Phenolic compounds and safety of improved and local peanut varieties grown in Burkina Faso

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COMPAORE, Fréderic Anderson KONKOBO, and 7 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4645512/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 13 Mar, 2025 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted 13 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Peanuts are a tropical crop widely cultivated throughout the world. The seed is the most important part of the peanut. Burkina Faso is the 16th largest producer of peanuts in the world. Despite its economic and nutritional potential, peanut growers are subject to aflatoxin contamination. This present study aimed to evaluate the phenolic compounds and safety of various improved and local peanut varieties. The aflatoxin contents of the different varieties were determined by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). A UV-visible spectrophotometer quantified the phenolic contents. For all samples, results showed that water content varied from 3.85 ± 0.08 to 4.21 ± 0.06%, and pH from 6.11 ± 0.02 to 6.48 ± 0.02. Toxicological results showed total aflatoxin levels ranging from 0.04 to 1.86 µg/kg. Polyphenols had the highest values in peanut extracts, ranging from 5.64 ± 1.35 to 14.94 ± 2.79 mg EAG/g. Flavonoids ranged from 1.23 ± 0.11 to 2.24 ± 0.15 mg EAQ/g and flavonols from 0.14 ± 0.09 to 0.85 ± 0.36 mg EAQ/g. Condensed tannin contents range from 0.14 ± 0.02b to 0.26 ± 0.02a mg EAG/100g and hydrolysable tannins from 0.03 ± 0 a to 0.16 ± 0.09 a mg EAT/g. TC tannins ranged from 0.14 ± 0.02 to 0.26 ± 0.02 mg EAG/100g and THs from 0.03 ± 0 a to 0.16 ± 0.09 a mg EAT/g. Peanut seeds have excellent phytonutrient potential, which is interesting when we consider the importance of these phytonutrients with their nutritional quality. They could therefore be considered foods with therapeutic potential. The low levels of aflatoxins testify to the safety of the seeds. Biological sciences/Biochemistry Biological sciences/Plant sciences Arachis hypogea seed aflatoxin phenolic compounds peanut sanitary quality Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 1. Introduction Peanut ( Arachis hypogea L.), is a leguminous member of the Fabaceae family, widely grown in tropical and subtropical climates 1 . It is a tropical plant native to South America and is cultivated in several countries. Its cultivation is widespread throughout the world. In fact, over 100 countries worldwide grow peanuts 2 . It ranks twelfth in the world in terms of crop production. The total area sown to groundnuts in 2022 is estimated at 30,536,263 hectares, for a production of 54,238,560.13 tons 3 . China is the leading producer with an annual output of 18,329,500 tons, followed by India and Nigeria with respective outputs of 10,134,990 tons and 4,284,000 tons 3 . African groundnut production accounted for 32.01% of world production or 98,45683.04 tons. West Africa is the largest peanut-producing region in Africa, with 98,445,683.04 tons (56.71%) 3 . Burkina Faso, located in the heart of West Africa, is the world's 16th largest peanut producer. Groundnut production has risen considerably over the past decade, from 34,0166 tons to 55,9064.39 tons from 2010 to 2022, for areas of 40,922 hectares and 6,23769 hectares respectively 3 . Peanut cultivation is of particular economic importance, as the marketing of unshelled peanuts in 2022 generated around U $ 49,955,941,000 3 . In much of sub-Saharan Africa, the crop is very important for domestic consumption and trade 4 , 5 . Its economic importance could be further increased if we consider the products derived from peanuts, which include oil, paste, oilcake, cookies, etc. In addition to the financial aspect, peanuts are an important source of nutrients, as peanut seeds are rich in fat and protein 6 . The fat content of peanut seeds varies from 30 to 60% dry weight, and their protein content from 24–36% dry weight. They contain many fatty acids, in particular linoleic acid, which is an essential fatty acid for the body 6 . Regular consumption of peanuts has been shown to modulate lipid metabolism, reducing triglyceride and cholesterol levels 7 . Peanut oil is generally used in cooking, but also in soap-making. Peanut seeds also contain several amino acids, of which glutamic acid and aspartic acid are the most representative. Peanuts can be consumed in a variety of ways: either as roasted or raw seeds, or in more or less elaborate forms derived from the confectionery peanut market, such as butter, flour, paste, etc. 8 . In addition to primary metabolites, plants also produce so-called "secondary" metabolites. These metabolites confer interesting properties, helping to prevent cardiovascular, degenerative, and metabolic diseases 9 . Properties associated with these polyphenol compounds include antioxidant, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory properties 10 , 11 . All these data show that peanuts are important in human and animal nutrition. However, despite its economic and nutritional potential, peanut growers face enormous storage difficulties. Peanuts are extremely sensitive to fungi of the genus Aspergillus, which produce toxins called aflatoxins. Aflatoxins are toxic substances with carcinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic effects 12 . Among these mycotoxins, aflatoxin B1 stands out for its high toxicity and carcinogenic potential. It can be found in many food products, particularly peanut derivatives 13 , 14 . Among oilseeds, peanuts are the most contaminated by toxin-producing molds, most often during cultivation, harvesting, and storage 15 . Numerous studies have documented the presence of aflatoxins in peanuts in various countries 16 – 19 . Contamination of food products by the Aspergillus genus is a frequent problem, especially for peanut seeds. It should be noted that the main factors favoring aflatoxin contamination of peanuts are seed and air humidity, and the temperature of the ambient environment during seed storage and marketing. Aflatoxin contamination of peanuts can also occur before harvest, during crop ripening in the field, particularly favored by drought stress and high soil temperature 20 . This is particularly true in hot countries such as Burkina Faso, where temperatures can sometimes reach 48–50°C, resulting in water stress 21 . This explains the need for special monitoring of Aspergillus contamination of peanuts in Burkina Faso. Studies in Kenya, Ethiopia, and Côte d'Ivoire have shown advanced stages of aflatoxin contamination of peanut seeds 20 – 24 . Aflatoxins represent a serious health problem affecting the entire food chain, from field production to consumption. Aflatoxins are fungal toxins that possess acute life-threatening toxicity, carcinogenic properties, and other potential chronic adverse effects 5 . Several subsequent studies have shown the presence of secondary metabolites such as flavonoids and polyphenols, mainly in peanut skins 25 . However, very few have quantified their content in whole seeds. Nowadays, several techniques are used to quantify and identify phenolic compounds, including chromatographic and spectrometric methods, depending on the availability of reference standards 26 . Given the importance of groundnuts, new improved varieties have been produced by Burkina Faso's “Institut National de l'Environnement et des Recherches Agricoles (INERA)”. The initial aim of introducing these varieties was to increase groundnut productivity and improve its ability to adapt to the country's pedoclimatic conditions, such as drought and soil degradation. Having determined the primary metabolite composition of these new varieties in a previous study, the main aim of the present study was to determine the sanitary quality of these varieties compared with existing varieties and to assess their secondary metabolite composition, including total phenolic compound levels. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Sampling Samples were collected from three locations in Burkina Faso: Ouagadougou (12° 21' 56.4" N, 1° 32' 2" W), Bobo-Dioulasso (11° 10’ 37.7” N, 4° 17’ 52.4” W), and Dedougou (12° 27' 48.2" N, 3° 27' 38.7" W) (Fig. 1 ). A total of fourteen samples were collected for the study, including twelve varieties supplied by INERA and two local samples collected from fields in the town of Dedougou. The samples were pre-treated by cleaning the peanut pods, which were then shelled. The seeds obtained were ground to serve as a matrix for the various analyses. Sample codes are shown in the table below (Table 1 ). Table 1 Characteristics of different peanut samples Code Genotypes Cycles Variety name Locality/Source P1 QH423 - - INERA Bobo P2 - - - INERA Bobo P3 - L - Dedougou P4 - C - Dedougou P5-1 ICGV 91328 C LOKRE INERA Ouaga P5-2 - C KIEMA 1 INERA Ouaga P5-3 ICGV 86015 L YIRWATIGA INERA Ouaga P5-4 ICGV 13912 C SOUKEBA/NAFA2 INERA Ouaga P6-1 ICGV 13830 C BEEDA INERA Ouaga P6-2 ICGV 93305 C MIOUPAALE INERA Ouaga P6-3 ICGV 01276 L NAFA1 INERA Ouaga P6-4 ICGV 13806 C TOINWARE INERA Ouaga QH QH 243C C - INERA Ouaga SH SH 470P C - INERA Ouaga L : long cycle C : short cycle 2.2. Determination of the physicochemical properties of peanut seeds 2.2.1. pH measurement Seeds were crushed and mixed with distilled water, then the mixture was used to determine the pH using a pH meter (H.I microprocessor pH meter, HANNA INSTRUMENT) previously calibrated with pH 4 and pH 7 buffer solutions 27 . 2.2.2. Moisture content Water content was determined using the AOAC, 2000 method. The fruit samples were weighed and dried in an oven at 105°C for 3 hours. The weights of the samples before and after drying were then used to calculate the water content 28 . 2.3. Aflatoxin Assay The determination of aflatoxins was carried out using a modified QuEChERS triple partitioning method for the analysis of aflatoxins in peanuts. The method involves a simultaneous sample extraction and clean-up step, based on the modified QuEChERS method, using hexane to remove lipids and HPLC-MS/MS for the determination of target compounds 29 . 2.3.1. Preparation of standard solutions Acetonitrile was used as a solvent for the preparation of individual aflatoxin-containing stock solutions. Stock solution concentrations of 10 µg mL − 1 were confirmed by UV spectrophotometry. Samples of the stock solutions were then combined to produce an intermediate solution in acetonitrile, with a concentration of 100 ng mL − 1 for all targeted aflatoxins. In addition, working solutions were made by diluting the intermediate solution in acetonitrile. These solutions were stored at -20ºC. To prepare matrix-matched calibration curves, aliquots of the working solution were evaporated to dryness and then resuspended with the same volume of uncontaminated product extracted from samples (blank matrices). 2.3.2. Extraction: Deproteinization-Delipidation 5 g of the various peanut samples were weighed into 50 mL centrifuge tubes. Volumes of 10 mL ultrapure water, 10 mL hexane, and 15 mL acetonitrile were added to the tube. The mixture was then stirred for 30 seconds. A mixture of 4 g magnesium sulfate and 1.5 g sodium chloride was added to the centrifuge tube. The tube was immediately vortexed vigorously for 1 min and then centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 7 min. A 5 mL aliquot of the acetonitrile phase was evaporated to dryness under a gentle flow of nitrogen at 45°C. The resulting solution was filtered through a 0.22 mm polyethylene filter before injection. 2.3.3. HPLC-MS/MS chromatographic analysis The filtrate obtained after extraction of the various peanut samples was placed in vials for subsequent analysis 30 . Chromatographic conditions The Agilent Technologie 1290 series High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) chain used for the separation is composed of the following modules: Injection volume set at 10 ul A constant flow rate of 0.4 ml/min in isocratic mode. Chromatographic separation was performed using a Zorbax Eclipse XDB C18 column (50 x 4.6 mm, 1.8 µm) (Agilent, USA). Mobile phase A: Water/formic acid (99/1 v/v/) + 10 mM ammonium formate. Mobile phase B: methanol/water/formic acid (97/2/1 v/v/v) + 10mM ammonium formate. Mass spectrometry conditions Mass analysis was performed using an Agilent Technologies 6430 Triple Quadrupole mass spectrometer with an electrospray ionization source. Experimental ionization conditions are shown in the table (Table 2 ). Table 2 Experimental ionization conditions Drying gas temperature 325°C Gas flow rate 10L/min Nebulizer pressure 50 psi Tension capillary 4000 v Gas temperature 350°C Multi-Reaction Monitoring (MRM) scanning mode was used. The precursor and product ions for each aflatoxin molecule are presented in the table below (Table 3 ). Table 3 Precursor and product ions for different aflatoxin types Precursor ion (M/Z) Quantified product ion (M/Z) Quantified ion (M/Z) Aflatoxine B1 313 285,1 241,0 Aflatoxine B2 315 287,1 259,1 Aflatoxine G1 329 233 311 Aflatoxine G2 331 313 245 M = mass Z = valence Data acquisition and quantification were performed using Mass Hunter Workstation B.04.01. 2.3.4. Validation and expression of results For each series of analyses, a calibration-matrix curve was drawn with a correlation coefficient ≥ 0.95. Quantification was performed according to the external standard method using the following formula: $$\mathbf{C}=\frac{{\mathbf{c}}_{\mathbf{c}}\times {\mathbf{v}}_{\mathbf{e}}}{{\mathbf{P}}_{\mathbf{e}}}$$ Where: C: aflatoxin concentration in µg/Kg; Cc: chromatogram concentration µg/ml; Pe: Sample size in g; Ve: sample extraction volume in kg; The presence of a molecule in a sample is confirmed if and only if the following conditions are simultaneously met: Three points of identification by the presence of two fragment ions Signal-to-noise ratio > 3 The relative retention time deviation does not exceed 2.5% of that of the control. The deviation of the relative intensities of the identification and quantification ions (fragment ions) expressed as a percentage does not exceed the limits set by Directive 96/23/EC about controls of comparable concentration. The accepted limits are summarized in the table below (Table 4 ). Table 4 Accepted limits for validation Relative intensity Accepted limits in LC-MS/MS > 50% ± 20% > 20%-50% ± 25% > 10%-20% ± 30% ≤ 10% ± 50% 2.4. Total phenolic contents Polyphenols and flavonoids were extracted by maceration with a methanol/water mixture (80/20, v/v). Polyphenol determination was carried out using the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent by the method described by Singleton with minor modifications 31 . This method measures the intensity of the color of tungsten oxide, and molybdenum oxide which is proportional to the number of polyphenols. A concentration of 1 mg/mL was used for the spectrophotometric assay. All analyses were performed in triplicate and a calibration curve was obtained using gallic acid as standard. The total flavonoid contents were determined by a spectrophotometric colorimetric method described by Arvouet-Grand 32 . To 0.5 mL of sample with a mass concentration of 1 mg/mL, a solution of 2% AlCl 3 was added. The total flavonoid content was calculated as quercetin equivalent from a calibration curve. Hydrolysable tannin content was determined according to the protocol of Mole et al. 33 . Condensed tannin content was determined using the method of Broadhurst et al. 26 . Peanut seed flours were extracted with ethanol and water (50% v/v; 1 ml) and sonicated for 60 minutes. The mixtures obtained were centrifuged (15,269 g) for 10 minutes and the supernatants were used for the above analyses. 2.5. Statistical analyses Figures and calculations were done using GraphPad Prism version 8.4.3, and Excel 2016, respectively. Data were subjected to the analyses of variance (ANOVA) and significant differences between means were revealed via the Tukey test (p < 0.05) which was done using XLSTAT (2016) software. Principal component analysis and dendrogram were performed using R, version 4.0.2 (2020) software. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1. Humidity and pH Measuring moisture content and pH in A. hypogea seeds is a quality indicator commonly used to assess moisture levels and provide information on the product's ability to resist the risk of deterioration during storage. The pH of the different peanuts ranged from 6.3 ± 0.06 to 6.48 ± 0.02 for samples P3 and P5-3 respectively. The results show that the pH of the different samples was significantly different (p˃0.05). Moisture levels varied between 4.21 and 3.88% (Fig. 2). There was no significant difference between moisture levels. Humidity and pH influence the development of fungi on a substrate. A very high moisture content and a low acid pH favor the growth of fungi, whose presence will lead to the deterioration of peanut seeds 34 . As far as pH is concerned, fungi are much more tolerant than bacteria. Bacteria often require pH levels between 7 and 8, while most fungi can grow between pH 3 and 8. Their optimum growth is generally in the pH range between 5 and 6. Because they tend to be acidic (with a pH < 6), foods such as fruit, vegetables, and meat are more susceptible to spoilage caused by fungi than by bacteria 29 . Our results corroborate previous studies that found respectively on 37 peanut samples a pH ranging from 5.73 ± 0.19 to 6.36 ± 0.03 and in non-germinated peanut seeds a pH of 6.27 34 . The pH of peanut seeds stored before marketing or for later use must be between 3 and 8 respectively 29 , 35 . Moisture content is an important factor in preservation and deterioration. If it is kept below 10%, this guarantees good preservation of plant products. A water content below 10% ensures good preservation for plant products 1 . Our values are lower than those found in a previous study on A.hypogaea seeds, which contained 5.43% moisture 36 . However, moisture favors mold growth and According to UNECE STANDARD, 2022, the moisture content of raw peanut seeds must not exceed 10.0% 29 . This shows that our peanut seeds can be stored for a long time with little risk of microbial contamination 37 . 3.2. Aflatoxin contamination The limits of detection and quantification of 0.01 µg/kg and 0.02 µg/kg respectively showed the high sensitivity of the technique used for determination. Calibration curves were made based on standards of different concentrations 5, 10, 20, 40, and 80 (Fig. 3). Aflatoxin G2 levels in seeds of the different peanut varieties were below the quantification threshold (LOQ) for all samples. As for aflatoxin G1, several samples were below the LOQ. The highest aflatoxin content was recorded in sample P5-4, which showed the highest aflatoxin G1 content at 1.08 ± 0.97 µg/Kg (Table 3 ). Aflatoxins B1 and B2 were quantified in all samples. Aflatoxin B2 levels ranged from 0.02 ± 0.03 (P4) to 0.34 ± 0.19 (P6-2). Aflatoxin B1 concentrations ranged from 0.01 ± 0.01 (P1) to 0.44 ± 0.07 µg/Kg (P5-4). Total aflatoxin content ranged from 0.04 ± 0.04 to 1.86 ± 0.42 µg/Kg in samples P5-3 and P5-4 respectively. A comparison of means showed no significant difference for B1 and B2, while for total aflatoxin there was a significant difference (Table 5 ). Chromatograms of sample P5-4 are shown as an example (Fig. 4). Table 5 : Aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2, and total aflatoxin content in peanut varieties (µg/kg) Sample Identity AFG2 AFG1 AFB2 AFB1 AFT P1 LOQ 0.72±0.81a 0.12±0.14a 0.01±0.01a 0.86±0.93 ab P2 LOQ LOQ 0.06±0.07a 0.2±0.28a 0.26±0.23 b P3 LOQ LOQ 0.06±0.07a 0.01±0.01a 0.06±0.08 b P4 LOQ LOQ 0.02±0.03a 0.05±0.06a 0.07±0.06 b P5-1 LOQ LOQ 0.06±0.1a 0.21±0.3a 0.27±0.27 b P5-2 LOQ LOQ 0.08±0.07a 0.01±0.01a 0.09±0.08 b P5-3 LOQ LOQ 0.03±0.02a 0.02±0.02a 0.04±0.04 b P5-4 LOQ 1.08±0.97a 0.34±0.09a 0.44±0.07a 1.86±0.42 a P6-1 LOQ LOQ 0.12±0.11a 0.43±0.7a 0.54±0.6 ab P6-2 LOQ LOQ 0.34±0.29a 0.16±0.26a 0.5±0.04 ab P6-3 LOQ LOQ 0.11±0.1a 0.04±0.08a 0.15±0.17 b P6-4 LOQ LOQ 0.07±0.06a 0.01±0.01a 0.08±0.07 b QH LOQ 0.45±0.77a 0.17±0.17a 0.27±0.46a 0.88±1.4 ab SH LOQ 0.47±0.81a 0.11±0.1a 0.07±0.1a 0.65±0.99 ab Pr > F - 0.096 0.051 0.768 0.029 Significant - No No No Yes LOQ: Limit Of Quantification; AFG2: aflatoxin G1, AFG2: aflatoxin G2; AFB1: aflatoxin B1; AFB2: aflatoxin B2; AFT: total aflatoxin; letters a, ab, b mark statistical differences between sample data. Aflatoxin B1 is the most common aflatoxin contaminant of plant material (USAID, 2012). The data obtained on aflatoxin contamination of peanut seeds are comparable to those found in a study conducted in Côte d'Ivoire, a country bordering Burkina Faso 5 . This study also showed the presence of aflatoxin B in all peanut samples compared with aflatoxin G, which was not detected in all samples. Other previous studies have shown that aflatoxin B1 is predominant in contaminated products and is also the most toxic aflatoxin 23 . Aspergillus species such as Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus produce aflatoxin B, but aflatoxin type G is produced by Aspergillus parasiticus . Indeed, previous work has shown that the double bond present on the dihydrofuran ring of AFB1 and AFG1 could be the origin of the difference in toxicity with their respective AFB2 and AFG2 homologs. On the other hand, the difference in toxicity between group B and G aflatoxins is thought to be due to the substitution of the cyclopentane ring by a lactone ring 37 . The toxic effect of aflatoxins is mainly based on aflatoxin B1, considered the main genotoxic metabolite and with the highest carcinogenic potential of all aflatoxins. Aflatoxin B1 stands out among these various mycotoxins for its exceptionally high toxicity and highly carcinogenic potential. It is frequently present in many food products, particularly peanuts and peanut derivatives 13 , 14 , 34 . The European Commission has set the limits of acceptable aflatoxin B1 content at 2 µg/kg and 4 µg/kg for total aflatoxin content (AFB1 + AFB2 + AFG1 + AFG2) in nuts, dried fruit, ready-to-sell cereals. Codex Alimentarius sets a maximum limit of 12µg/kg for total aflatoxins in peanut samples 38 . A comparison of the aflatoxin content of our samples with these international standards shows that the various peanut varieties are of good sanitary quality in terms of aflatoxin contamination. Although there are traces of aflatoxins in peanuts of local varieties collected in the towns of Dedougou, Bobo Dioulasso and Ouagadougou, the state of this contamination does not present a health risk for consumers, as the levels are below the threshold of international standards. It should be noted that the moisture content of around 4% and the slightly acidic pH of the samples help to limit aflatoxin contamination. It should be noted that high levels of aflatoxin ingestion can lead to acute aflatoxicosis, which is often fatal. Recent assessments of past aflatoxicosis outbreaks have estimated that toxic and potentially fatal doses of toxic and potentially fatal doses of AFB1 in humans range from 20 to 120 µg/kg body weight per day when consumed throughout 1 to 3 weeks. In addition, consumption of staple foods containing aflatoxin concentrations of 1 mg/kg or more has also been suspected of causing acute aflatoxicosis 38 . This information is essential from a nutritional point of view, as peanut seeds are widely used in technology to produce oil for consumption, pastes for cooking, tarts for bread, and so on. It should also be noted that no discriminatory differences were observed between samples from INERA selections and those from local crops. 3.3. Phenolic compound contents of peanut seeds 3.3.1. Total phenolics, flavonoids and flavonols Quantification of phenolic compounds revealed significant variations from one variety to another. Total phenolics, flavonols, and flavonoids were determined. Total phenolic content ranged from 5.64 ± 1.35 to 14.94 ± 2.79 mg EAG/g for samples P1 and P5-2 respectively. Flavonoid content ranged from 1.23 ± 0.11 to 2.24 ± 0.15 mg EAQ/g for samples P4 and P3 respectively (Fig. 5). Analysis of the means showed that the values differed significantly. Seeds also contained flavonols in small quantities, with levels ranging from 0.14 ± 0.09 for sample P5-2 to 0.85 ± 0.36 for sample P1. Statistical analysis showed statistically significant differences between samples for quantified compounds. Phenolic compound composition showed no discriminatory statistical differences between varietal selection samples and locally grown varieties. The phytochemical screening test realized indicates the presence of polyphenols in all extracts. These phenolic compounds are generally concentrated in the skin covering the cotyledons 39 . Flavonoids and phenolic compounds are the main components responsible for the antioxidant activity of extracts. Indeed, previous studies have reported a direct relationship between flavonoid and phenolic content and antioxidant activity 40 – 42 . The phenolic content is similar to that reported in a previous study on the phenolic profiles and antioxidant activity of sprouted peanuts, which revealed an average phenolic content of 18.21 mg EAG/g in peanuts 43 . Other previous studies have found contents of 129.56 ± 1.61 to 160.17 ± 1.17 mg/g and 85.58 ± 0.59 to 209.18 ± 2.53 mg/g, higher than those recorded in the present study 44 , 45 , while lower average contents of 2.1 mg EAG/g DW and 3.28 mg EAG/g have also been reported 46 . The variation in phenolic compound content could be explained by the influence of environmental factors on the plant. Indeed, phenolic compounds are produced by the plant in response to physical aggression and environmental stress, notably edaphic and climatic factors 46 . This variability may also be linked to genetic factors, i.e. to the variety or cultivar. Most of the phenolic compounds present in peanut seeds are concentrated in the tegument 47 . Indeed, a previous study reported that the peanut tegument contains phenolic compound contents of 160 mg GAE/g versus 13 mg GAE/g in the cotyledon 39 . The fact that peanut seeds contain phenolic compounds gives them antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. These compounds can scavenge free radicals, which are generated by the body or formed in reaction to environmental aggressions (tobacco, pollutants, etc.) 11 . They help fight certain metabolic diseases such as cancer, as well as degenerative diseases. Previous studies have demonstrated the beneficial role of polyphenols and flavonoids on human health. Indeed, these compounds play a preventive and protective role against certain chronic diseases, notably cardiovascular diseases, metabolic diseases, and certain cancers 48 . The action of phenolic compounds on human cancer cell lines reduces the number and growth of tumors 49 . These compounds act through several mechanisms, including estrogenic or anti-estrogenic activity, antiproliferative effects, induction of cell cycle arrest or apoptosis, prevention of oxidative stress, anti-inflammatory activity, and modifications of cell signaling 50 . Several studies have demonstrated the positive effect of polyphenol consumption on health and disease prevention, thanks to its antioxidant activity. They also help to prevent lipid peroxidation, an undesirable reaction that can occur in food products, thus ensuring good food preservation 51 . The presence of phenolic compounds in the seeds of different peanut varieties is therefore an important factor to take into account, because of all the properties they confer on the materials containing them. 3.3.2. Hydrolysable tannin and condensed tannin contents Comparison of means showed statistically significant differences. Peanut seeds had very low concentrations of condensed tannins, ranging from 0.14 ± 0.02 to 0.26 ± 0.02 mg/g (Fig. 6). Hydrolysable tannins are found in trace amounts in the samples. Maximum hydrolyzable tannin levels were 0.03 ± 0.01, while minimum levels were 0.16 ± 0.09 mg/g (Fig. 6). Tannins are polyphenols with molecular weights ranging from 500 to 3000 D. Tannins belong to the polyphenol family and are produced by certain plants to combat micro-organisms. Previous studies have found average levels of 35.38 ± 0.58 mg TAE/g in raw peanut seed samples 52 . Other studies showed lower tannin contents of 88 ± 0.19 and 4.73 ± 0.43 mg WT/g for cotyledons and 29.7 to 84.7 mg WT/g on 6 peanut varieties 53 . The results of this research clearly show that both tannins and polyphenols are more concentrated in the seed coat than in the seed. Tannins are phenolic compounds found in many plant-based foods such as fruits, vegetables, tea, wine, cereals, and certain herbs. Their nutritional importance is diverse and they can have beneficial effects on health 33 . Tannins play an important role in immune system defense for organisms exposed to oxidative damage 43 , 46 . Tannins stop bleeding and fight infections. Tannin-rich plants are used to tighten soft tissues as in varicose veins to drain excessive secretions as in diarrhea. and to repair tissues damaged by eczema or burns 52 . It's important to note that the effects of tannins can vary depending on their type concentration and food source. A balanced and varied consumption of tannin-rich foods as part of an overall healthy diet can help to benefit from their properties while minimizing any adverse effects. However high tannin levels can be detrimental to human health. For this reason, the low tannin content of our peanut samples may be an advantage given their nutritional importance. 3.3.3. Correlation between water content, aflatoxin, and phenolic contents Principal component analysis revealed the links between physico-chemical parameters, aflatoxin levels and secondary metabolites in the different peanut varieties studied. Aflatoxin levels AFB1, B2, G1, and G2 are carried by the F1 axis (30.65%), while pH and metabolites are also carried by the F2 axis (22.83%) (Fig. 7 ). Furthermore, samples with high levels of phytochemicals show a negative correlation with aflatoxin levels (i.e. low contamination). The dendrogram shows several levels of clustering (Fig. 8 ). For example, sample groupings such as {P1, P2, P4, P5-1, P6-4}; {P5-4, P6-2, QH, P5-2, P6-1, P6-3, P5-3, SH} show a similar profile in terms of phenolic compound composition and total aflatoxin content. There was also a positive correlation between polyphenol, hydrolyzable tannin, flavonoid and flavonol content, and Aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, and G2 levels, and between condensed tannin and dry matter content (Table 6 ). Table 6 Eigenvalues used to produce the dendrogram and principal component analyses F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9 F10 Poly. 0.159 0.631 -0.508 -0.044 -0.433 0.338 -0.065 0.008 -0.077 -0.073 Flav. 0.145 -0.591 -0.464 0.364 0.440 0.264 0.022 0.093 -0.046 -0.087 Flavon. 0.005 -0.457 0.666 -0.220 -0.053 0.526 -0.122 -0.044 0.051 0.029 Tanins Cond. -0.103 0.133 0.387 0.867 -0.122 -0.073 -0.152 -0.088 0.082 -0.112 Tanins Hydro. 0.496 0.699 -0.179 0.261 0.192 0.099 -0.280 0.127 0.106 0.112 Graine %MS -0.482 0.562 0.484 -0.354 0.140 -0.015 0.027 0.245 0.013 -0.109 pH 0.177 0.764 0.202 0.178 0.245 0.181 0.445 -0.142 -0.009 0.017 AFG2 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 AFG1 0.811 -0.158 0.394 0.304 -0.155 -0.044 0.101 0.142 -0.113 0.032 AFB2 0.842 -0.229 -0.223 -0.289 -0.121 -0.028 0.210 0.024 0.203 -0.068 AFB1 0.727 0.255 0.118 -0.429 0.270 -0.095 -0.296 -0.174 -0.060 -0.074 AFT 0.954 -0.078 0.265 0.023 -0.050 -0.065 0.023 0.050 -0.056 -0.014 It appears that samples containing high levels of phytochemicals showed a negative correlation with aflatoxin content because phenolic compounds are produced by plants to fight against their physical or chemical attackers. Phytochemicals have been proven to have antifungal power 24 . The presence of several groupings on the dendrogram indicates a genetic similarity between the varieties making up the different groups. The varieties have been grown on the same soil types and are subject to the same climate. It has been shown that genetic factors are largely responsible for the traits expressed by plants 53 . Even if these genetic factors are often influenced by the environment 54 . This information can be very important if you want to use different varieties to fortify foods for particular groups, especially to prevent certain metabolic diseases. 4. Conclusion The peanut, A. hypogea , is a legume whose seeds are its most important part. These seeds contain numerous phenolic compounds but are also subject to aflatoxin contamination. Peanut seeds have been found to contain polyphenols, flavonoids, and flavonols. Determination of the aflatoxin concentration revealed that the level of contamination was below the toxicity threshold recommended by the European Commission. It also emerged that the moisture content and pH of our peanuts limited their contamination by the Aspergillus genus. As a result, peanut seeds produced in Burkina Faso are of good sanitary quality and can contribute to the prevention of several pathologies, as they are rich in phenolic compounds which are powerful antioxidants. Declarations Conflict of interest The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Author Contribution The study protocol was drafted by SZ, SZ, FAK, PRB, NER, and RD. The manuscript was written by SZ, SZ, and CSC, and performed statistical analyses by DB, RD, and MD. Scientific supervision of the study was provided by KK and MHD. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version. Acknowledgement The West African Biotechnology Network (RABIOTECH, ISP/IPICS project N° 172 600 000) is appreciated for research support and academic mobility. Data Availability The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request. References Aguieb, Z. & Messai, M. B. Valorisation des arachides (Arachis hypogea L.) cultivées à la Wilaya D’El-Oued . Rapport de Master 2 en Sciences biologiques, option Biologie et valorisation des plantes de l’Université Echahid Hamma Lakhdar d’El-Oued (Algerie) (2015). Chen, T., Li, G. & Zhang, H. Editorial: Advances in peanut research. Front. Plant Sci. 1–2 (2023) doi: 10.1038/ng.3517 . FAO. Crops and livestock products. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations accessed on 15 January 2024 http://www.fao.org/faostat (2024). Christie, M. E., Kyamureku, P., Kaaya, A. & Devenport, A. 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varieties\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4645512/v1/4cc037d4b9d9845d9f4048c4.png"},{"id":61054679,"identity":"5932043a-687e-41d3-b0e1-83d6437233ee","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-25 05:18:55","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":19276,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDendrogram showing the genetic similarities of varieties according to the parameters studied\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4645512/v1/9cb057a8b604c1370f52f7a1.png"},{"id":78689022,"identity":"80a980cf-7941-4118-869a-2778b4b533b3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-17 16:10:14","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1646495,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4645512/v1/b06fc255-08fb-44b5-93cd-2e8940c3d68d.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Phenolic compounds and safety of improved and local peanut varieties grown in Burkina Faso","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003ePeanut (\u003cem\u003eArachis hypogea\u003c/em\u003e L.), is a leguminous member of the Fabaceae family, widely grown in tropical and subtropical climates \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. It is a tropical plant native to South America and is cultivated in several countries. Its cultivation is widespread throughout the world. In fact, over 100 countries worldwide grow peanuts \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. It ranks twelfth in the world in terms of crop production. The total area sown to groundnuts in 2022 is estimated at 30,536,263 hectares, for a production of 54,238,560.13 tons \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. China is the leading producer with an annual output of 18,329,500 tons, followed by India and Nigeria with respective outputs of 10,134,990 tons and 4,284,000 tons \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. African groundnut production accounted for 32.01% of world production or 98,45683.04 tons. West Africa is the largest peanut-producing region in Africa, with 98,445,683.04 tons (56.71%) \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Burkina Faso, located in the heart of West Africa, is the world's 16th largest peanut producer. Groundnut production has risen considerably over the past decade, from 34,0166 tons to 55,9064.39 tons from 2010 to 2022, for areas of 40,922 hectares and 6,23769 hectares respectively \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeanut cultivation is of particular economic importance, as the marketing of unshelled peanuts in 2022 generated around U\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e49,955,941,000 \u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e. In much of sub-Saharan Africa, the crop is very important for domestic consumption and trade \u003csup\u003e \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e. Its economic importance could be further increased if we consider the products derived from peanuts, which include oil, paste, oilcake, cookies, etc. In addition to the financial aspect, peanuts are an important source of nutrients, as peanut seeds are rich in fat and protein \u003csup\u003e \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e. The fat content of peanut seeds varies from 30 to 60% dry weight, and their protein content from 24\u0026ndash;36% dry weight. They contain many fatty acids, in particular linoleic acid, which is an essential fatty acid for the body \u003csup\u003e \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e. Regular consumption of peanuts has been shown to modulate lipid metabolism, reducing triglyceride and cholesterol levels \u003csup\u003e \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e. Peanut oil is generally used in cooking, but also in soap-making. Peanut seeds also contain several amino acids, of which glutamic acid and aspartic acid are the most representative. Peanuts can be consumed in a variety of ways: either as roasted or raw seeds, or in more or less elaborate forms derived from the confectionery peanut market, such as butter, flour, paste, etc. \u003csup\u003e \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e. In addition to primary metabolites, plants also produce so-called \"secondary\" metabolites. These metabolites confer interesting properties, helping to prevent cardiovascular, degenerative, and metabolic diseases \u003csup\u003e \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e. Properties associated with these polyphenol compounds include antioxidant, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory properties \u003csup\u003e \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll these data show that peanuts are important in human and animal nutrition. However, despite its economic and nutritional potential, peanut growers face enormous storage difficulties. Peanuts are extremely sensitive to fungi of the genus Aspergillus, which produce toxins called aflatoxins. Aflatoxins are toxic substances with carcinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic effects \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Among these mycotoxins, aflatoxin B1 stands out for its high toxicity and carcinogenic potential. It can be found in many food products, particularly peanut derivatives \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Among oilseeds, peanuts are the most contaminated by toxin-producing molds, most often during cultivation, harvesting, and storage \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Numerous studies have documented the presence of aflatoxins in peanuts in various countries \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR17 CR18\" citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Contamination of food products by the Aspergillus genus is a frequent problem, especially for peanut seeds. It should be noted that the main factors favoring aflatoxin contamination of peanuts are seed and air humidity, and the temperature of the ambient environment during seed storage and marketing. Aflatoxin contamination of peanuts can also occur before harvest, during crop ripening in the field, particularly favored by drought stress and high soil temperature \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This is particularly true in hot countries such as Burkina Faso, where temperatures can sometimes reach 48\u0026ndash;50\u0026deg;C, resulting in water stress \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This explains the need for special monitoring of Aspergillus contamination of peanuts in Burkina Faso. Studies in Kenya, Ethiopia, and C\u0026ocirc;te d'Ivoire have shown advanced stages of aflatoxin contamination of peanut seeds \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR21 CR22 CR23\" citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Aflatoxins represent a serious health problem affecting the entire food chain, from field production to consumption. Aflatoxins are fungal toxins that possess acute life-threatening toxicity, carcinogenic properties, and other potential chronic adverse effects \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral subsequent studies have shown the presence of secondary metabolites such as flavonoids and polyphenols, mainly in peanut skins \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, very few have quantified their content in whole seeds. Nowadays, several techniques are used to quantify and identify phenolic compounds, including chromatographic and spectrometric methods, depending on the availability of reference standards \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Given the importance of groundnuts, new improved varieties have been produced by Burkina Faso's \u0026ldquo;Institut National de l'Environnement et des Recherches Agricoles (INERA)\u0026rdquo;. The initial aim of introducing these varieties was to increase groundnut productivity and improve its ability to adapt to the country's pedoclimatic conditions, such as drought and soil degradation. Having determined the primary metabolite composition of these new varieties in a previous study, the main aim of the present study was to determine the sanitary quality of these varieties compared with existing varieties and to assess their secondary metabolite composition, including total phenolic compound levels.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Sampling\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSamples were collected from three locations in Burkina Faso: Ouagadougou (12\u0026deg; 21' 56.4\" N, 1\u0026deg; 32' 2\" W), Bobo-Dioulasso (11\u0026deg; 10\u0026rsquo; 37.7\u0026rdquo; N, 4\u0026deg; 17\u0026rsquo; 52.4\u0026rdquo; W), and Dedougou (12\u0026deg; 27' 48.2\" N, 3\u0026deg; 27' 38.7\" W) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). A total of fourteen samples were collected for the study, including twelve varieties supplied by INERA and two local samples collected from fields in the town of Dedougou. The samples were pre-treated by cleaning the peanut pods, which were then shelled. The seeds obtained were ground to serve as a matrix for the various analyses. Sample codes are shown in the table below (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCharacteristics of different peanut samples\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCode\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGenotypes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCycles\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariety name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocality/Source\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQH423\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eINERA Bobo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eINERA Bobo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDedougou\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDedougou\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP5-1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eICGV 91328\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLOKRE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eINERA Ouaga\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP5-2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKIEMA 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eINERA Ouaga\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP5-3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eICGV 86015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYIRWATIGA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eINERA Ouaga\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP5-4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eICGV 13912\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSOUKEBA/NAFA2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eINERA Ouaga\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP6-1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eICGV 13830\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBEEDA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eINERA Ouaga\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP6-2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eICGV 93305\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMIOUPAALE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eINERA Ouaga\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP6-3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eICGV 01276\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNAFA1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eINERA Ouaga\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP6-4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eICGV 13806\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTOINWARE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eINERA Ouaga\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQH 243C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eINERA Ouaga\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSH 470P\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eINERA Ouaga\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eL\u003c/b\u003e: long cycle \u003cb\u003eC\u003c/b\u003e: short cycle\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Determination of the physicochemical properties of peanut seeds\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.1. pH measurement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeeds were crushed and mixed with distilled water, then the mixture was used to determine the pH using a pH meter (H.I microprocessor pH meter, HANNA INSTRUMENT) previously calibrated with pH 4 and pH 7 buffer solutions \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.2. Moisture content\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater content was determined using the AOAC, 2000 method. The fruit samples were weighed and dried in an oven at 105\u0026deg;C for 3 hours. The weights of the samples before and after drying were then used to calculate the water content \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Aflatoxin Assay\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe determination of aflatoxins was carried out using a modified QuEChERS triple partitioning method for the analysis of aflatoxins in peanuts. The method involves a simultaneous sample extraction and clean-up step, based on the modified QuEChERS method, using hexane to remove lipids and HPLC-MS/MS for the determination of target compounds \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.1. Preparation of standard solutions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetonitrile was used as a solvent for the preparation of individual aflatoxin-containing stock solutions. Stock solution concentrations of 10 \u0026micro;g mL\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e were confirmed by UV spectrophotometry. Samples of the stock solutions were then combined to produce an intermediate solution in acetonitrile, with a concentration of 100 ng mL\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e for all targeted aflatoxins. In addition, working solutions were made by diluting the intermediate solution in acetonitrile. These solutions were stored at -20\u0026ordm;C. To prepare matrix-matched calibration curves, aliquots of the working solution were evaporated to dryness and then resuspended with the same volume of uncontaminated product extracted from samples (blank matrices).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.2. Extraction: Deproteinization-Delipidation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 g of the various peanut samples were weighed into 50 mL centrifuge tubes. Volumes of 10 mL ultrapure water, 10 mL hexane, and 15 mL acetonitrile were added to the tube. The mixture was then stirred for 30 seconds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA mixture of 4 g magnesium sulfate and 1.5 g sodium chloride was added to the centrifuge tube. The tube was immediately vortexed vigorously for 1 min and then centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 7 min. A 5 mL aliquot of the acetonitrile phase was evaporated to dryness under a gentle flow of nitrogen at 45\u0026deg;C. The resulting solution was filtered through a 0.22 mm polyethylene filter before injection.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.3. HPLC-MS/MS chromatographic analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe filtrate obtained after extraction of the various peanut samples was placed in vials for subsequent analysis \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eChromatographic conditions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Agilent Technologie 1290 series High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) chain used for the separation is composed of the following modules:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eInjection volume set at 10 ul\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eA constant flow rate of 0.4 ml/min in isocratic mode.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eChromatographic separation was performed using a Zorbax Eclipse XDB C18 column (50 x 4.6 mm, 1.8 \u0026micro;m) (Agilent, USA).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eMobile phase A: Water/formic acid (99/1 v/v/)\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;10 mM ammonium formate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eMobile phase B: methanol/water/formic acid (97/2/1 v/v/v)\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;10mM ammonium formate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eMass spectrometry conditions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMass analysis was performed using an Agilent Technologies 6430 Triple Quadrupole mass spectrometer with an electrospray ionization source. Experimental ionization conditions are shown in the table (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperimental ionization conditions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDrying gas temperature\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e325\u0026deg;C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGas flow rate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10L/min\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNebulizer pressure\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50 psi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTension capillary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4000 v\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGas temperature\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e350\u0026deg;C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMulti-Reaction Monitoring (MRM) scanning mode was used. The precursor and product ions for each aflatoxin molecule are presented in the table below (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrecursor and product ions for different aflatoxin types\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrecursor ion (M/Z)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuantified product ion (M/Z)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuantified ion (M/Z)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAflatoxine B1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e313\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e285,1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e241,0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAflatoxine B2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e315\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e287,1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e259,1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAflatoxine G1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e329\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e233\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e311\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAflatoxine G2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e331\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e313\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e245\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;mass Z\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;valence\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eData acquisition and quantification were performed using Mass Hunter Workstation B.04.01.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.4. Validation and expression of results\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor each series of analyses, a calibration-matrix curve was drawn with a correlation coefficient\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;0.95. Quantification was performed according to the external standard method using the following formula:\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\mathbf{C}=\\frac{{\\mathbf{c}}_{\\mathbf{c}}\\times {\\mathbf{v}}_{\\mathbf{e}}}{{\\mathbf{P}}_{\\mathbf{e}}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eC: aflatoxin concentration in \u0026micro;g/Kg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCc: chromatogram concentration \u0026micro;g/ml;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePe: Sample size in g;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eVe: sample extraction volume in kg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe presence of a molecule in a sample is confirmed if and only if the following conditions are simultaneously met:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree points of identification by the presence of two fragment ions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eSignal-to-noise ratio\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe relative retention time deviation does not exceed 2.5% of that of the control.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe deviation of the relative intensities of the identification and quantification ions (fragment ions) expressed as a percentage does not exceed the limits set by Directive 96/23/EC about controls of comparable concentration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe accepted limits are summarized in the table below (Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccepted limits for validation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRelative intensity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccepted limits in LC-MS/MS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;50%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;20%-50%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;25%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10%-20%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;30%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;10%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;50%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Total phenolic contents\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolyphenols and flavonoids were extracted by maceration with a methanol/water mixture (80/20, v/v). Polyphenol determination was carried out using the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent by the method described by Singleton with minor modifications \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This method measures the intensity of the color of tungsten oxide, and molybdenum oxide which is proportional to the number of polyphenols. A concentration of 1 mg/mL was used for the spectrophotometric assay. All analyses were performed in triplicate and a calibration curve was obtained using gallic acid as standard.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe total flavonoid contents were determined by a spectrophotometric colorimetric method described by Arvouet-Grand \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. To 0.5 mL of sample with a mass concentration of 1 mg/mL, a solution of 2% AlCl\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e was added. The total flavonoid content was calculated as quercetin equivalent from a calibration curve.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHydrolysable tannin content was determined according to the protocol of Mole et al. \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Condensed tannin content was determined using the method of Broadhurst et al. \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeanut seed flours were extracted with ethanol and water (50% v/v; 1 ml) and sonicated for 60 minutes. The mixtures obtained were centrifuged (15,269 g) for 10 minutes and the supernatants were used for the above analyses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5. Statistical analyses\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigures and calculations were done using GraphPad Prism version 8.4.3, and Excel 2016, respectively. Data were subjected to the analyses of variance (ANOVA) and significant differences between means were revealed via the Tukey test (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) which was done using XLSTAT (2016) software. Principal component analysis and dendrogram were performed using R, version 4.0.2 (2020) software.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Humidity and pH\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeasuring moisture content and pH in \u003cem\u003eA. hypogea\u003c/em\u003e seeds is a quality indicator commonly used to assess moisture levels and provide information on the product's ability to resist the risk of deterioration during storage.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe pH of the different peanuts ranged from 6.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06 to 6.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02 for samples P3 and P5-3 respectively. The results show that the pH of the different samples was significantly different (p˃0.05). Moisture levels varied between 4.21 and 3.88% (Fig.\u0026nbsp;2). There was no significant difference between moisture levels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHumidity and pH influence the development of fungi on a substrate. A very high moisture content and a low acid pH favor the growth of fungi, whose presence will lead to the deterioration of peanut seeds \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. As far as pH is concerned, fungi are much more tolerant than bacteria. Bacteria often require pH levels between 7 and 8, while most fungi can grow between pH 3 and 8. Their optimum growth is generally in the pH range between 5 and 6. Because they tend to be acidic (with a pH\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;6), foods such as fruit, vegetables, and meat are more susceptible to spoilage caused by fungi than by bacteria \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Our results corroborate previous studies that found respectively on 37 peanut samples a pH ranging from 5.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.19 to 6.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03 and in non-germinated peanut seeds a pH of 6.27 \u003csup\u003e34\u003c/sup\u003e. The pH of peanut seeds stored before marketing or for later use must be between 3 and 8 respectively \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoisture content is an important factor in preservation and deterioration. If it is kept below 10%, this guarantees good preservation of plant products. A water content below 10% ensures good preservation for plant products \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Our values are lower than those found in a previous study on \u003cem\u003eA.hypogaea\u003c/em\u003e seeds, which contained 5.43% moisture \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, moisture favors mold growth and According to UNECE STANDARD, 2022, the moisture content of raw peanut seeds must not exceed 10.0% \u003csup\u003e29\u003c/sup\u003e. This shows that our peanut seeds can be stored for a long time with little risk of microbial contamination \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Aflatoxin contamination\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe limits of detection and quantification of 0.01 \u0026micro;g/kg and 0.02 \u0026micro;g/kg respectively showed the high sensitivity of the technique used for determination. Calibration curves were made based on standards of different concentrations 5, 10, 20, 40, and 80 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3). Aflatoxin G2 levels in seeds of the different peanut varieties were below the quantification threshold (LOQ) for all samples. As for aflatoxin G1, several samples were below the LOQ. The highest aflatoxin content was recorded in sample P5-4, which showed the highest aflatoxin G1 content at 1.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.97 \u0026micro;g/Kg (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Aflatoxins B1 and B2 were quantified in all samples. Aflatoxin B2 levels ranged from 0.02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03 (P4) to 0.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.19 (P6-2). Aflatoxin B1 concentrations ranged from 0.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01 (P1) to 0.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07 \u0026micro;g/Kg (P5-4). Total aflatoxin content ranged from 0.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04 to 1.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.42 \u0026micro;g/Kg in samples P5-3 and P5-4 respectively. A comparison of means showed no significant difference for B1 and B2, while for total aflatoxin there was a significant difference (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Chromatograms of sample P5-4 are shown as an example (Fig.\u0026nbsp;4).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5\u003c/strong\u003e: Aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2, and total aflatoxin content in peanut varieties (\u0026micro;g/kg)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"636\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.558359621451103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSample Identity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAFG2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAFG1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAFB2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAFB1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAFT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.558359621451103%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLOQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.72\u0026plusmn;0.81a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u0026plusmn;0.14a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u0026plusmn;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.86\u0026plusmn;0.93 ab\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.558359621451103%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLOQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLOQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u0026plusmn;0.07a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2\u0026plusmn;0.28a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26\u0026plusmn;0.23 b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.558359621451103%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLOQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLOQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u0026plusmn;0.07a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u0026plusmn;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u0026plusmn;0.08 b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.558359621451103%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLOQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLOQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u0026plusmn;0.03a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u0026plusmn;0.06a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u0026plusmn;0.06 b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.558359621451103%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP5-1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLOQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLOQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u0026plusmn;0.1a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.21\u0026plusmn;0.3a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.27\u0026plusmn;0.27 b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.558359621451103%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP5-2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLOQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLOQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u0026plusmn;0.07a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u0026plusmn;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.09\u0026plusmn;0.08 b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.558359621451103%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP5-3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLOQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLOQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u0026plusmn;0.02a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u0026plusmn;0.02a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u0026plusmn;0.04 b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.558359621451103%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP5-4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLOQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.08\u0026plusmn;0.97a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.34\u0026plusmn;0.09a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.44\u0026plusmn;0.07a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.86\u0026plusmn;0.42 a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.558359621451103%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP6-1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLOQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLOQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u0026plusmn;0.11a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.43\u0026plusmn;0.7a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.54\u0026plusmn;0.6 ab\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.558359621451103%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP6-2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLOQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLOQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.34\u0026plusmn;0.29a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.16\u0026plusmn;0.26a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.5\u0026plusmn;0.04 ab\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.558359621451103%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP6-3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLOQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLOQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u0026plusmn;0.1a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u0026plusmn;0.08a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15\u0026plusmn;0.17 b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.558359621451103%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP6-4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLOQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLOQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u0026plusmn;0.06a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u0026plusmn;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u0026plusmn;0.07 b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.558359621451103%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQH\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLOQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.45\u0026plusmn;0.77a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17\u0026plusmn;0.17a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.27\u0026plusmn;0.46a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.88\u0026plusmn;1.4 ab\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.558359621451103%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSH\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLOQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.47\u0026plusmn;0.81a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u0026plusmn;0.1a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u0026plusmn;0.1a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.65\u0026plusmn;0.99 ab\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.558359621451103%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePr \u0026gt; F\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.096\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.051\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.768\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.029\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.558359621451103%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSignificant\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.08832807570978%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLOQ: Limit Of Quantification; \u0026nbsp;AFG2: aflatoxin G1, \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; AFG2: aflatoxin G2; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;AFB1: aflatoxin B1; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; AFB2: aflatoxin B2; \u0026nbsp; AFT: total aflatoxin; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;letters a, ab, b mark statistical differences between sample data.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAflatoxin B1 is the most common aflatoxin contaminant of plant material (USAID, 2012). The data obtained on aflatoxin contamination of peanut seeds are comparable to those found in a study conducted in C\u0026ocirc;te d'Ivoire, a country bordering Burkina Faso \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This study also showed the presence of aflatoxin B in all peanut samples compared with aflatoxin G, which was not detected in all samples. Other previous studies have shown that aflatoxin B1 is predominant in contaminated products and is also the most toxic aflatoxin \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAspergillus species such as \u003cem\u003eAspergillus flavus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAspergillus parasiticus\u003c/em\u003e produce aflatoxin B, but aflatoxin type G is produced by \u003cem\u003eAspergillus parasiticus\u003c/em\u003e. Indeed, previous work has shown that the double bond present on the dihydrofuran ring of AFB1 and AFG1 could be the origin of the difference in toxicity with their respective AFB2 and AFG2 homologs. On the other hand, the difference in toxicity between group B and G aflatoxins is thought to be due to the substitution of the cyclopentane ring by a lactone ring \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The toxic effect of aflatoxins is mainly based on aflatoxin B1, considered the main genotoxic metabolite and with the highest carcinogenic potential of all aflatoxins. Aflatoxin B1 stands out among these various mycotoxins for its exceptionally high toxicity and highly carcinogenic potential. It is frequently present in many food products, particularly peanuts and peanut derivatives \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe European Commission has set the limits of acceptable aflatoxin B1 content at 2 \u0026micro;g/kg and 4 \u0026micro;g/kg for total aflatoxin content (AFB1\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;AFB2\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;AFG1\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;AFG2) in nuts, dried fruit, ready-to-sell cereals. Codex Alimentarius sets a maximum limit of 12\u0026micro;g/kg for total aflatoxins in peanut samples \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. A comparison of the aflatoxin content of our samples with these international standards shows that the various peanut varieties are of good sanitary quality in terms of aflatoxin contamination. Although there are traces of aflatoxins in peanuts of local varieties collected in the towns of Dedougou, Bobo Dioulasso and Ouagadougou, the state of this contamination does not present a health risk for consumers, as the levels are below the threshold of international standards. It should be noted that the moisture content of around 4% and the slightly acidic pH of the samples help to limit aflatoxin contamination. It should be noted that high levels of aflatoxin ingestion can lead to acute aflatoxicosis, which is often fatal. Recent assessments of past aflatoxicosis outbreaks have estimated that toxic and potentially fatal doses of toxic and potentially fatal doses of AFB1 in humans range from 20 to 120 \u0026micro;g/kg body weight per day when consumed throughout 1 to 3 weeks. In addition, consumption of staple foods containing aflatoxin concentrations of 1 mg/kg or more has also been suspected of causing acute aflatoxicosis \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This information is essential from a nutritional point of view, as peanut seeds are widely used in technology to produce oil for consumption, pastes for cooking, tarts for bread, and so on. It should also be noted that no discriminatory differences were observed between samples from INERA selections and those from local crops.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3. Phenolic compound contents of peanut seeds\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.1. Total phenolics, flavonoids and flavonols\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuantification of phenolic compounds revealed significant variations from one variety to another. Total phenolics, flavonols, and flavonoids were determined. Total phenolic content ranged from 5.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.35 to 14.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.79 mg EAG/g for samples P1 and P5-2 respectively. Flavonoid content ranged from 1.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11 to 2.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15 mg EAQ/g for samples P4 and P3 respectively (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5). Analysis of the means showed that the values differed significantly. Seeds also contained flavonols in small quantities, with levels ranging from 0.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09 for sample P5-2 to 0.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.36 for sample P1. Statistical analysis showed statistically significant differences between samples for quantified compounds. Phenolic compound composition showed no discriminatory statistical differences between varietal selection samples and locally grown varieties.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe phytochemical screening test realized indicates the presence of polyphenols in all extracts. These phenolic compounds are generally concentrated in the skin covering the cotyledons \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Flavonoids and phenolic compounds are the main components responsible for the antioxidant activity of extracts. Indeed, previous studies have reported a direct relationship between flavonoid and phenolic content and antioxidant activity \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR41\" citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe phenolic content is similar to that reported in a previous study on the phenolic profiles and antioxidant activity of sprouted peanuts, which revealed an average phenolic content of 18.21 mg EAG/g in peanuts \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Other previous studies have found contents of 129.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.61 to 160.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.17 mg/g and 85.58\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.59 to 209.18\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.53 mg/g, higher than those recorded in the present study \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, while lower average contents of 2.1 mg EAG/g DW and 3.28 mg EAG/g have also been reported \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The variation in phenolic compound content could be explained by the influence of environmental factors on the plant. Indeed, phenolic compounds are produced by the plant in response to physical aggression and environmental stress, notably edaphic and climatic factors \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This variability may also be linked to genetic factors, i.e. to the variety or cultivar.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost of the phenolic compounds present in peanut seeds are concentrated in the tegument \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Indeed, a previous study reported that the peanut tegument contains phenolic compound contents of 160 mg GAE/g versus 13 mg GAE/g in the cotyledon \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The fact that peanut seeds contain phenolic compounds gives them antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. These compounds can scavenge free radicals, which are generated by the body or formed in reaction to environmental aggressions (tobacco, pollutants, etc.) \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. They help fight certain metabolic diseases such as cancer, as well as degenerative diseases. Previous studies have demonstrated the beneficial role of polyphenols and flavonoids on human health. Indeed, these compounds play a preventive and protective role against certain chronic diseases, notably cardiovascular diseases, metabolic diseases, and certain cancers \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The action of phenolic compounds on human cancer cell lines reduces the number and growth of tumors \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These compounds act through several mechanisms, including estrogenic or anti-estrogenic activity, antiproliferative effects, induction of cell cycle arrest or apoptosis, prevention of oxidative stress, anti-inflammatory activity, and modifications of cell signaling \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Several studies have demonstrated the positive effect of polyphenol consumption on health and disease prevention, thanks to its antioxidant activity. They also help to prevent lipid peroxidation, an undesirable reaction that can occur in food products, thus ensuring good food preservation \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe presence of phenolic compounds in the seeds of different peanut varieties is therefore an important factor to take into account, because of all the properties they confer on the materials containing them.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.2. Hydrolysable tannin and condensed tannin contents\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparison of means showed statistically significant differences. Peanut seeds had very low concentrations of condensed tannins, ranging from 0.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02 to 0.26\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02 mg/g (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6). Hydrolysable tannins are found in trace amounts in the samples. Maximum hydrolyzable tannin levels were 0.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01, while minimum levels were 0.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09 mg/g (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTannins are polyphenols with molecular weights ranging from 500 to 3000 D. Tannins belong to the polyphenol family and are produced by certain plants to combat micro-organisms. Previous studies have found average levels of 35.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58 mg TAE/g in raw peanut seed samples \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Other studies showed lower tannin contents of 88\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.19 and 4.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.43 mg WT/g for cotyledons and 29.7 to 84.7 mg WT/g on 6 peanut varieties \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The results of this research clearly show that both tannins and polyphenols are more concentrated in the seed coat than in the seed. Tannins are phenolic compounds found in many plant-based foods such as fruits, vegetables, tea, wine, cereals, and certain herbs. Their nutritional importance is diverse and they can have beneficial effects on health \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Tannins play an important role in immune system defense for organisms exposed to oxidative damage \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Tannins stop bleeding and fight infections. Tannin-rich plants are used to tighten soft tissues as in varicose veins to drain excessive secretions as in diarrhea. and to repair tissues damaged by eczema or burns \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. It's important to note that the effects of tannins can vary depending on their type concentration and food source. A balanced and varied consumption of tannin-rich foods as part of an overall healthy diet can help to benefit from their properties while minimizing any adverse effects. However high tannin levels can be detrimental to human health. For this reason, the low tannin content of our peanut samples may be an advantage given their nutritional importance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.3. Correlation between water content, aflatoxin, and phenolic contents\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrincipal component analysis revealed the links between physico-chemical parameters, aflatoxin levels and secondary metabolites in the different peanut varieties studied. Aflatoxin levels AFB1, B2, G1, and G2 are carried by the F1 axis (30.65%), while pH and metabolites are also carried by the F2 axis (22.83%) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, samples with high levels of phytochemicals show a negative correlation with aflatoxin levels (i.e. low contamination). The dendrogram shows several levels of clustering (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). For example, sample groupings such as {P1, P2, P4, P5-1, P6-4}; {P5-4, P6-2, QH, P5-2, P6-1, P6-3, P5-3, SH} show a similar profile in terms of phenolic compound composition and total aflatoxin content. There was also a positive correlation between polyphenol, hydrolyzable tannin, flavonoid and flavonol content, and Aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, and G2 levels, and between condensed tannin and dry matter content (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEigenvalues used to produce the dendrogram and principal component analyses\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"11\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoly.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.159\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.631\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.508\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.433\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.338\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.065\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.077\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.073\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlav.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.145\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.591\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.464\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.364\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.440\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.264\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.093\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.046\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.087\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlavon.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.457\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.666\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.220\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.053\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.526\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.122\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.051\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.029\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTanins Cond.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.103\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.133\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.387\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.867\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.122\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.073\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.152\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.088\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.082\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.112\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTanins Hydro.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.496\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.699\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.179\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.261\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.192\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.099\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.280\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.127\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.106\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.112\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGraine %MS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.482\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.562\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.484\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.354\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.140\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.027\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.245\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.109\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.177\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.764\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.202\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.178\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.245\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.181\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.445\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.142\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAFG2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAFG1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.811\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.158\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.394\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.304\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.155\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.101\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.142\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.113\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.032\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAFB2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.842\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.229\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.223\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.289\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.121\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.028\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.210\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.203\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.068\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAFB1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.727\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.255\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.118\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.429\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.270\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.095\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.296\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.174\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.060\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.074\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAFT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.954\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.078\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.265\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.050\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.065\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.050\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.056\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt appears that samples containing high levels of phytochemicals showed a negative correlation with aflatoxin content because phenolic compounds are produced by plants to fight against their physical or chemical attackers. Phytochemicals have been proven to have antifungal power \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The presence of several groupings on the dendrogram indicates a genetic similarity between the varieties making up the different groups. The varieties have been grown on the same soil types and are subject to the same climate. It has been shown that genetic factors are largely responsible for the traits expressed by plants \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Even if these genetic factors are often influenced by the environment \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This information can be very important if you want to use different varieties to fortify foods for particular groups, especially to prevent certain metabolic diseases.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe peanut, \u003cem\u003eA. hypogea\u003c/em\u003e, is a legume whose seeds are its most important part. These seeds contain numerous phenolic compounds but are also subject to aflatoxin contamination. Peanut seeds have been found to contain polyphenols, flavonoids, and flavonols. Determination of the aflatoxin concentration revealed that the level of contamination was below the toxicity threshold recommended by the European Commission. It also emerged that the moisture content and pH of our peanuts limited their contamination by the Aspergillus genus. As a result, peanut seeds produced in Burkina Faso are of good sanitary quality and can contribute to the prevention of several pathologies, as they are rich in phenolic compounds which are powerful antioxidants.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study protocol was drafted by SZ, SZ, FAK, PRB, NER, and RD. The manuscript was written by SZ, SZ, and CSC, and performed statistical analyses by DB, RD, and MD. Scientific supervision of the study was provided by KK and MHD. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe West African Biotechnology Network (RABIOTECH, ISP/IPICS project N\u0026deg; 172 600 000) is appreciated for research support and academic mobility.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAguieb, Z. \u0026amp; Messai, M. 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Plant Sci. 14, 1\u0026ndash;2 (2023).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Arachis hypogea, seed, aflatoxin, phenolic compounds, peanut, sanitary quality","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4645512/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4645512/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003ePeanuts are a tropical crop widely cultivated throughout the world. The seed is the most important part of the peanut. Burkina Faso is the 16th largest producer of peanuts in the world. Despite its economic and nutritional potential, peanut growers are subject to aflatoxin contamination. This present study aimed to evaluate the phenolic compounds and safety of various improved and local peanut varieties. The aflatoxin contents of the different varieties were determined by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). A UV-visible spectrophotometer quantified the phenolic contents. For all samples, results showed that water content varied from 3.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08 to 4.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06%, and pH from 6.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02 to 6.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02. Toxicological results showed total aflatoxin levels ranging from 0.04 to 1.86 \u0026micro;g/kg. Polyphenols had the highest values in peanut extracts, ranging from 5.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.35 to 14.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.79 mg EAG/g. Flavonoids ranged from 1.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11 to 2.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15 mg EAQ/g and flavonols from 0.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09 to 0.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.36 mg EAQ/g. Condensed tannin contents range from 0.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02b to 0.26\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02a mg EAG/100g and hydrolysable tannins from 0.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0 a to 0.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09 a mg EAT/g. TC tannins ranged from 0.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02 to 0.26\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02 mg EAG/100g and THs from 0.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0 a to 0.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09 a mg EAT/g. Peanut seeds have excellent phytonutrient potential, which is interesting when we consider the importance of these phytonutrients with their nutritional quality. They could therefore be considered foods with therapeutic potential. The low levels of aflatoxins testify to the safety of the seeds.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Phenolic compounds and safety of improved and local peanut varieties grown in Burkina Faso","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-07-25 05:02:50","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4645512/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-01-13T03:54:51+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-01-07T12:53:33+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"82989729431839525229222867610424207972","date":"2024-12-17T11:44:23+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"130122995600876029949138761030651087540","date":"2024-11-17T19:46:33+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"93047536278600326349416137148006829739","date":"2024-10-13T04:25:17+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-09-12T16:20:26+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"214624878053195947869013897336238659175","date":"2024-09-08T17:14:38+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"7895891313583359554071444116690512526","date":"2024-09-08T15:38:47+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-09-08T14:37:54+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-09-03T19:24:23+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2024-07-02T14:15:52+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-07-02T04:47:26+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2024-06-27T02:33:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"1d5d29cb-d5cb-4804-bab4-ba8ab944539e","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 25th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[{"id":34859766,"name":"Biological sciences/Biochemistry"},{"id":34859767,"name":"Biological sciences/Plant sciences"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-03-17T16:04:08+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-4645512","link":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-92018-4","journal":{"identity":"scientific-reports","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Scientific Reports"},"publishedOn":"2025-03-13 15:58:20","publishedOnDateReadable":"March 13th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-07-25 05:02:50","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1038/s41598-025-92018-4","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-92018-4","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4645512","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4645512","identity":"rs-4645512","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}