},{"id":54515632,"identity":"37fffc9e-4787-4380-8afc-16b6d5dc1b91","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-11 16:28:59","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":15834079,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe panchromatic band (B8) image Landsat 8 OLI.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4170041/v1/933f9ce0073964148166f5e9.jpg"},{"id":54515617,"identity":"9baa8760-50b2-494e-b059-2842cafab6bc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-11 16:28:58","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":4563751,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe four directional filters of the panchromatic band images are (a) N0°, (b) N45°, (c) N90 °, and (d) N315°.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4170041/v1/7339b3fc4ccf5b61e8cc2b36.jpg"},{"id":54515629,"identity":"13156dce-6ef2-4f54-b86a-ebe1a7ecee79","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-11 16:28:59","extension":"jpg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":411249,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe four SRTM shading images are (a) N0°, (b) N45°, (c) N90 °, and (d) N315°.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure8.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4170041/v1/5794a66183d0998a9c52fa60.jpg"},{"id":54515638,"identity":"6c304faa-a8f9-4e10-bd3c-1afc3903a340","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-11 16:29:00","extension":"jpg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":880374,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eInterpreted of lithologic on Landsat OLI image RGB 567.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure9.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4170041/v1/52031166412e9bb3a3d51975.jpg"},{"id":54515634,"identity":"3cf2ecf5-9926-4877-8817-9cc4e2ab34ab","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-11 16:28:59","extension":"jpg","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":470767,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a) The lineament map from PCA1, (b) table of statistics, (c) frequency diagram of the lineament distribution as a function of length, and (d) directional roses.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure10.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4170041/v1/4cd546015fa5ca7f961a4c99.jpg"},{"id":54515619,"identity":"2cb60f4b-7267-4f44-8372-b3340d877d7b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-11 16:28:58","extension":"jpg","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":724032,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a) The lineament map from the panchromatic, (b) table of statistics, (c) frequency diagram of the lineament distribution as a function of length, and (d) directional roses.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure11.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4170041/v1/aff1bcd6d5d9f2a3b2b8ae53.jpg"},{"id":54515639,"identity":"80d62be1-9036-422d-8f35-7ddadfce57ae","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-11 16:29:00","extension":"jpg","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":752072,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a) The lineament map from the STRM digital terrain module,(b) table of statistics, (c) frequency diagram of the lineament distribution as a function of length, and (d) directional roses.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure12.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4170041/v1/42db814ae78f99d8643ea490.jpg"},{"id":54515628,"identity":"378e9486-12bd-4b1a-8bea-2811495f7e4e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-11 16:28:59","extension":"jpg","order_by":13,"title":"Figure 13","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2277867,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe density map of (a) major faults in the study area, (b) Lineaments of the PCA1, (c) lineaments of the panchromatic band, and (d) lineaments of the digital terrain modulus STRM.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure13.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4170041/v1/dde9829f416b40bed3ec0452.jpg"},{"id":54515630,"identity":"1829daa5-1144-468d-8dbd-dbc3660ddc4b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-11 16:28:59","extension":"jpg","order_by":14,"title":"Figure 14","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":835307,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe superposition of the lineaments on the lithological map of the study area (National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC 2010); Modified after, (Ashayeri et al. 2020).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure14.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4170041/v1/60474ebee72237b16a05643d.jpg"},{"id":54515636,"identity":"1dab74cf-e621-4117-8055-ea4ddee5614f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-11 16:28:59","extension":"jpg","order_by":15,"title":"Figure 15","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":7311464,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe superposition of the lineaments on the slope map (a) major faults in the study area, (b) lineament of the band PC1, (c) lineament of the panchromatic, and (d) lineament of SRTM.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure15.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4170041/v1/2bb127e2cf2bed8f087e663f.jpg"},{"id":54515625,"identity":"79e33151-a9d3-4860-ba3f-7a16eb9e7b4b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-11 16:28:59","extension":"jpg","order_by":16,"title":"Figure 16","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":7812163,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe image shows the mapped active faults in the Lurestan arc\u003cstrong\u003e, \u003c/strong\u003eand Focal mechanisms are colored according to centroid depth. All earthquakes are plotted at relocated epicenter locations from this study; black lines are faults; “master blind thrusts” are dashed (DEF = Dezful Embayment Fault; MFF = Mountain Front Fault; ZFF = Zagros Foredeep Fault); red lines are fold shape, and yellow line are lineaments line.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure16.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4170041/v1/6d66065143184b3eb9e0888a.jpg"},{"id":54515631,"identity":"5f0a5eba-949d-4843-b7b8-446e8021dc73","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-11 16:28:59","extension":"jpg","order_by":17,"title":"Figure 17","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1391066,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLegend not included with this version\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure17.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4170041/v1/67b0f739c2bdea96a66d664e.jpg"},{"id":67681866,"identity":"1e0a250b-cdac-4714-b335-1f3fd76b9df2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-28 16:10:33","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":79168241,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4170041/v1/72dab6e1-15df-4147-ab0f-75e6e87f5a6f.pdf"},{"id":54515624,"identity":"48fbddb5-2504-4223-95a5-55668948f6f9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-11 16:28:59","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":21304,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Table1.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4170041/v1/064cf75c519f3ad2051f1a16.docx"},{"id":54515615,"identity":"70e61fdd-a31b-471a-a59b-d9dbc33996cd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-11 16:28:58","extension":"docx","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":18812,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Table2.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4170041/v1/bbbb0c59f3a343104728e1f4.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Extraction of lineaments using satellite imagery for a seismic zone of the Sarpol Zahab Region","fulltext":[{"header":"1. INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eRemote sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are techniques widely used in geological studies in most of their fields (hydrogeology, lithological mapping, geomorphology, and structure, etc.). With their different approaches, both methods offer the possibility to collect statistical data for any research and to carry out analyses and studies over vast areas without directly touching the land. Geological mapping, which includes lithology and fracture networks, is essential for geological studies. Numerous studies have shown the importance of optical remote sensing technologies for geological mapping (Sabins 1999; Ali and Pour 2014).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe lineaments are either linear or curvilinear discontinuities and are directly related to compound faults and fractures. They are associated with various tectonic structures and geomorphologic features. Many authors worldwide have applied the idea of extracting lineaments from digital satellite images for multiple purposes, such as structural and tectonic investigations (Si Mhamdi et al. 2017; Sedrette and Rebai 2016; Madani 2001).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe main techniques used to enhance satellite imagery for lineament extraction are principal component analysis (PCA), directional filtering, and shading. PCA also distinguishes between geologic features and lithologic units (Mars and Rowan 2006; Ali and Pour 2014; Mathew and Ariffin 2018; Safari et al. 2018). The technique follows image processing and digitizes visually detected lineaments (Harris et al. 2005)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) satellite sensor and the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) digital terrain module, which covers the research region, were used for this work. The Landsat 8 OLI sensor was selected due to its resolution and clarity, as well as its geographical coverage and its application in several publications by different authors. Several steps and methods were used in the preprocessing and processing this data. Radiometric, atmospheric, and geometric adjustments were applied to the Landsat 8 OLI image. Directional filtering was performed on a 3x3 matrix of the first principal component analysis (PCA1) and the panchromatic band using the ENVI Classic application. The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) was shaded using ArcGIS 10.8. Finally, the lineaments were extracted using the PCI Geomantica 2015-line extraction algorithm module.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe research region is approximately 140 kilometers southwest of Kermanshah province and a few kilometers east of the Iran-Iraq border (Figure 1). The M w 7.3 Sarpol-Zahab earthquake ruptured, causing an oblique (dextral thrust) fault with gentle dipping (11 ͦ) eastward under the northwestern Lurestan arc. This inquiry aims to map the structural and geological features of the studied region. Furthermore, the relationship between the distribution of the major faults and the lineament distribution is formed to improve the structural aspect of this region and offer better knowledge of geotectonic evolution.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInsert Figure 1 Here\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2.\tGEOLOGY, STRUCTURE, SEISMICITY, AND TECTONIC SETTING ","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis section examines the geology of the Lurestan Arc, which significantly influences earthquake faulting in the Simply Folded Belt (SFB) (Elliott et al. 2015; Nissen et al. 2011). Its crustal structure, past seismic activity, and structural links to the Kirkuk and Dezful regions are also discussed. The Lurestan Arc stretches up to 200 km wide and 300 km long and is a notable feature in the northwest of the SFB. It is generally one kilometer higher than the surrounding region and lies 1,000 to 1,500 meters (Figure 2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInsert Figure 2 Here\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e2.1. Geology\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe stratigraphy of the Lurestan Arc preserves the geologic formation of the northeastern Arabian margins from the Paleozoic rifting that led to the opening of the Mesozoic Neote-Thys Ocean, the final closure of the ocean, and the beginning of the collision of the continent with the Central Iranian Plateau in the late Eocene (Alavi 2004). The Lurestan arc has cover thicknesses of \u0026sim;6\u0026ndash;10 km (Blanc et al. 2003; McQuarrie 2004; Homke et al. 2009; Verg\u0026eacute;s et al. 2011; Sadeghi and Yassaghi 2016). in comparison, the Mesopotamian foreland SW of the arc has cover thicknesses of \u0026sim;11\u0026ndash;14 km (Sherkati et al. 2006; Casciello et al. 2009; Farzipour-Saein et al. 2009; Emami et al. 2010; Sadeghi and Yassaghi 2016).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe major causes of the difference are usually attributed to vertical offset and exhumation across two major basement-cored reverse faults. The Mountain Front Fault marks the frontal outcrop of Oligocene-Miocene Asmari limestone in the region, and the Zagros Foredeep Fault, which runs along the foreland deformation front ((Berberian 1995); Figure 2). In contrast to the Fars arc, there is no clear evidence of basal Infracambrian Hormuz salt deposits in the northwest SFB (Kent 1979; Edgell 1991). Nonetheless, mechanical study indicates that the Lurestan arc has the same decoupling horizon, allowing the deformation front to proceed southwest across the Arabian plate (McQuarrie, 2004). The Mesozoic strata of the Lurestan Arc differ from those in other areas of the Iranian Zagros in that they contain more pelagic shales and fewer neritic limestones (Casciello et al. 2009; Sherkati et al. 2006). There are three main detachment-forming horizons in the Lurestan cover sequence, and each one leads to folds with distinct wavelengths (Casciello et al., 2009; Farzipour-Saein et al., 2009; Verg\u0026eacute;s et al., 2011a). The Cretaceous Bangestan Group is exposed on surface anticlines and consists of resistant limestones oriented NW-SE, Shahbazan-Asmari formations in the Oligocene to Miocene. Conversely, synclines generally show Aghajary and Bakhtyari sandstones and conglomerates, as well as Gachsaran evaporites of the \u0026nbsp;Pliocene age. Figure 13 also provides a deeper insight into the geological map.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e2.2. Structure\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeismicity distribution leads to further investigation of structural relationships between the Lurestan arc and adjoining embayments. According to various studies, the Dezful embayment has a significantly thicker sedimentary cover (at 12 \u0026plusmn; 3 km) and a higher stratigraphic exposure level towards the south than Lurestan (Ahmadhadi et al. 2007; Blanc et al. 2003; Sherkati et al. 2006). The Balarud line is a structural step or flexure accommodating difference (Figure 2). The Balarud line\u0026apos;s E-W direction is rare in the Zagros, where most basement and cover structures are NW-SE or N-S. It truncates and occasionally deflects NW-SE trending folds on each side as if the steep stratigraphic difference prevents folds from migrating across it (Allen and Talebian 2011). Surface geology and seismicity do not support a continuous fault along the Balarud line (Hessami et al. 2001; Sepehr and Cosgrove 2004). Instead, focal mechanisms and epicenters suggest an en-system arrangement of W-to-NW striking reverse or oblique-reverse faults. To the north, the basement depths in the Kirkuk embayment may be slightly higher than in Lurestan, at 10 \u0026plusmn; 2 km (Bretis et al. 2011; De Vera et al. 2009; Hinsch and Bretis 2015; Koshnaw et al. 2017; Obaid and Allen 2017; Sadeghi and Yassaghi 2016). However, the Kirkuk embayment exposes younger rocks than the surrounding areas of the Lurestan arc, and fold axes are shortened along the border, indicating a deep-seated structural division. According to (Berberian 1995), this boundary consists of right-stepping, NW-striking parts of the Mountain Front Fault (see Figure 2). As opposed to this, (Hessami et al. 2001) and (Bahroudi and Talbot 2003) describe the boundary as a single, continuous right-lateral fault known as the Khanaqin fault. This fault follows the same roughly N-S structural trend as lineaments traced in the central Arabian plate. Among the first significant occurrences along this trend are the Qasre Shirin (2013), Sarpol Zahab (2017), and Mandali (2018) sequences.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e2.3. Seismicity \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMany earthquakes occurred in the Mandali and Sarpolzahab regions before the 2017\u0026ndash;2018 earthquakes. The most notable occurrences of 2013 were those close to Qasre Shirin in November. These included Mw 5.7 and 5.8 earthquakes on November 22 and an Mw 5.5 event on November 24. A week later, there were over 40 M \u0026gt;3 earthquakes. The two largest earthquakes occurred on November 22, 2013, and their nodal planes had modest (about 10◦ and 18◦) NE dips. The steeper (\u0026sim;81◦ and \u0026sim;72◦) SW dipping nodal planes are most likely the auxiliary planes, given the strong reverse sensation of motion in both earthquakes. The direction of the dip of the third major Qasre Shrin earthquake, which occurred on November 24, 2013, is uncertain due to its nodal plane dips, around 40◦E or 58◦W. Since the resultant slip vector more closely reflects the \u0026sim;SW slip vector azimuths of the earthquakes on November 22, 2013. The events studied using teleseismic waveforms, and InSAR has a shallow centroid depth of about \u0026sim;14\u0026ndash;16 km, suggesting that the lower sediment is fractured (Maggi et al. 2000; Nissen et al. 2011; Talebian and Jackson 2004; Copley et al. 2015; Motagh et al. 2015). The biggest earthquake in the Zagros Simply Folded Belt was the M/7.3 Sarpol Zahab earthquake on November 12, 2017. The rupture concentrated southward for about 40 km along an oblique (dextral-thrust) fault. \u0026nbsp;That dips approximately 11\u0026deg;E beneath the northwest Lurestan arc. Slip is limited to basement depths of around 10\u0026ndash;20 km, below approximately 6 \u0026ndash;15 km thick sedimentary cover. The large slip area made feasible by the basement location and gentle dip angle can account for the enormous scale of the earthquakes compared to those in the main Fars arc of the Zagros, where shallower and steeper faults are constrained in their rupture extent by weak sedimentary.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEarthquakes have also occurred in the Kirkuk area. The events in Kirkuk have shown center-of-mass depths of about 13\u0026ndash;25 km and M \u0026sim;4-5. These results are consistent with subsurface activity (Abdulnaby et al. 2014). There are a few seismic events near the Mandali series of 2018. Specifically, the 2018 earthquakes are a concentrated group of earthquakes in late August 2014. The biggest of the prior occurrences was an Mw 4.9 earthquake on August 22, 2014. The earthquake that struck on August 22, 2014, just west of the fault plane formed on January 11, 2018, may have ruptured the nearby (up-dip) section of the Zagros Foredeep Fault.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e2.4. Tectonic Evolution\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA recent synthesis of GPS data and geologic constraints on plate circuits suggests that the convergence occurred at a rate of about 20 km/Myr since at least 22 Ma, following the separation of Arabia from Africa \u0026nbsp; (Nubia) (Tatar et al. 2002; Nilforoushan et al. 2003; Vernant et al. 2004a; Vernant et al. 2004b). It agrees with stratigraphic and structural limitations in the Zagros region near the plate suture, which support a minimum age of 23\u0026ndash;25 Ma for the Neo-Tethyan Ocean\u0026apos;s final closure. This observation is in line with the 19.7 Ma synorogenic sandstones of the Razak Formation, which have been precisely dated by magneto stratigraphy (Vernant et al. 2004a), and the Lower Miocene sedimentation in the Zagros that replaced the Oligocene carbonates. Additionally, evidence for a flexural unconformity in the Middle Miocene or a little earlier is provided by published seismic lines from the Persian Gulf, supporting the conclusions above (Soleimany and S\u0026agrave;bat 2010). Together, these concurrent data show that the northern Zagros was experiencing uplift, erosion, and contraction and that the ultimate suture occurred in the early Miocene. Numerous pieces of evidence provide supportive information on a constructional episode that happened in the Arabian margin before the Early Miocene. For instance, the Zagros carbonates sequence has an unconformity long-recognized middle Eocene-late Oligocene or Late Eocene-Lower Miocene (Berberian and Berberian 1981). It extends the 15 Ma middle-late Eocene erosional or non-depositional hiatus documented to the northwest in the Lurestan area (Homke et al. 2010).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe foreland basin\u0026apos;s coarsening upward sedimentation began in the late Oligocene, close to the suture zone, according to a recent reevaluation of the stratigraphy of the coarse-grained facies (Fakhari et al. 2008). This finding clearly shows that the large unconformity in the northern Zagros resulted in tectonic loading somewhere between the middle Eocene and the late Oligocene. According to (Khadivi et al. 2010) and (Mouthereau et al. 2007), this event occurred before the Zagros foreland basin reached the Miocene overfilled stage. As a result, it most likely marks the beginning of the current Zagros collision, which should be dated to the Late Eocene-Early Oligocene transition at about 35 Ma. A recent analysis of deformation chronology to the north of the suture zone confirms collisional shortening beginning in the Late Eocene-Oligocene. This is further corroborated by the discovery of detrital zircons in the late Oligocene conglomerates deposited in the northern Zagros with U/Pb ages of 45\u0026ndash;50 Ma, sourced from the supervening Iranian micro plate (Horton et al. 2008). Miocene sediments\u0026apos; apatite fission track ages point to a fast cooling in the NW Zagros belt at about 38 Ma (Homke et al. 2010). The rapid cooling and sedimentation occurred in the High Zagros between 19\u0026ndash;15 Ma and 12\u0026ndash;8 Ma, utilizing helium dating on detrital zircon and apatite in the Dezful region of the northern Zagros. The youngest grain age of \u0026nbsp;22 Ma indicates that the Arabian edge is exhumed between 20 and 10 Ma, and uplift and exhumation in the Zagros and Iranian plateaus were both by around 20 Ma. As a result, it was compared to the initial collision\u0026apos;s 35 Ma (Gavillot et al. 2010). Although the precise sequential timing of collision events is still in question, there is no doubt that a marine gateway connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Indo-Pacific Ocean existed at least until the early Miocene in Central Iran and until ca. 15 Ma on the Arabian margin in the Zagros, about 20 Ma after the initial collision. A continent-continent collision that started in the Tertiary gave rise to the Zagros fold and thrust belt (ZFTB), continued shortening of the mountain range, and formation of the Zagros foreland basin. The SW-NE oriented contraction resulted in the formation of NE dipping thrusts, NW-SE trending folds, and SW-verging folds in the Phanerozoic sedimentary cover. Above this basement is a separation zone for the Infra-Cambrian Hormuz evaporates (Alavi 1994) .\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3.\tDATA SET AND METHODOLOGY","content":"\u003ch2\u003e3.1. Data Set\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe primary data source for this work is a Landsat 8 OLI; it has 11 bands 8 of the bands (OLI 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9) with a spatial resolution of 30 m and a TIRS 10 and TIRS 11 with a spatial resolution of 100 m. The panchromatic band 8 has a spatial resolution of 15 m. This image covers the Sarpol Zahab region and reflects the summer season to minimize cloud cover, with Path 168 ROW 36 and an acquisition date of 2020-09-011. Only bands 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 are used in this study (Table 1). In addition, the digital terrain model of the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) with a resolution of 30 meters is used. These data are all downloaded from the website (https://usgs.gov). We also utilized the geologic map with 1/200 000 and 1/50 000 scales for the National Iranian Oil Company (Ashayeri et al., 2020), which included the study area map. We digitized the main lineaments affecting the study area (Figure 2) using the geological maps to obtain an initial overview of the distribution of local tectonic structures. These data were projected into the WGS 1984 UTM zone 29.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInsert Table 1 Here\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e3.2. Methodology\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe lineaments were automatically extracted using remote sensing techniques applied to satellite data (Landsat 8 OLI and SRTM images). This data was preprocessed, including geometric, radiometric, and atmospheric corrections, to lessen the effects of distortions during the satellite\u0026apos;s picture collection. Lastly, we analyzed a scene, utilizing several techniques to extract lineaments automatically. This step is summed up in diagrams (Figure 3). We applied directional filtering to the first principal component (PCA1) and the panchromatic band (B8) using the 3*3 matrix. The effects of shading on SRTM were investigated. Subsequently, the \u0026quot;line extraction\u0026quot; tool of the Geomantica 2015 software was used to extract the line segments from the set automatically. Table 2 lists some of the basic parameters of the software. The results were confirmed by a more thorough review process that excluded anthropogenic interventions such as walls, paths, and roads) as well as non-structural linear forms such as cliffs, ridges, and ravines) and geological maps of the study area.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInsert Table2 Here\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInsert Figure 3 Here\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4.\tPROCESSING","content":"\u003ch2\u003e4.1. Principle Compotes Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe principal component analysis method is a statistical approach commonly used in geological research (Gabr et al. 2010; Pour and Hashim 2011; Pour and Hashim 2012; Adiri et al. 2017). In this technique, the information found in the original tapes can be assembled into new tapes called principal components (Gabr et al., 2010; Adiri et al., 2017). Consequently, PCA enhances and distinguishes specific spectral signatures from a background (Gabr et al., 2010). In this study, we focus on PCA1 because it is sharp and has a more significant percentage of variance on the PCA1 axis than on the PCA2 axis, which is higher than on the PCA3 axis. Figure 4 shows the first component (PCA1), and Figure 6 shows the panchromatic band 8.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e4.2. Directional Filtering\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of the treatments used is directional filtering, which consists of image enhancement. The aim of using directional filters is to reveal the linear characteristics to reduce blurring and smooth the image (Abdelouhed et al. 2021). In geological applications, these filters reveal near-bottom fractures with a wide spatial wavelength range from 10 to 100 meters (Algouti et al. 2022). The current study, a 3*3 matrix is used as a directional filter to determine the order in which the structures should be created. This is applied in four different orientations (N0\u0026deg;, N45\u0026deg;, N90\u0026deg; and N315\u0026deg;) to the PCA1 (Figure 5) and the panchromatic band 8 (Figure7).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInsert Figure 4 Here\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInsert Figure 5 Here\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e4.3. Shading\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnalytical hill shading is a method for creating shaded topographic images of the elevations of the earth\u0026apos;s surface. It replicates the reflection of artificial light coming from a point source of illumination at a specific elevation (inclination) and azimuth (declination) (Masoud and Koike 2006). This study applies shading to the SRTM covering our study region. The angles N0\u0026deg;, N45\u0026deg;, N90\u0026deg;, and N315\u0026deg; are then selected (Figure 8 ). Lineaments can be seen from the boundaries between shaded and unshaded regions ((Masoud and Koike 2006; Algouti et al. 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInsert Figure 6 Here\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInsert Figure 7Here\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eBased on visual interpretation with the color combination of R G and B bands 5, 4, and 7, we identified three lithological divisions, which are Quaternary deposits (Qt), Bakhtyari (Bk), and Asmari Formation (As). Each lithological unit has a distinct texture, color, and relief. The Qt mainly comprises gravel, sand, silt, and clay along the river (coarse and fine grain). The Qt is characterized by blue, light red, and dark red colors (Figure 9). Blue represents the built-up areas, and light to dark red represents the agricultural areas and other vegetation covers. The Qt unit covers the majority area of the study area. It extends from the middle part near the Alvand River to the south area. This area extends approximately 45.62% of the study area.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInsert Figure 8 Here\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Bk is classified as a conglomerate, sandstone, and shale. Bk was found in the research region. According to the Landsat satellite image, Bk is dark and pale blue with a few dark red spots. The heavy red indicates the land is densely vegetated, whereas the light blue patch denotes open areas. Bk is also known for its small-height hills. This lithological unit accounts for approximately 3.45% of the studied area. It consists of limestone and is the oldest rock formation in the study area. It was formed between the Oligocene and the Miocene. The Landsat 8 image indicates it by the light green color with a few light blue spots (Figure 9). The light green color refers to the marks on the frontal outcrop, which has a rough texture. It is mainly distributed in the middle part of the study site. It is located in the core of the anticline. The total area is about 39.67% of the study area. Because both units have comparable visual morphology, color, texture, and relief, Qt and Bk are difficult to distinguish from Landsat 8. However, the Bk deposits can be located using the association notion. Qt primarily accumulates on the foot slope of denudation hills, where the denudation processes form it. As a result, the narrow flat zones that lie on the border between mountainous and flat lands are frequently referred to as Qt. Moreover, because of the alluvial processes close to the denudation hills, it has poor material sorting and a high clay concentration.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInsert Figure 9 Here\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe lineament maps were created with the help of automated lineament extraction. All linear shapes that did not match the geological or structural lineaments were removed from the maps, and the previous processing was retained. This method was applied to the four directional filters of PCA1, the panchromatic band (B8), and the four SRTM shadings of the digital terrain module. Alongside these maps, we will find data representing the number, length, and frequency of lineaments as a function of length in the survey space and directional roses formed by the proportion of cumulative lineament lengths. The first principal component (PCA1) results show a map with 1195 line segments (Figure 10-a), with an average length of 13332.54 m, a minimum length of 349 m, and a maximum length of about 2533 m. The proportions between 80% and 100% dominate the overall distribution of lineaments (Figure 10-c). According to the directional roses of the lineaments for PCA1 (Figure 10-d), the NW-SE direction is the most pronounced.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInsert Figure 10 Here\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe panchromatic band yielded 14172 line segments with a minimum length of 450 m, a maximum length of 12822.88 m, and an average length of 19902180.13 (Figure 11-a). The panchromatic lineament typically follows the same direction as the PC1, with a minority approaching the NE-SW and N-S directions ( Figure 11-d). For the class between 500 and 1000 m, the distribution frequency reached 100%. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInsert Figure 11 Here\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe lineaments derived from SRTM around 1115 (Figure 12-a) range from 530 m to 5657 km, with an average length of 3364417 m. The class with lengths between 981 m and 1.5 km (60-80%) dominates the lineament population (Figure 12-c). The directional diagram (Figure 12-d) shows two main routes, NW-SE and approximately E-W.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll directional roses of PCA1, the panchromatic band, and STRM have similar patches showing NW-SE dominance. This orientation corresponds to the major faults shown in the geologic maps of the research area (Figure 3).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInsert Figure 12 Here\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe density maps show the places where the lineaments are most pronounced. The northwest-southeast and southern parts of the area All directional roses of PCA1, the panchromatic band, and STRM have similar patches showing NW-SE dominance. This orientation corresponds to the major faults indicated in the geologic maps of the study area. Figure (13) shows the highest densities. As this is one of the areas that has undergone numerous orogenic cycles, the topography in this area is highly fractured. The density maps produced from PCA1, STEM, and the panchromatic band (Figures 13, b,c, and d, respectively) closely correspond to the main fault map (Figure 13-a).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInsert Figure 13 Here\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to (Alavi 2008), three families dominate the distribution of lineaments in this area. The direction of an essential family varies between NW-SE, NE-SW to E-W, and N-S, which is consistent with the general direction of the major faults. The structure of the first directional group is associated with the latest Neoproterozoic and earliest Cambrian (550–540 Ma). These faults have displaced pan-African structures within the Arabian Shield to the northeast. The Recent Main Fault (MRF) and other blind faults extending northwest to Southeast are part of the Zagros Orogen (NW-SE). The second group that trended from NE-SW to E-W formed during the Permian and Triassic openings of the Neo-Tethys Ocean. This group follows the general trend of transformation faults (NE-SW). The third group comprises structures formed during the Pan-African orogen (670–570 Ma). Examples of these faults are ZFTBs that run in an N-S direction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBased on the correlation of our remote sensing results, we can see that all data sets provide similar or identical results. We used geologic maps of major faults in the target region to confirm our results. In addition, we rely on two other aspects that play a role in validating these conclusions. The first is the lithologic map, and the second is the comparison of the lineaments with the slope map.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen the lineaments are superimposed on the lithologic map of the study region, we can see that most of the lineaments are concentrated in the areas composed of competent rocks. In contrast, the lineaments become weaker in the less complicated and brittle formations. In the NW-SE trending surface anticlines, which form “whaleback” limestones that are mostly resistant, there is a conspicuous concentration of lineaments in this area. In the north, the Oligocene and Miocene sandstones and conglomerates of Agha Jari and Bakhtyari contain a high concentration of geological lineaments. At the same time, the friable Cretaceous to Quaternary formations (sandstones, marls, and boulders) have barely perceptible geological lineaments (see Figure 14).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe morphology and geomorphology of the land are most likely caused by tectonic processes leading to the dips and depressions created by the movement of faults. It becomes clear by comparing the lineaments with the slope maps, one of the validations of lineaments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInsert Figure 14 Here\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe slope maps were created from the digital terrain module (Figure 15) with the lineaments from the PCA1, the panchromatic band, and the STRM. The overlay shows that most lineaments are concentrated in areas with steep slopes and substantial variations in topographic profile, especially in the southwest (Sarpol Zahab) and the northeastern part. In contrast, the areas with low slopes (the central area) show a decrease in lineaments. The reversal faults resulting in significant frontal escarpments in the Zagros SFB are called the Mountain Front Fault (Berberian 1995; Figure 15). \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInsert Figure 15 Here\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Sarpol Zahab (2017) earthquake offered significant insights and mapped new limits on the dynamics in the area. It refers to the fault associated with the Sarpol Zahab earthquake as the “Sarpol Zahab fault”. It differs significantly from the Mountain Front Fault and the other faults in the other Zagros parts. The Mountain Front Fault has steeper fault planes (∼20-60◦) compared to the Sarpol Zahab fault (∼11◦), which is the first difference (Ali et al. 2022). Second, most earthquakes on the Mountain Front Fault had reverse processes, but the Sarpol Zahab earthquake had a SW-directed slip that was highly oblique to the local roughly N-S range front topography. Finally, the Mountain Front Fault uplifts from the basement into the lower to middle sedimentary cover, where shallow centroid depths are observed (Nissenetal., 2011), where it affects the evolution of major surface anticlines ( Berberian, 1995\u003cstrong\u003e; \u003c/strong\u003eBlanc et al., 2003).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsequently, the Mountain Front Fault in the Sarpol Zahab region had previously been mapped as a set of short, NW-striking segments that paralleled the regional direction of fold axes (Figures 16). As shown in Figure 16 b, the N-S Sarpol Zahab fault angles sharply with overlying folds, from which the fault must be detached. Following the Sarpol Zahab earthquake, Barnhart et al. (2018) observed an afterslip near the up-dip limit of co-seismic slip on a sub-horizontal structure located at ∼10 to 14 km depth, which supports this interpretation. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInsert Figure 16 Here\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6.\tCONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn geological research, the automated extraction of lineaments is considered an essential and valuable technique. This method of extracting lineaments provides valuable insights into the region's tectonic history and geodynamics. This study relies on the Landsat 8 OLI sensor, widely used in research due to its spectral potential and spatial coverage. We determined the PCA1 and panchromatic band, including the STRM. All of this data was processed in a specialized way to extract the most likely structural lineaments that comprise the study region.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRemote sensing and the Geographic Information System are used in structural line mapping by automatic lineament extraction, which also speeds up the discovery of fractured zones. This technique also generates length, density, and distribution frequency statistics. In addition, other studies, including hydrogeological studies, mining research, and so on, can benefit from this work as a reference.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFUNDING\u003c/strong\u003e: No funding\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eACKNOWLEDGMENTS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors acknowledge Southwest Jiaotong University for providing knowledge. We sincerely thank Professor Chen and Wu for helping us. The Landsat 8 OLI data were downloaded from\u0026nbsp;(https://usgs.gov,\u0026nbsp;accessed on 20200911), and The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission v.4 Digital Elevation Model (SRTM-4 DEM) from\u0026nbsp;(https://srtm.csi.cgiar.org/srtmdata/). The research figures were carried out using the Generic Mapping Tool (GMT) and Arc GIS.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCONFLICTS OF INTEREST\u003c/strong\u003e: The authors declare no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbdelouhed F, Ahmed A, Abdellah A, Mohammed I (2021) Lineament mapping in the ikniouen area (Eastern Anti-Atlas, Morocco) using Landsat-8 Oli and SRTM data. Remote sensing applications: society and environment 23:100606. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsase.2021.100606\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbdulnaby W, Mahdi H, Numan NM, Al-Shukri H (2014) Seismotectonics of the Bitlis\u0026ndash;Zagros fold and thrust belt in northern Iraq and surrounding regions from moment tensor analysis. Pure and applied geophysics 171:1237-1250. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-013-0688-4\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAdiri Z, El Harti A, Jellouli A, Lhissou R, Maacha L, Azmi M, Zouhair M, Bachaoui EM (2017) Comparison of Landsat-8, ASTER and Sentinel 1 satellite remote sensing data in automatic lineaments extraction: A case study of Sidi Flah-Bouskour inlier, Moroccan Anti Atlas. Advances in Space Research 60 (11):2355-2367. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2017.09.006\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAhmadhadi F, Lacombe O, Daniel J-M Early reactivation of basement faults in Central Zagros (SW Iran): evidence from pre-folding fracture populations in Asmari Formation and lower Tertiary paleogeography. In: Thrust Belts and Foreland Basins: From fold kinematics to hydrocarbon systems, 2007. Springer, pp 205-228. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-69426-7_11\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAlavi M (1994) Tectonics of the Zagros orogenic belt of Iran: new data and interpretations. Tectonophysics 229 (3-4):211-238. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(94)90030-2\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAlavi M (2004) Regional stratigraphy of the Zagros fold-thrust belt of Iran and its proforeland evolution. American journal of Science 304 (1):1-20. doi:https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.304.1.1\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAlgouti A, Algouti A, Farah A (2022) Mapping lineaments using Landsat 8 OLI and SRTM in the Boumalne-Imiter regions of the southern Central High Atlas. Morocco. doi:https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1666703/v1\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAli AS, Pour AB (2014) Lithological mapping and hydrothermal alteration using Landsat 8 data: a case study in ariab mining district, red sea hills, Sudan. International Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences 3 (3):199. doi:https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2016.68069\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAli R, Wu X, Chen Q, Elubid BA, Dafalla DS, Kamran M, Aldoud AA (2022) 3D Co-Seismic Surface Displacements Measured by DInSAR and MAI of the 2017 Sarpol Zahab Earthquake, Mw7. 3. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19 (16):9831. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19169831\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAllen MB, Talebian M (2011) Structural variation along the Zagros and the nature of the Dezful Embayment. Geological Magazine 148 (5-6):911-924. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0016756811000318\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAshayeri I, Sadr A, Biglari M, Haghshenas E (2020) Comprehensive ambient noise analyses for seismic microzonation of sarpol-e-zahab after the Mw 7.3 2017 Iran earthquake. Engineering Geology 272:105636. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2020.105636\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBahroudi A, Talbot C (2003) The configuration of the basement beneath the Zagros Basin. Journal of petroleum geology 26 (3):257-282. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-5457.2003.tb00030.x\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBerberian F, Berberian M (1981) Tectono‐plutonic episodes in Iran. Zagros Hindu Kush Himalaya Geodynamic Evolution 3:5-32\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBerberian M (1995) Master \u0026ldquo;blind\u0026rdquo; thrust faults hidden under the Zagros folds: active basement tectonics and surface morphotectonics. Tectonophysics 241 (3-4):193-224. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(94)00185-C\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBlanc E-P, Allen MB, Inger S, Hassani H (2003) Structural styles in the Zagros simple folded zone, Iran. Journal of the Geological Society 160 (3):401-412. doi:https://doi.org/10.1144/0016-764902-110\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBretis B, Bartl N, Grasemann B (2011) Lateral fold growth and linkage in the Zagros fold and thrust belt (Kurdistan, NE Iraq). 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Trabajos de geolog\u0026iacute;a (29). doi:https://reunido.uniovi.es/index.php/TDG/article/view/304\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEdgell H (1991) Proterozoic salt basins of the Persian Gulf area and their role in hydrocarbon generation. Precambrian Research 54 (1):1-14. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-9268(91)90065-I\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eElliott J, Bergman E, Copley A, Ghods A, Nissen E, Oveisi B, Tatar M, Walters R, Yamini‐Fard F (2015) The 2013 Mw 6.2 Khaki‐Shonbe (Iran) earthquake: Insights into seismic and aseismic shortening of the Zagros sedimentary cover. Earth and Space Science 2 (11):435-471. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/2015EA000098\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEmami H, Verg\u0026eacute;s J, Nalpas T, Gillespie P, Sharp I, Karpuz R, Blanc E, Goodarzi M (2010) Structure of the Mountain Front Flexure along the Anaran anticline in the Pusht-e Kuh Arc (NW Zagros, Iran): insights from sand box models. Geological Society, London, Special Publications 330 (1):155-178. doi::https://doi.org/10.1144/SP330.9\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFakhari MD, Axen GJ, Horton BK, Hassanzadeh J, Amini A (2008) Revised age of proximal deposits in the Zagros foreland basin and implications for Cenozoic evolution of the High Zagros. Tectonophysics 451 (1-4):170-185. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2007.11.064\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFarzipour-Saein A, Yassaghi A, Sherkati S, Koyi H (2009) Mechanical stratigraphy and folding style of the Lurestan region in the Zagros Fold\u0026ndash;Thrust Belt, Iran. Journal of the Geological Society 166 (6):1101-1115. doi:https://doi.org/10.1144/0016-76492008-162\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGabr S, Ghulam A, Kusky T (2010) Detecting areas of high-potential gold mineralization using ASTER data. Ore Geology Reviews 38 (1-2):59-69. doi:1https://doi.org/0.1016/j.oregeorev.2010.05.007\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGavillot Y, Axen GJ, Stockli DF, Horton BK, Fakhari MD (2010) Timing of thrust activity in the High Zagros fold‐thrust belt, Iran, from (U‐Th)/He thermochronometry. Tectonics 29 (4). doi:https://doi.org/0.1016/j.oregeorev.2010.05.007\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHarris J, Rogge D, Hitchcock R, Ijewliw O, Wright D (2005) Mapping lithology in Canada\u0026rsquo;s Arctic: application of hyperspectral data using the minimum noise fraction transformation and matched filtering. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 42 (12):2173-2193. doi:https://doi.org/10.1139/e05-064\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHessami K, Koyi H, Talbot CJ (2001) The significance of strike‐slip faulting in the basement of the Zagros fold and thrust belt. 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Geophysical Journal International 157 (Issue 1):381-398 doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2004.02222.x \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003eTables 1 and 2 are available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"remote-sensing-in-earth-systems-sciences","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"rses","sideBox":"Learn more about [Remote Sensing in Earth Systems Sciences](https://link.springer.com/journal/41976)","snPcode":"41976","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/41976/3","title":"Remote Sensing in Earth Systems Sciences","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Landsat 8 OLI, Sarpol Zahab, lineament, principal component analysis (PCA), Zagros Front fault.","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4170041/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4170041/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"The work focused on the results of the automated extraction of lineaments and the study of geology and structural geology in the Sarpol Zahab region. Remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) were used to extract faults and structural geology. We used principal component analysis (PCA) and directional filtering techniques applied to the Landsat 8 OLI satellite image to extract lineaments and structural geology in the study area. The shading was used to create a lineament map and a map of the structural geology of the research region. The predominant direction of the faults and lineaments is NW-SE. The density maps show a large concentration in the northwest, Southeast, and southern parts of the Sarpol Zahab area (near the MFF). We have validated these results by comparing them with geological maps and two validation criteria. First, the lithological component shows that the lineaments are often concentrated on rocks, as in the NW-SE trending surface anticlines of limestones in the Southeast and the Oligocene to Miocene sandstones and conglomerates in the West. Another component is the overlay of the lineaments on the slope map. This shows a conspicuous concentration of lineaments where the slopes are steep, and the sudden slope change is most likely the result of faulting activity. The structural lineament extraction method is acknowledged as a benefit for this kind of study and is thought to be a utility reference method with accuracy in striatal lineament selection.","manuscriptTitle":"Extraction of lineaments using satellite imagery for a seismic zone of the Sarpol Zahab Region","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-04-11 16:28:53","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4170041/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-05-27T12:21:23+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-05-01T23:37:41+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"68416291690401244818007587622790320606","date":"2024-04-29T12:43:44+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"a0c72454-f462-482d-9895-f9b946fe2a4c","date":"2024-04-23T20:37:19+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-04-22T11:49:41+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-04-09T00:46:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-04-08T01:22:49+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Remote Sensing in Earth Systems Sciences","date":"2024-03-26T13:03:09+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"remote-sensing-in-earth-systems-sciences","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"rses","sideBox":"Learn more about [Remote Sensing in Earth Systems Sciences](https://link.springer.com/journal/41976)","snPcode":"41976","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/41976/3","title":"Remote Sensing in Earth Systems Sciences","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b1b860c4-7c38-4bab-b6ed-370fe65492f4","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 11th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-10-28T16:00:42+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-4170041","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s41976-024-00148-6","journal":{"identity":"remote-sensing-in-earth-systems-sciences","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Remote Sensing in Earth Systems Sciences"},"publishedOn":"2024-10-23 15:57:24","publishedOnDateReadable":"October 23rd, 2024"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-04-11 16:28:53","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s41976-024-00148-6","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s41976-024-00148-6","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4170041","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4170041","identity":"rs-4170041","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}