Social Security Practices for Professional Athletes

Social Security Practices for Professional Athletes | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Social Security Practices for Professional Athletes Çiğdem Gökduman, Cenk Temel, Yusuf Alper This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5753949/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background: This study investigated the integration of professional athletes into social security systems to enhance their welfare. It comprehensively examined the risk factors that necessitate social security for athletes across various sports disciplines. Moreover, it explored the conditions required for professional athletes to be recognized as insured employees (sports workers) within the sports industry. This research offers a definitive guide to the occupational, physiological, and socioeconomic risks professional athletes encounter, highlighting branch-specific differences in necessary social security measures. Method: A phenomenological qualitative research design was employed. Data collection involved semi-structured interviews using an 11-question form developed by the researcher. Purposeful sampling ensured diverse perspectives among the 22 participants, including unofficial and open professional athletes, club directors, national coaches, international referees, sports agents, social security experts, and private insurance specialists. NVivo 10 software facilitated data analysis, with findings presented through content and descriptive analysis. Results: The overarching theme identified was "Social Risks in Sports," with seven subthemes encompassing Work Accidents and Injury in Sports, Disease in Sports, Maternity in Sports, Unemployment in Sports, Disability in Sports, Old Age in Sports, and Death in Sports. The results reveal distinct risk factors in sports, necessitating tailored social security provisions. The study also demonstrates that conditions can be established to safeguard professional athletes against these social risks through specialized practices. Conclusion: This research confirms the significant impact of occupational, physiological, and socioeconomic risks on the careers of both active and retired athletes transitioning into various sports-related fields. It underscores the critical importance of a secure future and social security protection for athletes to achieve optimal performance and motivation. Addressing these concerns through specialized policies will likely enhance success in sports and encourage broader participation. Professional athlete social security social risks social insurance Figures Figure 1 Introduction Over the past two decades, as sports have evolved into a significant economic sector, the link between athletes' welfare and their sporting success has become increasingly evident, yet this connection has often been overlooked ( 1 ). Many professional athletes, despite deriving their income from sports, face challenges due to inadequate coverage by existing social security systems. This forces many to prematurely end their careers and seek alternative professions. Additionally, athletes who lack sufficient social security benefits struggle to plan their careers for the long term. This lack of security can negatively impact athletes' focus, motivation, and overall performance. Furthermore, permanent injuries and the natural aging process can diminish an athlete's performance, making it difficult to find a club (employment) and leading to financial hardship. Consequently, athletes require protection against occupational, physiological, and socioeconomic risks both during their active careers and in retirement. An athlete's well-being extends beyond their athletic achievements and financial rewards; it is also significantly influenced by social security policies ( 2 ). More inclusive and broad policies should be developed to provide the social and economic support that athletes need at every stage of their sporting careers and beyond. Because the literature on the factors affecting the social security of athletes points out that athletes are exposed to many risks that threaten their performance and lives ( 3 ). In alignment with the International Labor Organization's (ILO) 1952 Convention on Minimum Standards of Social Security No. 102, this research identifies social risks inherent to professional sports as encompassing occupational risks, physiological risks, and socioeconomic risks ( 4 ). These risks profoundly impact athletes, affecting not only their physical and mental well-being but also their performance. They can lead to financial hardship by increasing expenditures and decreasing income, potentially pushing athletes and their dependents into poverty. Recognizing the far-reaching consequences of such risks, this study proposes a comprehensive social security model specifically designed for professional athletes. This model aims to safeguard athletes against the unique social risks they face in sports, which include work accidents and occupational diseases, illness, maternity, unemployment, disability, old age, and death. By addressing these specific needs, the proposed model strives to ensure the financial and social well-being of professional athletes throughout their careers and beyond. Theoretical framework and literature review Research context The study concentrates on de facto professional athletes engaged in individual and team sports. The athletes earn their living primarily from their sporting activities, relying on the income generated from employment contracts with sports clubs ( 5 ). They typically train at club-provided facilities and often have private health insurance, which, however, covers only their medical expenses. Most importantly, the athletes often face significant vulnerabilities in their long-term social security. Despite short-term health coverage, events like permanent injury, unexpected pregnancy, or the typical end of a sporting career between the ages of 30–35 can lead to contract termination and sudden unemployment. This precarious situation underscores the need for comprehensive social security measures for professional athletes. Social Risks Necessitating Social Security in Sports Social security serves as a crucial safety net against poverty, emphasizing the need for targeted social security measures to protect athletes who face unique social risks. Furthermore, the right to social security and protection against social risks is enshrined in Article 22 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights ( 6 ). This underscores the importance of recognizing the specific social risks inherent to sports and the imperative to safeguard athletes against these risks. 1. Occupational Risks in Sports Inherently involving physical contact, sports expose athletes to the risk of physical violence during both competition and training, although the extent varies. Sports injuries sustained during competitions, initially acute, can evolve into chronic conditions over time ( 7 ). The specific risk factors and types of injuries differ across various sports disciplines. Combat sports, for instance, involving striking (taekwondo, boxing, Muay Thai, kickboxing, karate), grappling (wrestling, judo, aikido), and mixed techniques (MMA), carry a heightened risk due to their forceful nature. Injuries to the extremities are common in these sports, and head injuries, including permanent brain damage, are prevalent among athletes ( 8 ). Severe head injuries, concussions, permanent paralysis, and even fatalities can occur as a result of blows to the head ( 9 ). The grim statistics highlight this reality, with 71 recorded boxing deaths between 1993 and 2007, and a staggering 355 between 1890 and 2007 ( 10 ). The positions with the highest incidence of injury in soccer are defense and striker. A positive correlation exists between player age and injury rate, with older athletes experiencing a higher frequency of injuries compared to younger athletes ( 11 ). The severity of such injuries can lead to premature career termination for soccer players, as they impede both training and competitive play. In volleyball, common injuries include those affecting the ankle, knee, and shoulder, often arising from the biomechanics of jumping and blocking. Patellar tendinopathy, also referred to as “jumper's knee,” characterized by inflammation of the patellar tendon, is another prevalent concern in this sport ( 12 ). Basketball players frequently sustain injuries to the lower extremities, particularly the ankle and knee joints, due to the rapid accelerations, decelerations, and changes in direction inherent to the game. Across all three sports, head injuries pose a substantial risk, with the potential for long-term or even permanent neurological consequences ( 13 ). Gymnastics presents a heightened risk for injuries involving the hand, wrist, elbow, shoulder, and spine due to the demanding nature of the sport's movements and skills ( 14 ). Running, characterized by repetitive impact and stress on the body, frequently leads to muscle injuries, sprains, and skin lesions arising from overuse ( 15 ). Swimmers, on the other hand, are prone to a range of ear and respiratory problems, including swimmer's ear (otitis externa), otomycosis, exostosis, traumatic eardrum perforation, middle ear infections, and barotrauma of the inner ear ( 16 ). Water skiing and scuba diving carry the risk of hearing loss and vertigo due to the pressures and conditions associated with these activities. Beyond the immediate risks during active participation, athletes may face long-term health consequences after retirement from their sport, which may include spinal problems, osteoarthritis, knee and ankle issues, ligament injuries, and upper limb disorders ( 17 ). 2. Physiological Risks in Sports Athletes are more likely to face the risk of illness after intense and vigorous training. Intense training increases the risk of infection by weakening the athletes' immune system, and the increased risk of getting sick leads athletes to interrupt their training and decrease their performance ( 18 ). Research shows that professional athletes are more likely to suffer from diseases such as upper respiratory tract infections after heavy training and their immune systems change negatively. Therefore, it is concluded that intense training increases athletes' susceptibility to diseases and negatively affects their performance ( 19 ). Permanent injuries in sports pose a grave threat to athletes, often stemming from the cumulative impact of repetitive injuries and the prolonged recovery they necessitate. The transition of injuries from acute to chronic further compounds the issue ( 3 ). Such injuries can not only severely hamper an athlete's performance but may also prematurely terminate their sporting career. The nature of certain sports can further exacerbate the risk of specific long-term consequences. For example, in sports involving blows to the head, face, and neck, athletes face an elevated risk of developing migraines and depression ( 20 ). The inherent impact and violence in sports can also lead to devastating outcomes. So much so that in 2016, a ski jumper suffered a career-ending accident during the world championship and was confined to a wheelchair, and a gymnast was tragically paralyzed after a sports accident during the national team camp. The intense physical demands and potential for injury inherent in sports create unique challenges for pregnant and postpartum athletes. Unlike individuals in traditional occupations who can often continue working with adjustments, athletes frequently need to take a break from their sport due to its high-impact nature. Training and competition during pregnancy can pose risks to both mother and baby, necessitating a temporary pause for many athletes. Postpartum, the lack of adequate social support and childcare often leads to extended breaks or even retirement from sport ( 21 ). Although certain provisions exist pertaining to legal maternity leave, they often fall short of meeting the needs of athlete mothers. The demanding schedules of training and competition can lead to feelings of guilt for not dedicating enough time to family, and pregnancy itself may be perceived as an obstacle to an athletic career ( 22 ). To promote greater female participation and sustained success in sports, it is crucial for state institutions to provide comprehensive support for athlete mothers, recognizing the dual roles they fulfill. Old age is a period defined from biological, chronological and psychological perspectives and is considered a compulsory insurance period, but it is also a risk. Under normal circumstances, biological and chronological age are expected to be equal, but environmental and lifestyle factors can disrupt this balance ( 23 ). Professional athletes start their sport between the ages of 10–15 and end their sporting careers between the ages of 30–35, and in this process, their body structure wears out, so they age faster than their chronological age ( 24 ). In addition, the aging of athletes leads to a decline in performance and loss of self-confidence, causing their sporting careers to end at an earlier age. This also makes it difficult for athletes to benefit from old-age benefits ( 25 ). Therefore, due to the early end of their sporting careers, athletes often have to work in different fields in order to retire and survive financially. This renders the working conditions and concepts of old age of athletes different from those of other professionals. Athletes, despite appearing healthy, are at higher risk of death due to the violent nature of sport and intense training. Athlete deaths are usually caused by cardiovascular problems ( 26 ). Deaths are associated with hereditary heart disease in athletes under 35 years of age and atherosclerotic coronary artery disease in athletes over 35 years of age ( 27 ). A study examining athlete deaths that occurred in the United States between 2003 and 2013 found that 514 student-athletes died, with the most common cause of these deaths being sudden cardiac death ( 28 ). Meanwhile, Seyithan Akbalık, a Turkish National Taekwondo player, lost his life in an international competition on February 16, 2014 1 , and Emrah Kandemir died in a football match on January 1, 2015 2 . The tragic disappearance and subsequent death of renowned open water swimmer Francis Crippen during a competition in 2010 3 underscored the inherent risks associated with professional sports. Athletes, even at the highest levels, can face fatalities due to the potential for severe injuries or accidents during both training and competition. 3. Socio-Economic Risks in Sports The performance-driven nature of athletes' careers introduces an inherent risk of unemployment should their performance falter. The looming end of a sporting career and the uncertainty of securing future employment can negatively impact an athlete's motivation and, consequently, their performance. In contrast, the provision of employment opportunities and pension plans fosters a sense of security and belonging within the sport, positively influencing both motivation and performance ( 29 ). While professional athletes in some countries benefit from financial and employment support, many uninsured athletes are forced to seek alternative employment, often in manual labor sectors, facing the risk of poverty ( 2 ). The demanding training schedules of athletes can also limit their ability to pursue higher education. The combination of limited education and a premature end to a sporting career can lead to unemployment and financial hardship. Therefore, access to education and employment opportunities is directly linked to both athlete development and sustained success in the sporting arena. SOCIAL SECURITY RIGHTS AND PRACTICES FOR ATHLETES IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES 1.Germany In Germany, sport is not legally recognized as a profession under the German Labor Code, resulting in athlete contract disputes typically being resolved on a case-by-case basis 4 . However, athletes benefit from mandatory health insurance that includes specialized coverage for sports-related accidents. These insurance premiums are typically paid through athletes' clubs, with contributions coming from federations, umbrella sports associations, and the clubs themselves. A significant development occurred on January 1, 2022, when 15 state sports associations across Germany partnered with ARAG, a leading European and German sports insurance provider 5 . This partnership provides comprehensive sports insurance coverage for clubs affiliated with the designated sports associations, as well as their athletes. While encompassing most club activities, the insurance focuses on sports-specific risks, safeguarding associations, clubs, and athletes from liability claims, and offering supplementary coverage beyond private/state health insurance in the event of sports accidents. Although these athlete-specific insurance plans provide crucial protection against health and accident risks, they do not address all social risks associated with an athletic career. 2.United States In the United States, the legal framework concerning the social security rights of professional athletes is primarily outlined in the Fair Labor Standards Act of America, although notably, its provisions appear to be limited to golf employees 6 . This leaves American athletes bearing the full responsibility for health insurance outside the scope of their employment contracts. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention report a concerning statistic: approximately 300,000 young people annually sustain traumatic brain injuries and concussions from sports participation, injuries with potentially severe long-term and short-term health implications. In response, state-level anti-traumatic brain injury laws have been enacted 7 , but their focus remains on education for athletes, parents, and coaches, rather than providing direct social security protections. Therefore, it is evident that professional athletes in the US are not afforded comprehensive social security within a robust legal framework. 3.Austria In Austria, the recognition of sports as a profession and athletes as employees within the purview of labor and social security law remains ambiguous, often resulting in athletes encountering legal difficulties when attempting to secure the rights afforded by these laws. The blurring of the distinction between sports as a profession or a hobby, coupled with the elimination of the differentiation between professional and amateur athletes in terms of their wage-earning status, has necessitated an examination of athletes not only through the lens of labor law but also in terms of social security classifications ( 30 ). Further complicating matters is the absence of specific legislation dedicated to athlete social security, leaving athletes without a comprehensive framework for protection. Although specialized health and accident insurance plans exist, the coverage and costs vary based on individual choices and circumstances ( 31 ). It is clear, therefore, that current social security practices in Austria do not guarantee full protection for professional athletes. 4.China The Chinese government places a strong emphasis on employment. Employment incentives are also extended to athletes 8 , and the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security has stressed the importance of encouraging professional athletes to be recognized as part of the labor force. In this regard, the government views sports as both an industry and a profession, and athletes as workers within this industry. Consequently, just as it is deemed necessary to provide compulsory insurance coverage for employees in other professions, the government is advocating for the same for professional athletes. This stance is reinforced by another decision from the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, which recognizes sports-related injuries sustained by professional athletes as occupational accidents. The ministry has outlined measures to prevent such accidents and provide assistance to athletes with disabilities caused by their sporting activities. These decisions highlight the understanding that sports are a risky profession and that athletes are considered workers in this inherently hazardous field. However, high premium payments and shortcomings in the social security system have resulted in a high prevalence of unregistered employment among athletes ( 32 ). Consequently, the availability of insurance for athletes remains limited. 5.France In France, the “Sports Code” serves as the comprehensive legal framework for the legal status of athletes and clubs 9 . The code designates sports as a recognized profession under the Labor Code, with athletes considered as employees 10 . As such, athletes are provided with insurance coverage through sports clubs and associations, ensuring their access to all legal rights. Furthermore, even athletes who are not covered by mandatory insurance but are actively engaged in professional sports are considered health insured under the social security system. This comprehensive approach demonstrates a robust system of protection for athletes within the French social security framework. 6.Netherlands The Netherlands, like Germany and Austria, is one of the countries where sport is not considered as a profession in the Labor Law, professional athletes are not considered as workers, and disputes arising from athlete contracts are usually resolved individually 11 . However, there are health insurances that protect professional athletes against sports accidents 12 . As part of its “Top Sport Policy”, it offers a specially formulated health insurance policy called “Topsportpolis” to protect successful athletes against sports risks. This policy was created in cooperation with the Dutch Olympic Committee*Dutch Sports Federation (NOC*NSF) and Zilveren Kruis (a private insurance company) and is only available to athletes with professional athlete status 13 . However, even though private insurances that include protection against health risks have been created, they are not as broad and comprehensive as these insurances. Therefore, it is insufficient to protect professional athletes against social risks in the long term. 7.Italy In Italy, although sport is recognized as work, professional athletes are regarded as employees, and their contracts are deemed employment contracts, a clear distinction between amateur and professional sports and athletes remains elusive. Athletes participating in sports for a fee under an employment contract are not automatically considered professionals. The determination of professional status is contingent upon the respective sports federation, with some federations establishing a separate category for professional athletes. Even athletes who receive payment but are not within this designated category are not deemed professionals ( 33 ). This ambiguity creates significant challenges for athletes in Italy, and the source of this issue is attributed to Directive 91 of the 1981 constitution 14 . As a result, it is apparent that professional athletes in Italy lack comprehensive coverage under a social security umbrella in sports. 8.Turkey In Turkey, professional athletes are recognized as workers and sports as a profession within the context of social security law, primarily due to the nature of their work, contracts, and financial compensation 15 . However, existing social security practices do not cater specifically to athletes, leading to a lack of specialized provisions for the sports profession in the current legal framework. Although sport is acknowledged as a profession, the concepts of occupational accidents and occupational diseases are not defined within this context. While athletes are covered by mandatory insurance, labor law provisions generally do not extend to them. The legally recognized maternity leave period of 8 weeks before and 8 weeks after birth, available to insured mothers, is often inadequate for sports mothers who may require more time for recovery and training. Additionally, the insurance system lacks supportive measures for athletes whose careers end at around age 30–35, leaving them with insufficient time to accumulate a full pension. While employment agencies assist individuals in other professions who are unemployed, mechanisms such as unemployment benefits are insufficient for athletes. Private insurance serves as an additional layer of social security. However, many private insurance providers in Turkey exclude professional athletes from accident insurance coverage due to the high-risk nature of their work. Athletes can only obtain protection against accident risks through additional coverage (T.S.B., 2024). Consequently, social security practices in Turkey currently fail to adequately protect professional athletes from the full spectrum of social risks they face (refer Table 1 ). Table 1 Social security legislation and practices in sports in alphabetical order Social Security Status Germany USA Austria China France Netherlands Italy Turkey Do professional athletes practice sports as a profession/job? Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Do professional athletes and the club sign a contract? Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Is sport considered a profession? No No No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Are athletes considered workers? No No No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Are athletes covered by compulsory insurance? No No No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Is the insurance coverage sufficient for athletes? No No No No No No No No Is there private insurance designed for athletes? Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Table 1 and the cited literature highlight a concerning discrepancy: professional athletes face significant social risks, yet adequate measures to mitigate these risks remain insufficient. The research therefore suggests that, in the absence of robust social security measures tailored to athletes, they may become vulnerable to poverty. Social security can act as a mediator to prevent such outcomes, necessitating the development of a comprehensive model to address the unique challenges that athletes encounter. https://shgm.gsb.gov.tr/HaberDetaylari/1/5615/seyithan-akbalik-topraga-verildi.aspx (Accessed on 24.11.2023) https://www.milliyet.com.tr/skorer/dili-bogazina-kacan-futbolcu-emrah-kandemir-topraga-verildi-1993189 (Accessed on 11.12.2023) https://www.espn.com/olympics/swimming/news/story?id=5718372 (Accessed on 29.12.2023) https://www.bmas.de/EN/Labour/Labour-Law/labour-law.html (Accessed on 25.01.2024). https://www.arag.de/vereinsversicherung/partner/https://www.blsv.de/startseite/produkte/beratungsservice/aragsportversicherung/; https://www.arag.de/vereinsversicherung/sportversicherung/#Zusatzversicherungen%20f%C 3%BCr%20Ihren%20Sportverein (Accessed on 18.02.2024) https://www.dol.gov/agencies/whd/field-operations-handbook/Chapter-10#B10d00 (Accessed on 09.03.2024) https://www.cdc.gov/headsup/policy/ (Accessed on 12.04.2024) https://wwwmohrssgovcn.translate.goog/SYrlzyhshbzb/laodongguanxi_/zcwj/laodongguanxixiediao/201608/t20160805_244926.html? (Accessed on 21.04.2024) https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/codes/section_lc/LEGITEXT000006071318/LEGISCTA000006151574/#LEG (Accessed on 11.05.2024) https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/jorf/id/JORFTEXT000000792831 (Accessed on 20.05.2024) https://www.bmas.de/EN/Labour/Labour-Law/labour-law.html (Accessed on 10.06.2024) https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/arbeidsovereenkomst-en-cao/vraag-en-antwoord/wat-staat-er-in-een-arbeidsovereenkomst (Accessed on 20.06.2024) https://nocnsf.nl/medisch (Accessed on 01.07.2024) https://scuoladellosport.coni.it/images/documenti/Normativa_Sport/Professionismo/Legge_23_marzo_1981_n (Accessed on 15.07.2024) https://www.mevzuat.gov.tr/mevzuatmetin/1.5.5510.pdf (Accessed on 25.07.2024) Methods To achieve a more comprehensive understanding and analysis of social security measures in sports and the associated social risks faced by athletes globally, a phenomenological research design within the qualitative research method was employed (32:80–82). This approach, focused on investigating phenomena related to the specific context of social security in sports, involved conducting face-to-face and telephone interviews with 22 participants (refer Table 2 ). Data collection primarily occurred in Turkey. The researcher's background as a former national athlete, possessing firsthand experience with social risks in sports, further enriched the depth and insights of this investigation. Table 2 Professions and Assigned Codes of Participants Professions of Participants Assigned Codes for Participants Number of Participants Unofficial Professional Athlete (UPA) 4 Professional Athlete (PA) 5 Club Director (CD) 2 National Team Coach (NTC) 3 International Referee (IR) 2 Sports Agent (SA) 1 Social Security Expert (SSE) 3 Private Insurance Specialist (PIS) 2 Total 22 The diverse sample included former and current professional athletes, club directors, national team coaches, international referees, sports agents, social security experts, and private insurance specialists Within the study group, initial contact was made via phone with 1 national coach, 1 unofficial professional athlete (shamateur), 1 professional athlete, 1 sports agent, 3 international referees, and 3 social security experts. Following these calls, suitable dates and times were arranged for face-to-face qualitative interviews, conducted at predetermined locations. Similarly, 1 national team coach, 3 professional athletes, 4 unofficial professional athletes, 2 club directors, and 2 insurance specialists were contacted by phone to schedule interviews via Zoom or WhatsApp video calls. Each interview lasted approximately 50–60 minutes. The professional and shamateur athletes participating in the study (9 in total) had achieved notable success in their respective fields, including medals at the Olympic Games, European and World championships, and experienced playing for sports clubs in multiple countries. The 3 national team coaches had extensive experience coaching in various countries and were currently training successful athletes, particularly in individual sports disciplines. The 2 club directors led clubs that had consistently ranked high in world team sports championships. The 2 international referees were actively officiating at world, European, and international competitions. The sports agent was a former unofficial professional athlete with international experience working alongside professional athletes. Finally, the social security experts and insurance specialists were academics well-versed in relevant legislation, whose opinions were sought for their expertise in potential legal changes. The selection of the study group employed purposive sampling and maximum variation sampling methods. This approach aimed to uncover athletes' perspectives on the social security phenomenon and highlight risk factors within the sporting world. Purposive sampling allows for the identification of participants believed to possess relevant knowledge about the research topic, based on the researcher's personal observations and the participants' specific characteristics related to the research phenomenon ( 35 ). In utilizing maximum diversity sampling, deliberate effort was made to ensure the inclusion of participants encompassing a wide range of experiences and backgrounds related to the phenomenon under investigation, thereby maximizing the depth and breadth of information gathered regarding social security in sports. The diverse participant group, composed of individuals from various levels of sport, brought firsthand knowledge of social security practices in different countries, allowing for a holistic perspective through the collection of multidimensional data. To capture this wealth of information and lived experiences, in-depth interviews utilizing a semi-structured format were conducted, adopting a bottom-up approach ( 36 ). Data collection took place between September 2022 and March 2023. The semi-structured interview form was adapted to suit the different participant groups (directors, coaches, athletes, agents, and referees) to gain insights into their unique experiences. However, the core framework of the interviews was rooted in the social risks outlined in the ILO Convention No. 102 of 1952. In addition to athletes' perspectives, the study also explored the roles of club directors, coaches, referees, agents, and social security experts within the sporting landscape and how these roles intersect and influence one another in relation to the social risks inherent in sports. Upon obtaining informed consent, all interviews were audio recorded, stored securely on both computer and external disk, and transcribed verbatim into Word documents. These transcripts were then emailed to the respective participants for review and approval. Once approved, the data were imported into NVivo10 software for content analysis. This process involved identifying recurring and salient "codes" within the dataset, grouping related codes into "categories," and then distilling these categories into overarching "themes" (36: 220–223). Through this systematic and objective analysis of the discourse emerged the central theme of social risks in sports. Validity and Reliability of Research In order to ensure the validity and reliability of the research, the interviews with the participants were transcribed verbatim and sent back to the participants via email and the accuracy of the information conveyed was confirmed. The voice recordings and transcribed Word documents obtained were presented to the expert opinions to confirm that the study satisfied the objectivity criterion. The “triangulation” technique was used to contribute to the reliability of the study ( 37 )( 38 ): 306–310). This technique involves examining and coding the same data set by more than one researcher and expressing the similarities and differences between the codings numerically. This similarity rate, which is also expressed as internal consistency, is calculated as reliability coefficient = number of topics on which there is consensus / (number of topics on which there is consensus + number of topics on which there is no consensus. Miles and Huberman state that the calculated result should be at least 80% for internal consistency to be valid ( 39 ). The calculations revealed an internal consistency value of 95.6%. Results Content analysis of the research data revealed seven key subthemes under the overarching theme of "Social Risks in Sports." These subthemes highlight the diverse challenges athletes face: Work Accidents and Injury in Sports, Disease in Sports, Maternity in Sports, Unemployment in Sports, Disability in Sports, Old Age in Sports and Death in Sports (refer Fig. 1 ). Subtheme 1: Work Accidents and Injury in Sports Interviews revealed that participants largely perceived work accidents in sports as encompassing injuries sustained during training or competitions, improper use of sport-specific techniques, equipment-related injuries, and accidents occurring outside of training or competitions (e.g., due to weather conditions or traffic). They emphasized that each sport has its unique injury profile, and these injuries can lead to work accidents. UPA1, one participant, illustrated this: We use specific equipment, and accidents can happen depending on how we use it. Sometimes, we get stuck under a bar when we can't lift it, leading to an accident. There are also other work-specific accidents, like falling from obstacles. Participants also noted that accidents outside of training can negatively impact athletes. CD1 commented: Injuries can occur during training, or in bus or plane accidents while traveling to away games. These are also work accidents. Shuttle bus accidents are also considered work accidents, as children are transported to and from training using these buses. Regarding occupational injuries and diseases, participants indicated that athlete injuries often become chronic and develop into work-related diseases due to recurrence. They highlighted the deterioration of the musculoskeletal system from heavy and intense training and the potential for permanent disorders due to the high levels of stress in sports. NTC1 shared personal experiences: Some diseases, like high blood pressure, are caused by stress. Sports inherently involve stress, which can lead to such diseases. For instance, I developed stress-related gastric bleeding, even though I had no prior stomach issues. This led to high blood pressure, which I now have. Heavy training causes enlargement, particularly in the heart's left and right ventricles. Physically, there can be wear and tear on the spine and bones, hindering healthy bodily function. Because conditions that become chronic after heavy training are not recognized as occupational diseases, their diagnosis and subsequent social support are inadequate. UPA2, an Olympic marathon runner, shared their experience: Let me give an example from my career; I have Morton's neuroma disease, which is a thickening of the nerves between the toes between number 3 and 4. Because I ran for a long time and distance, the nerves thickened and I was diagnosed with this disease. The doctor said that it was a disease caused by tight shoes and running for a long time. Subtheme 2: Disease in Sports The demanding nature of intensive and intense training can negatively impact athletes' immune systems, increasing their susceptibility to illnesses like migraines, according to the participants. They further indicated that healthcare expenses incurred during such illnesses are typically covered through a combination of sources: the athlete's club (at contracted private hospitals), the athlete themselves, or the state (through their parents' or spouse's general health insurance). One of the participants UPA3 stated the following: If the club does not provide support, their expenses are covered by themselves. Insured employees are eligible for temporary incapacity benefits contingent upon the submission of a medical report. Interviews revealed that athlete eligibility for temporary incapacity benefits, disbursed during periods of illness, is independent of insurance status. Athletes typically do not obtain medical reports during illness, nor do they report their illness to the insurer, resulting in the non-payment of temporary incapacity benefits. This sentiment was echoed by one participant, NTC2, who stated the following: In clubs, athletes go to contracted hospitals, yet they remain ineligible for benefits due to the lack of reporting to the insurer. UPA1 further elaborated, stating: “ The absence of insurance records for athletes precludes their reporting to the insurer, thereby preventing them from obtaining medical reports. Consequently, uninsured athletes bear the burden of their healthcare expenses. ” Subtheme 3: Maternity in Sports The interviews revealed that participants primarily assessed athlete maternity during pregnancy, highlighting the inability of athletes to engage in training and competitions due to inherent risks. They emphasized the necessity for increased health support during this period, given the susceptibility to injuries and strain on the musculoskeletal system. As PA4 stated, The athlete cannot attend training sessions or competitions during pregnancy. PA5 further elaborated, “ In case of pregnancy, sports activities should cease, and strenuous movements should be avoided. Sports inherently carry risks, necessitating the provision of special conditions for athletes. ” Furthermore, the interviews unveiled that athletes' contracts are often terminated by clubs upon the onset of pregnancy, leading to the cessation of insurance coverage. Participants underscored that athletes bear the financial burden of healthcare expenses incurred during this period. Simultaneously, the demanding nature of sports hinders athletes from continuing training and competitions, rendering the maternity leave rights accorded to the general population inadequate for athletes. CD1 shed light on this issue, explaining, The contract is terminated in the event of pregnancy, as the athlete signs the contract with the commitment not to become pregnant during the season. We have a clause in the contract stipulating, 'As long as you serve me, I will transfer you, but you will not get pregnant during the time you serve me...' The athlete signs the contract with full knowledge of this clause. If she becomes pregnant mid-season, she breaches her promise, and a termination decision is made. SA1 stated, “ Clubs engage in yearly planning and construct their team rosters accordingly. If an athlete becomes pregnant during the season, the entire planning is disrupted, and there must be consequences for this. Therefore, the contract is terminated immediately, and insurance coverage ceases. ” Subtheme 4: Unemployment in Sports The participants contended that athletes who continue their sports careers but cannot secure a club contract to sustain their athletic pursuits are effectively unemployed. Moreover, they emphasized that athletes who engage in individual sports due to challenging circumstances but are forced to abandon their athletic endeavors because they cannot meet their financial needs and turn to other occupations should also be classified as unemployed athletes. UPA3 elucidated this perspective, stating: More accomplished athletes who have participated in the Olympics, for instance, may have more opportunities, but athletes in a transitional period face a difficult choice: dedicate themselves further to sports or give up their athletic aspirations. The expectation is that they should fully commit to sports and achieve exceptional results. However, without support during this phase, and having often sacrificed their education to focus on sports, these athletes find themselves in a precarious position, unable to succeed academically or pursue alternative careers. They risk remaining unemployed for the rest of their lives. Regarding unemployment benefits, the participants underscored the necessity for athletes to be insured to qualify for such benefits. They acknowledged that insured athletes can receive unemployment benefits if they fulfill the requisite conditions. However, they also pointed out that the contracts signed with clubs do not confer any rights to unemployment benefits. CD1 observed: Athletes typically sign 10-month contracts, aligning with federation calendars, where September to June constitutes the active period, and July to August is the passive period. During these two to three months, athletes can receive unemployment benefits. NTC3 added: “ Clubs often sign contracts with athletes and provide payments under the guise of scholarships, but they do not offer insurance coverage. As a result, athletes are unable to access unemployment benefits .” Subtheme 5: Disability in Sports Participant data indicates that permanent injuries leading to disability often preclude athletes from executing sport-specific techniques, forcing them to retire prematurely. PA5 articulated this, stating, Every sport has essential techniques. If an injury prevents an athlete from performing these techniques, they are effectively unable to continue their profession and must leave the sport. UPA1 further elaborated on the potential severity of injuries, noting, “ Athletes face the risk of multiple injuries requiring surgery. Repeated surgeries, while sometimes necessary, can negatively and permanently impact performance, preventing a return to previous levels. This can ultimately lead to the end of an athlete's career. ” Furthermore, an examination of the working conditions of disabled athletes revealed that those with permanent disabilities are often dismissed from both their clubs and insurance coverage, leaving them unable to assert any rights. It was noted that the healthcare expenses of these athletes are either borne by themselves, their families (as general health insured individuals), or the state. The participants also highlighted that the increased expenses and decreased income following a disability often necessitate a return to work. To address this need, many athletes transition to other professions. UPA2 provided a poignant example: In our field, an Achilles tendon injury can be career-ending. Years of overuse can lead to ruptures, making even walking difficult, let alone running. I have close friends who were top athletes but had to leave the sport and couldn't even secure a civil servant position due to this injury. One is now a market vendor. Subtheme 6: Old Age in Sports The participants indicated that the definition of an "old athlete" varies across different sports, positions, and roles. However, a general consensus emerged that the age limit typically falls between 30 and 35 years old. They emphasized that after 35, performance and success tend to decline due to biological, physiological, and mental aging, often leading to the end of an athlete's career. IR2, for instance, noted: In professional volleyball, the maximum age for playing, depending on the position, is around 32–33. NTC2 stated, “ Athletes aged 30–35 are considered old. After that, they're classified as veteran athletes. ” Additionally, it was highlighted that when athletes' careers end, their insurance coverage is terminated, and their contracts are not renewed. Furthermore, they often do not meet the necessary premium days and age requirements to qualify for a retirement pension. Consequently, to meet these requirements and sustain themselves after their sports careers, athletes often transition to roles such as coaches, teachers, or managers within the sports industry, or they pursue employment in other sectors like hospitality, landscaping, manufacturing, or industry. SA1 and PA1 shared their perspective: SA1: “ We start at a very young age and dedicate many years to intense and demanding training. If we can't remain in sports after 35, we have to turn to other jobs. ” PA1: “ The retirement age for athletes should be lower. I'm 28, but I'm not as healthy as my peers. My body feels like it's 48. I'll likely need a cane by 60, and my knees are already in bad shape. After so much wear and tear, I'll have to quit sports around 35. If I can't stay in sports to accumulate enough premium days, I'll have to work in another field. ” Subtheme 7: Death in Sports Sports inherently involve fatal risks, with deaths stemming from both the sport or branch itself and external factors. In-sport fatalities can arise from impacts, traumas, heart attacks, or acute injuries becoming chronic. External causes may include traffic accidents, drowning, and assaults. Participants offered insights into these risks: CD2: “ We had an accident returning from a competition, leaving two athletes seriously injured. Another group I know also experienced a traffic accident, tragically resulting in an athlete's death. ” UPA2: “ We run on roads (for training), and accidents like being hit by a car are always a possibility. These can be fatal. ” NTC2: “ Sports inherently involve stress, and stress-related disorders can cause sudden deaths. I know friends who've had heart attacks. Even a taekwondo athlete died from a heart condition during a competition. ” Furthermore, it was noted that insured athletes and their dependents are entitled to legal rights, pensions, and allowances in the event of a sports-related death. However, uninsured athletes lack such protections. PIS1 and UPA1 explained the insurance complexities: PIS1: “ In our country, private insurance typically excludes athletes from accident coverage. This is because professional sports and athletes are considered high-risk, so they are not covered and cannot make claims like other insured individuals with lower risk factors. ” UPA1: “ Unfortunately, clubs often contract athletes without providing insurance. If an uninsured athlete dies, their survivors have no legal recourse. ” Discussion Research findings indicate that sports accidents incurred by athletes, whether during or outside of training and competition, are classified as occupational accidents. Existing literature supports this categorization ( 40 ). For instance, the incident involving the Austrian synchronized swimming team being hit by a bus during the 2015 European Games in Baku underscores the occupational hazards athletes face 16 . As professional athletes engage in sports as their occupation, any accidents occurring during or after training or competition can be considered work-related. Furthermore, one study highlights that athlete injuries are an inherent part of professional sports. These injuries can become chronic and lead to permanent damage due to repetitive strain. The study advocates for legal recognition of chronic injuries as occupational diseases ( 41 ). The intense and physically demanding nature of sports can result in long-term health issues, warranting their classification as occupational diseases. The research also reveals that training regimens increase the likelihood of athletes falling ill. Consequently, the associated healthcare costs are often borne by the state, sports clubs, health insurance providers, and the athletes themselves. The literature emphasizes the elevated risk of illness among professional athletes and suggests that their healthcare expenses should be included in the compulsory insurance system ( 42 ). This implies that the state should assume responsibility for covering the healthcare costs of professional athletes. The study's findings highlight the necessity for more comprehensive support for athlete mothers, recognizing that intense and vigorous training can jeopardize pregnancy. Existing literature corroborates this, suggesting that high-intensity sports during pregnancy can potentially harm the fetus, thus emphasizing the need for increased support for female athletes both during and after pregnancy ( 43 ). Given the physically demanding nature of professional sports, it is advisable for athletes to avoid such activities during pregnancy, as they may pose a risk. The intensive training often required postpartum to regain previous performance levels can also lead to family neglect. For such reasons, any support offered to athletes should also consider these factors and be tailored to address the unique challenges athlete mothers face. This study confirms that professional athletes' primary occupation is sports, with sports clubs serving as their workplaces and club managers as their employers. Consequently, they face potential unemployment if they cannot secure a club contract. Previous literature has also highlighted this risk of unemployment for professional athletes after their careers end, especially when they struggle to find suitable jobs aligned with their skills and experience ( 44 ). This research contributes to the existing body of knowledge by specifically focusing on the unemployment challenges faced by professional athletes, emphasizing their unique employment context. Furthermore, the study reveals that permanent sports-related injuries can not only end an athlete's career but also hinder future employment opportunities, potentially leading to poverty. The literature supports this finding, noting the detrimental impact of career-ending injuries on athletes' lives and the fact that thousands of athletes are forced to retire each year due to such injuries ( 45 ). Accordingly, it is crucial to recognize the significant risks associated with permanent disabilities in sports and implement comprehensive social security measures to safeguard athletes from poverty. The concept of an "older athlete" was also explored in this study, with findings indicating that active sports careers typically commence between the ages of 10 and 15 and conclude between 30 and 35, depending on the sport and position. The literature aligns with this observation, emphasizing that athletes' careers start early and end, on average, between 30 and 35 ( 46 ). Consequently, "old age" for athletes represents a relatively young age compared to the general population. This necessitates the establishment of a specialized social security system to ensure athletes can access retirement benefits earlier in life. Finally, the study identified sudden deaths in athletes, often caused by head injuries and heart attacks. It also noted that athletes experience deaths outside of competition, with traffic accidents being a common cause. The literature supports these findings, discussing sudden deaths in athletes and highlighting the contributing factors of traumatic injuries, cardiomyopathy, and the impact of intense training on heart attacks ( 47 ). Thus, it is imperative to acknowledge the inherent risks of sports, including the potential for fatalities, and to develop social security systems that provide protective measures for the dependents of professional athletes in the event of their deaths. 16 https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/avrupa-oyunlari-trafik-kazasiyla-basladi-29264048 (Accessed on 07.07.2024) Conclusion In conclusion, this study highlights a significant disparity in social security coverage within the sports industry. While sports club employees enjoy comprehensive legal protections as insured individuals within the social security system, professional athletes—the very core of the industry—often lack such coverage. Research findings, coupled with participant perspectives, reveal the existence of social risks inherent to sports that can adversely impact athletes' well-being. The absence of a dedicated social security system for professional athletes, despite their critical role in the industry, represents a substantial gap in social protection. Bridging this gap is essential to support athletes and ensure the continued success of sports on a global scale. Our research underscores the urgent need for policy reforms and social security practices that safeguard professional athletes against the social risks associated with their profession. By addressing this disparity, we can foster a more equitable and sustainable sports industry that benefits all stakeholders, from athletes to club employees. Recommendations Based on the research findings, we recommend the following actions to address the identified social security gaps for professional athletes: Policy and Legal Framework Develop a Comprehensive Social Security Model: Establish a model that explicitly recognizes professional athletes as insured workers, clubs as their employers, and training/competition venues as their workplaces. This model should encompass all relevant social security benefits, including health insurance, unemployment benefits, and retirement provisions. Align Athlete Transfer Contracts with Labor Laws: Ensure that athlete transfer contracts comply with labor contract regulations, guaranteeing athletes the same rights and protections as other workers. Mandate Insurance Coverage: Require clubs to notify relevant institutions about athletes' insurance coverage, calculate monthly premiums based on actual wages, and ensure timely payment of these premiums. Streamline Work Accident and Occupational Disease Reporting: Establish clear procedures for sports clubs to promptly report work accidents and occupational diseases to the appropriate authorities, facilitating access to relevant benefits and compensation. Unemployment and Retirement Provisions Recognize Unemployment in Athletes: Define the inability to find a club after contract expiration as unemployment, enabling athletes to access unemployment benefits and count these periods towards their service record for future benefits. Introduce Foreign Service Credit: Allow athletes who have spent their careers abroad to transfer their service credits to their home country's social security system, ensuring they receive appropriate benefits upon retirement. Implement "Actual Service Increase" for Early Retirement: Acknowledge the physically demanding nature of professional sports by introducing an "Actual Service Increase" provision for athletes. This would allow them to accumulate additional service years, potentially leading to earlier retirement eligibility. Extend Maternity Leave for Athlete Mothers: Increase the duration of maternity leave for athlete mothers, both before and after childbirth, recognizing the unique challenges they face in balancing motherhood and their sporting careers. Research and Data Collection Sport-Specific Future Research: Encourage researchers to investigate the working conditions, retirement age limits, and social risks of athletes across various sports branches, developing a risk map to identify and address specific vulnerabilities. Declarations Supplementary information. This study was presented as an oral presentation at the 22nd International Sports Sciences Congress held in Ankara on November 21-24. Funding This research received no external funding. Conflict of interest/Competing interests The authors declare no conflict of interest. Ethics approval and consent to participate This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and the ethical conduct of this research was ensured through the acquisition of necessary permissions from the Akdeniz University Social and Human Sciences Ethics Committee. Their approval, granted on May 12, 2022, under decision number 190, underscores the researchers' commitment to upholding ethical standards throughout the study. Consent for publication Informed written consent was obtained from all study participants. Availability of data and materials The datasets generated and/or analyzed during this study are not publicly available due to the protection of participants' confidentiality; therefore, participant information has been anonymized. However, the datasets can be obtained from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Code availability: the codesets can be obtained from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. 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Available from: https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/jsr/31/8/article-p1095.xml de Subijana CL, Galatti L, Moreno R, Chamorro JL. Analysis of the Athletic Career and Retirement Depending on the Type of Sport: A Comparison between Individual and Team Sports. Int J Environ Res Public Health [Internet]. 2020;17(24):9265. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/17/24/9265 Sheppard MN. Aetiology of sudden cardiac death in sport: a histopathologist’s perspective. Br J Sports Med [Internet]. 2012; 46(Suppl 1):i15–21. Available from: https://bjsm.bmj.com/lookup/doi/ 10.1136/bjsports-2012-091415 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5753949","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":399829216,"identity":"687746ef-e86b-4ac9-97af-3438043cda2e","order_by":0,"name":"Çiğdem Gökduman","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABC0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACZgYGCTADRD4wsEkAcxIKiNWSYJCWwMAGZuC3CEkLw2GIFgY8Wvjb2S/e+JjDYM8/u/nZg4SC83n88t2JHx4YMMjzix3AbsNhnmLLmdsYEmfcOWZukGBwu1iyjXezBNBhhjNnJ2DVYsDMkybNuw3opBsJZkCVtxM3HOPdANICZOPR8ncbg738jfRvQJXnQFo2/8Cvhf2YNOM2BsYNN3JAthwAadmG1xagX5gte4F+2XgjpwyoMjlxZlvuNosEAwmcfuHvP/7wxk+gw+RupG+T+PDHLrGf+ezmmz8qbOT5pbFrYWDgAUXBf0zrcSgHAfYHeCRHwSgYBaNgFAABAGAJXLqChUsJAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Bartin University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Çiğdem","middleName":"","lastName":"Gökduman","suffix":""},{"id":399829217,"identity":"d352d2e0-446a-418e-8980-419ce4c99ed0","order_by":1,"name":"Cenk Temel","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Akdeniz University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Cenk","middleName":"","lastName":"Temel","suffix":""},{"id":399829218,"identity":"7131a9c4-5e9a-4c45-ae2f-756a87a38060","order_by":2,"name":"Yusuf Alper","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Bursa Uludağ University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yusuf","middleName":"","lastName":"Alper","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-01-02 20:23:12","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5753949/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5753949/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":73518275,"identity":"bb98a067-2f97-46b1-a5ac-150362768a42","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-10 18:01:37","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":107980,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMain Theme of Social Risks in Sports and Subthemes\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5753949/v1/a09ccae784c73a98973d45d5.png"},{"id":73520294,"identity":"a400dc28-5761-4cc1-badd-44f3d342ad78","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-10 18:17:42","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1052648,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5753949/v1/c396525e-1a11-401a-8903-3d4a489435cd.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Social Security Practices for Professional Athletes","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOver the past two decades, as sports have evolved into a significant economic sector, the link between athletes\u0026apos; welfare and their sporting success has become increasingly evident, yet this connection has often been overlooked (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Many professional athletes, despite deriving their income from sports, face challenges due to inadequate coverage by existing social security systems. This forces many to prematurely end their careers and seek alternative professions. Additionally, athletes who lack sufficient social security benefits struggle to plan their careers for the long term. This lack of security can negatively impact athletes\u0026apos; focus, motivation, and overall performance. Furthermore, permanent injuries and the natural aging process can diminish an athlete\u0026apos;s performance, making it difficult to find a club (employment) and leading to financial hardship. Consequently, athletes require protection against occupational, physiological, and socioeconomic risks both during their active careers and in retirement. An athlete\u0026apos;s well-being extends beyond their athletic achievements and financial rewards; it is also significantly influenced by social security policies (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMore inclusive and broad policies should be developed to provide the social and economic support that athletes need at every stage of their sporting careers and beyond. Because the literature on the factors affecting the social security of athletes points out that athletes are exposed to many risks that threaten their performance and lives (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn alignment with the International Labor Organization\u0026apos;s (ILO) 1952 Convention on Minimum Standards of Social Security No. 102, this research identifies social risks inherent to professional sports as encompassing occupational risks, physiological risks, and socioeconomic risks (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). These risks profoundly impact athletes, affecting not only their physical and mental well-being but also their performance. They can lead to financial hardship by increasing expenditures and decreasing income, potentially pushing athletes and their dependents into poverty. Recognizing the far-reaching consequences of such risks, this study proposes a comprehensive social security model specifically designed for professional athletes. This model aims to safeguard athletes against the unique social risks they face in sports, which include work accidents and occupational diseases, illness, maternity, unemployment, disability, old age, and death. By addressing these specific needs, the proposed model strives to ensure the financial and social well-being of professional athletes throughout their careers and beyond.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTheoretical framework and literature review\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eResearch context\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe study concentrates on de facto professional athletes engaged in individual and team sports. The athletes earn their living primarily from their sporting activities, relying on the income generated from employment contracts with sports clubs (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). They typically train at club-provided facilities and often have private health insurance, which, however, covers only their medical expenses. Most importantly, the athletes often face significant vulnerabilities in their long-term social security. Despite short-term health coverage, events like permanent injury, unexpected pregnancy, or the typical end of a sporting career between the ages of 30\u0026ndash;35 can lead to contract termination and sudden unemployment. This precarious situation underscores the need for comprehensive social security measures for professional athletes.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSocial Risks Necessitating Social Security in Sports\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSocial security serves as a crucial safety net against poverty, emphasizing the need for targeted social security measures to protect athletes who face unique social risks. Furthermore, the right to social security and protection against social risks is enshrined in Article 22 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). This underscores the importance of recognizing the specific social risks inherent to sports and the imperative to safeguard athletes against these risks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e1. Occupational Risks in Sports\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInherently involving physical contact, sports expose athletes to the risk of physical violence during both competition and training, although the extent varies. Sports injuries sustained during competitions, initially acute, can evolve into chronic conditions over time (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). The specific risk factors and types of injuries differ across various sports disciplines. Combat sports, for instance, involving striking (taekwondo, boxing, Muay Thai, kickboxing, karate), grappling (wrestling, judo, aikido), and mixed techniques (MMA), carry a heightened risk due to their forceful nature. Injuries to the extremities are common in these sports, and head injuries, including permanent brain damage, are prevalent among athletes (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). Severe head injuries, concussions, permanent paralysis, and even fatalities can occur as a result of blows to the head (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). The grim statistics highlight this reality, with 71 recorded boxing deaths between 1993 and 2007, and a staggering 355 between 1890 and 2007 (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe positions with the highest incidence of injury in soccer are defense and striker. A positive correlation exists between player age and injury rate, with older athletes experiencing a higher frequency of injuries compared to younger athletes (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e). The severity of such injuries can lead to premature career termination for soccer players, as they impede both training and competitive play. In volleyball, common injuries include those affecting the ankle, knee, and shoulder, often arising from the biomechanics of jumping and blocking. Patellar tendinopathy, also referred to as \u0026ldquo;jumper\u0026apos;s knee,\u0026rdquo; characterized by inflammation of the patellar tendon, is another prevalent concern in this sport (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e). Basketball players frequently sustain injuries to the lower extremities, particularly the ankle and knee joints, due to the rapid accelerations, decelerations, and changes in direction inherent to the game. Across all three sports, head injuries pose a substantial risk, with the potential for long-term or even permanent neurological consequences (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGymnastics presents a heightened risk for injuries involving the hand, wrist, elbow, shoulder, and spine due to the demanding nature of the sport\u0026apos;s movements and skills (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e). Running, characterized by repetitive impact and stress on the body, frequently leads to muscle injuries, sprains, and skin lesions arising from overuse (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e). Swimmers, on the other hand, are prone to a range of ear and respiratory problems, including swimmer\u0026apos;s ear (otitis externa), otomycosis, exostosis, traumatic eardrum perforation, middle ear infections, and barotrauma of the inner ear (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e). Water skiing and scuba diving carry the risk of hearing loss and vertigo due to the pressures and conditions associated with these activities. Beyond the immediate risks during active participation, athletes may face long-term health consequences after retirement from their sport, which may include spinal problems, osteoarthritis, knee and ankle issues, ligament injuries, and upper limb disorders (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e2. Physiological Risks in Sports\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAthletes are more likely to face the risk of illness after intense and vigorous training. Intense training increases the risk of infection by weakening the athletes\u0026apos; immune system, and the increased risk of getting sick leads athletes to interrupt their training and decrease their performance (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e). Research shows that professional athletes are more likely to suffer from diseases such as upper respiratory tract infections after heavy training and their immune systems change negatively. Therefore, it is concluded that intense training increases athletes\u0026apos; susceptibility to diseases and negatively affects their performance (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePermanent injuries in sports pose a grave threat to athletes, often stemming from the cumulative impact of repetitive injuries and the prolonged recovery they necessitate. The transition of injuries from acute to chronic further compounds the issue (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Such injuries can not only severely hamper an athlete\u0026apos;s performance but may also prematurely terminate their sporting career. The nature of certain sports can further exacerbate the risk of specific long-term consequences. For example, in sports involving blows to the head, face, and neck, athletes face an elevated risk of developing migraines and depression (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e). The inherent impact and violence in sports can also lead to devastating outcomes. So much so that in 2016, a ski jumper suffered a career-ending accident during the world championship and was confined to a wheelchair, and a gymnast was tragically paralyzed after a sports accident during the national team camp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe intense physical demands and potential for injury inherent in sports create unique challenges for pregnant and postpartum athletes. Unlike individuals in traditional occupations who can often continue working with adjustments, athletes frequently need to take a break from their sport due to its high-impact nature. Training and competition during pregnancy can pose risks to both mother and baby, necessitating a temporary pause for many athletes. Postpartum, the lack of adequate social support and childcare often leads to extended breaks or even retirement from sport (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e). Although certain provisions exist pertaining to legal maternity leave, they often fall short of meeting the needs of athlete mothers. The demanding schedules of training and competition can lead to feelings of guilt for not dedicating enough time to family, and pregnancy itself may be perceived as an obstacle to an athletic career (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e). To promote greater female participation and sustained success in sports, it is crucial for state institutions to provide comprehensive support for athlete mothers, recognizing the dual roles they fulfill.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOld age is a period defined from biological, chronological and psychological perspectives and is considered a compulsory insurance period, but it is also a risk. Under normal circumstances, biological and chronological age are expected to be equal, but environmental and lifestyle factors can disrupt this balance (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e). Professional athletes start their sport between the ages of 10\u0026ndash;15 and end their sporting careers between the ages of 30\u0026ndash;35, and in this process, their body structure wears out, so they age faster than their chronological age (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, the aging of athletes leads to a decline in performance and loss of self-confidence, causing their sporting careers to end at an earlier age. This also makes it difficult for athletes to benefit from old-age benefits (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, due to the early end of their sporting careers, athletes often have to work in different fields in order to retire and survive financially. This renders the working conditions and concepts of old age of athletes different from those of other professionals.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAthletes, despite appearing healthy, are at higher risk of death due to the violent nature of sport and intense training. Athlete deaths are usually caused by cardiovascular problems (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e). Deaths are associated with hereditary heart disease in athletes under 35 years of age and atherosclerotic coronary artery disease in athletes over 35 years of age (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e). A study examining athlete deaths that occurred in the United States between 2003 and 2013 found that 514 student-athletes died, with the most common cause of these deaths being sudden cardiac death (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e). Meanwhile, Seyithan Akbalık, a Turkish National Taekwondo player, lost his life in an international competition on February 16, 2014\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e, and Emrah Kandemir died in a football match on January 1, 2015\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. The tragic disappearance and subsequent death of renowned open water swimmer Francis Crippen during a competition in 2010\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e underscored the inherent risks associated with professional sports. Athletes, even at the highest levels, can face fatalities due to the potential for severe injuries or accidents during both training and competition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e3. Socio-Economic Risks in Sports\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe performance-driven nature of athletes\u0026apos; careers introduces an inherent risk of unemployment should their performance falter. The looming end of a sporting career and the uncertainty of securing future employment can negatively impact an athlete\u0026apos;s motivation and, consequently, their performance. In contrast, the provision of employment opportunities and pension plans fosters a sense of security and belonging within the sport, positively influencing both motivation and performance (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e). While professional athletes in some countries benefit from financial and employment support, many uninsured athletes are forced to seek alternative employment, often in manual labor sectors, facing the risk of poverty (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The demanding training schedules of athletes can also limit their ability to pursue higher education. The combination of limited education and a premature end to a sporting career can lead to unemployment and financial hardship. Therefore, access to education and employment opportunities is directly linked to both athlete development and sustained success in the sporting arena.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eSOCIAL SECURITY RIGHTS AND PRACTICES FOR ATHLETES IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e1.Germany\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn Germany, sport is not legally recognized as a profession under the German Labor Code, resulting in athlete contract disputes typically being resolved on a case-by-case basis\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e. However, athletes benefit from mandatory health insurance that includes specialized coverage for sports-related accidents. These insurance premiums are typically paid through athletes\u0026apos; clubs, with contributions coming from federations, umbrella sports associations, and the clubs themselves. A significant development occurred on January 1, 2022, when 15 state sports associations across Germany partnered with ARAG, a leading European and German sports insurance provider\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e. This partnership provides comprehensive sports insurance coverage for clubs affiliated with the designated sports associations, as well as their athletes. While encompassing most club activities, the insurance focuses on sports-specific risks, safeguarding associations, clubs, and athletes from liability claims, and offering supplementary coverage beyond private/state health insurance in the event of sports accidents. Although these athlete-specific insurance plans provide crucial protection against health and accident risks, they do not address all social risks associated with an athletic career.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e2.United States\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn the United States, the legal framework concerning the social security rights of professional athletes is primarily outlined in the Fair Labor Standards Act of America, although notably, its provisions appear to be limited to golf employees\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e. This leaves American athletes bearing the full responsibility for health insurance outside the scope of their employment contracts. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention report a concerning statistic: approximately 300,000 young people annually sustain traumatic brain injuries and concussions from sports participation, injuries with potentially severe long-term and short-term health implications. In response, state-level anti-traumatic brain injury laws have been enacted\u003csup\u003e7\u003c/sup\u003e, but their focus remains on education for athletes, parents, and coaches, rather than providing direct social security protections. Therefore, it is evident that professional athletes in the US are not afforded comprehensive social security within a robust legal framework.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.Austria\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn Austria, the recognition of sports as a profession and athletes as employees within the purview of labor and social security law remains ambiguous, often resulting in athletes encountering legal difficulties when attempting to secure the rights afforded by these laws. The blurring of the distinction between sports as a profession or a hobby, coupled with the elimination of the differentiation between professional and amateur athletes in terms of their wage-earning status, has necessitated an examination of athletes not only through the lens of labor law but also in terms of social security classifications (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e). Further complicating matters is the absence of specific legislation dedicated to athlete social security, leaving athletes without a comprehensive framework for protection. Although specialized health and accident insurance plans exist, the coverage and costs vary based on individual choices and circumstances (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e). It is clear, therefore, that current social security practices in Austria do not guarantee full protection for professional athletes.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e4.China\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe Chinese government places a strong emphasis on employment. Employment incentives are also extended to athletes\u003csup\u003e8\u003c/sup\u003e, and the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security has stressed the importance of encouraging professional athletes to be recognized as part of the labor force. In this regard, the government views sports as both an industry and a profession, and athletes as workers within this industry. Consequently, just as it is deemed necessary to provide compulsory insurance coverage for employees in other professions, the government is advocating for the same for professional athletes. This stance is reinforced by another decision from the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, which recognizes sports-related injuries sustained by professional athletes as occupational accidents. The ministry has outlined measures to prevent such accidents and provide assistance to athletes with disabilities caused by their sporting activities. These decisions highlight the understanding that sports are a risky profession and that athletes are considered workers in this inherently hazardous field. However, high premium payments and shortcomings in the social security system have resulted in a high prevalence of unregistered employment among athletes (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, the availability of insurance for athletes remains limited.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e5.France\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn France, the \u0026ldquo;Sports Code\u0026rdquo; serves as the comprehensive legal framework for the legal status of athletes and clubs\u003csup\u003e9\u003c/sup\u003e. The code designates sports as a recognized profession under the Labor Code, with athletes considered as employees\u003csup\u003e10\u003c/sup\u003e. As such, athletes are provided with insurance coverage through sports clubs and associations, ensuring their access to all legal rights. Furthermore, even athletes who are not covered by mandatory insurance but are actively engaged in professional sports are considered health insured under the social security system. This comprehensive approach demonstrates a robust system of protection for athletes within the French social security framework.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e6.Netherlands\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe Netherlands, like Germany and Austria, is one of the countries where sport is not considered as a profession in the Labor Law, professional athletes are not considered as workers, and disputes arising from athlete contracts are usually resolved individually\u003csup\u003e11\u003c/sup\u003e. However, there are health insurances that protect professional athletes against sports accidents\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e. As part of its \u0026ldquo;Top Sport Policy\u0026rdquo;, it offers a specially formulated health insurance policy called \u0026ldquo;Topsportpolis\u0026rdquo; to protect successful athletes against sports risks. This policy was created in cooperation with the Dutch Olympic Committee*Dutch Sports Federation (NOC*NSF) and Zilveren Kruis (a private insurance company) and is only available to athletes with professional athlete status\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003e. However, even though private insurances that include protection against health risks have been created, they are not as broad and comprehensive as these insurances. Therefore, it is insufficient to protect professional athletes against social risks in the long term.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e7.Italy\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn Italy, although sport is recognized as work, professional athletes are regarded as employees, and their contracts are deemed employment contracts, a clear distinction between amateur and professional sports and athletes remains elusive. Athletes participating in sports for a fee under an employment contract are not automatically considered professionals. The determination of professional status is contingent upon the respective sports federation, with some federations establishing a separate category for professional athletes. Even athletes who receive payment but are not within this designated category are not deemed professionals (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e). This ambiguity creates significant challenges for athletes in Italy, and the source of this issue is attributed to Directive 91 of the 1981 constitution\u003csup\u003e14\u003c/sup\u003e. As a result, it is apparent that professional athletes in Italy lack comprehensive coverage under a social security umbrella in sports.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e8.Turkey\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn Turkey, professional athletes are recognized as workers and sports as a profession within the context of social security law, primarily due to the nature of their work, contracts, and financial compensation\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003e. However, existing social security practices do not cater specifically to athletes, leading to a lack of specialized provisions for the sports profession in the current legal framework. Although sport is acknowledged as a profession, the concepts of occupational accidents and occupational diseases are not defined within this context. While athletes are covered by mandatory insurance, labor law provisions generally do not extend to them. The legally recognized maternity leave period of 8 weeks before and 8 weeks after birth, available to insured mothers, is often inadequate for sports mothers who may require more time for recovery and training. Additionally, the insurance system lacks supportive measures for athletes whose careers end at around age 30\u0026ndash;35, leaving them with insufficient time to accumulate a full pension. While employment agencies assist individuals in other professions who are unemployed, mechanisms such as unemployment benefits are insufficient for athletes. Private insurance serves as an additional layer of social security. However, many private insurance providers in Turkey exclude professional athletes from accident insurance coverage due to the high-risk nature of their work. Athletes can only obtain protection against accident risks through additional coverage (T.S.B., 2024). Consequently, social security practices in Turkey currently fail to adequately protect professional athletes from the full spectrum of social risks they face (refer Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" style=\"width: 765px;\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSocial security legislation and practices in sports in alphabetical order\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth style=\"width: 334px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSocial Security Status\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth style=\"width: 55px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGermany\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth style=\"width: 25px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth style=\"width: 44px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAustria\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth style=\"width: 34px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChina\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth style=\"width: 41px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth style=\"width: 75px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNetherlands\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth style=\"width: 29px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eItaly\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth style=\"width: 42px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTurkey\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 334px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDo professional athletes practice sports as a profession/job?\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 55px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 25px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 44px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 34px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 41px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 29px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 334px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDo professional athletes and the club sign a contract?\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 55px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 25px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 44px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 34px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 41px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 29px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 334px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIs sport considered a profession?\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 55px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 25px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 44px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 34px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 41px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 29px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 334px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAre athletes considered workers?\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 55px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 25px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 44px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 34px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 41px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 29px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 334px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAre athletes covered by compulsory insurance?\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 55px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 25px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 44px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 34px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 41px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 29px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 334px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIs the insurance coverage sufficient for athletes?\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 55px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 25px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 44px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 34px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 41px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 29px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 334px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIs there private insurance designed for athletes?\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 55px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 25px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 44px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 34px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 41px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 29px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable 1 and the cited literature highlight a concerning discrepancy: professional athletes face significant social risks, yet adequate measures to mitigate these risks remain insufficient. The research therefore suggests that, in the absence of robust social security measures tailored to athletes, they may become vulnerable to poverty. Social security can act as a mediator to prevent such outcomes, necessitating the development of a comprehensive model to address the unique challenges that athletes encounter.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://shgm.gsb.gov.tr/HaberDetaylari/1/5615/seyithan-akbalik-topraga-verildi.aspx\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (Accessed on 24.11.2023)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.milliyet.com.tr/skorer/dili-bogazina-kacan-futbolcu-emrah-kandemir-topraga-verildi-1993189\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (Accessed on 11.12.2023)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.espn.com/olympics/swimming/news/story?id=5718372\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (Accessed on 29.12.2023)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.bmas.de/EN/Labour/Labour-Law/labour-law.html\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (Accessed on 25.01.2024).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.arag.de/vereinsversicherung/partner/https://www.blsv.de/startseite/produkte/beratungsservice/aragsportversicherung/; https://www.arag.de/vereinsversicherung/sportversicherung/#Zusatzversicherungen%20f%C\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e 3%BCr%20Ihren%20Sportverein (Accessed on 18.02.2024)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.dol.gov/agencies/whd/field-operations-handbook/Chapter-10#B10d00\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (Accessed on 09.03.2024)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.cdc.gov/headsup/policy/\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (Accessed on 12.04.2024)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://wwwmohrssgovcn.translate.goog/SYrlzyhshbzb/laodongguanxi_/zcwj/laodongguanxixiediao/201608/t20160805_244926.html?\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (Accessed on 21.04.2024)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/codes/section_lc/LEGITEXT000006071318/LEGISCTA000006151574/#LEG\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (Accessed on 11.05.2024)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/jorf/id/JORFTEXT000000792831\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (Accessed on 20.05.2024)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.bmas.de/EN/Labour/Labour-Law/labour-law.html\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (Accessed on 10.06.2024)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/arbeidsovereenkomst-en-cao/vraag-en-antwoord/wat-staat-er-in-een-arbeidsovereenkomst\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (Accessed on 20.06.2024)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://nocnsf.nl/medisch\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (Accessed on 01.07.2024)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://scuoladellosport.coni.it/images/documenti/Normativa_Sport/Professionismo/Legge_23_marzo_1981_n\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (Accessed on 15.07.2024)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.mevzuat.gov.tr/mevzuatmetin/1.5.5510.pdf\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (Accessed on 25.07.2024)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eTo achieve a more comprehensive understanding and analysis of social security measures in sports and the associated social risks faced by athletes globally, a phenomenological research design within the qualitative research method was employed (32:80\u0026ndash;82). This approach, focused on investigating phenomena related to the specific context of social security in sports, involved conducting face-to-face and telephone interviews with 22 participants (refer Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Data collection primarily occurred in Turkey. The researcher\u0026apos;s background as a former national athlete, possessing firsthand experience with social risks in sports, further enriched the depth and insights of this investigation.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" style=\"width: 1003px;\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProfessions and Assigned Codes of Participants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth style=\"width: 303px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProfessions of Participants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth style=\"width: 356px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAssigned Codes for Participants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth style=\"width: 264px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNumber of Participants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 303px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnofficial Professional Athlete\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 356px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(UPA)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 264px;\" align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 303px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProfessional Athlete\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 356px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(PA)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 264px;\" align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 303px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eClub Director\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 356px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(CD)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 264px;\" align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 303px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNational Team Coach\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 356px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(NTC)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 264px;\" align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 303px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInternational Referee\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 356px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(IR)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 264px;\" align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 303px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSports Agent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 356px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(SA)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 264px;\" align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 303px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSocial Security Expert\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 356px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(SSE)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 264px;\" align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 303px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrivate Insurance Specialist\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 356px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(PIS)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 264px;\" align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 303px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 356px;\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 264px;\" align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 963.044px;\" colspan=\"3\"\u003eThe diverse sample included former and current professional athletes, club directors, national team coaches, international referees, sports agents, social security experts, and private insurance specialists\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWithin the study group, initial contact was made via phone with 1 national coach, 1 unofficial professional athlete (shamateur), 1 professional athlete, 1 sports agent, 3 international referees, and 3 social security experts. Following these calls, suitable dates and times were arranged for face-to-face qualitative interviews, conducted at predetermined locations. Similarly, 1 national team coach, 3 professional athletes, 4 unofficial professional athletes, 2 club directors, and 2 insurance specialists were contacted by phone to schedule interviews via Zoom or WhatsApp video calls. Each interview lasted approximately 50\u0026ndash;60 minutes.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe professional and shamateur athletes participating in the study (9 in total) had achieved notable success in their respective fields, including medals at the Olympic Games, European and World championships, and experienced playing for sports clubs in multiple countries. The 3 national team coaches had extensive experience coaching in various countries and were currently training successful athletes, particularly in individual sports disciplines. The 2 club directors led clubs that had consistently ranked high in world team sports championships. The 2 international referees were actively officiating at world, European, and international competitions. The sports agent was a former unofficial professional athlete with international experience working alongside professional athletes. Finally, the social security experts and insurance specialists were academics well-versed in relevant legislation, whose opinions were sought for their expertise in potential legal changes. The selection of the study group employed purposive sampling and maximum variation sampling methods. This approach aimed to uncover athletes\u0026apos; perspectives on the social security phenomenon and highlight risk factors within the sporting world. Purposive sampling allows for the identification of participants believed to possess relevant knowledge about the research topic, based on the researcher\u0026apos;s personal observations and the participants\u0026apos; specific characteristics related to the research phenomenon (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e). In utilizing maximum diversity sampling, deliberate effort was made to ensure the inclusion of participants encompassing a wide range of experiences and backgrounds related to the phenomenon under investigation, thereby maximizing the depth and breadth of information gathered regarding social security in sports. The diverse participant group, composed of individuals from various levels of sport, brought firsthand knowledge of social security practices in different countries, allowing for a holistic perspective through the collection of multidimensional data. To capture this wealth of information and lived experiences, in-depth interviews utilizing a semi-structured format were conducted, adopting a bottom-up approach (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e). Data collection took place between September 2022 and March 2023. The semi-structured interview form was adapted to suit the different participant groups (directors, coaches, athletes, agents, and referees) to gain insights into their unique experiences. However, the core framework of the interviews was rooted in the social risks outlined in the ILO Convention No. 102 of 1952. In addition to athletes\u0026apos; perspectives, the study also explored the roles of club directors, coaches, referees, agents, and social security experts within the sporting landscape and how these roles intersect and influence one another in relation to the social risks inherent in sports.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUpon obtaining informed consent, all interviews were audio recorded, stored securely on both computer and external disk, and transcribed verbatim into Word documents. These transcripts were then emailed to the respective participants for review and approval. Once approved, the data were imported into NVivo10 software for content analysis. This process involved identifying recurring and salient \u0026quot;codes\u0026quot; within the dataset, grouping related codes into \u0026quot;categories,\u0026quot; and then distilling these categories into overarching \u0026quot;themes\u0026quot; (36: 220\u0026ndash;223). Through this systematic and objective analysis of the discourse emerged the central theme of social risks in sports.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eValidity and Reliability of Research\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn order to ensure the validity and reliability of the research, the interviews with the participants were transcribed verbatim and sent back to the participants via email and the accuracy of the information conveyed was confirmed. The voice recordings and transcribed Word documents obtained were presented to the expert opinions to confirm that the study satisfied the objectivity criterion. The \u0026ldquo;triangulation\u0026rdquo; technique was used to contribute to the reliability of the study (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e)(\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e): 306\u0026ndash;310). This technique involves examining and coding the same data set by more than one researcher and expressing the similarities and differences between the codings numerically. This similarity rate, which is also expressed as internal consistency, is calculated as reliability coefficient\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;number of topics on which there is consensus / (number of topics on which there is consensus\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;number of topics on which there is no consensus. Miles and Huberman state that the calculated result should be at least 80% for internal consistency to be valid (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e). The calculations revealed an internal consistency value of 95.6%.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContent analysis of the research data revealed seven key subthemes under the overarching theme of \"Social Risks in Sports.\" These subthemes highlight the diverse challenges athletes face: Work Accidents and Injury in Sports, Disease in Sports, Maternity in Sports, Unemployment in Sports, Disability in Sports, Old Age in Sports and Death in Sports (refer Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSubtheme 1: Work Accidents and Injury in Sports\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterviews revealed that participants largely perceived work accidents in sports as encompassing injuries sustained during training or competitions, improper use of sport-specific techniques, equipment-related injuries, and accidents occurring outside of training or competitions (e.g., due to weather conditions or traffic). They emphasized that each sport has its unique injury profile, and these injuries can lead to work accidents. UPA1, one participant, illustrated this:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eWe use specific equipment, and accidents can happen depending on how we use it. Sometimes, we get stuck under a bar when we can't lift it, leading to an accident. There are also other work-specific accidents, like falling from obstacles.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants also noted that accidents outside of training can negatively impact athletes. CD1 commented:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eInjuries can occur during training, or in bus or plane accidents while traveling to away games. These are also work accidents. Shuttle bus accidents are also considered work accidents, as children are transported to and from training using these buses.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding occupational injuries and diseases, participants indicated that athlete injuries often become chronic and develop into work-related diseases due to recurrence. They highlighted the deterioration of the musculoskeletal system from heavy and intense training and the potential for permanent disorders due to the high levels of stress in sports. NTC1 shared personal experiences:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eSome diseases, like high blood pressure, are caused by stress. Sports inherently involve stress, which can lead to such diseases. For instance, I developed stress-related gastric bleeding, even though I had no prior stomach issues. This led to high blood pressure, which I now have.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eHeavy training causes enlargement, particularly in the heart's left and right ventricles. Physically, there can be wear and tear on the spine and bones, hindering healthy bodily function.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBecause conditions that become chronic after heavy training are not recognized as occupational diseases, their diagnosis and subsequent social support are inadequate. UPA2, an Olympic marathon runner, shared their experience:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eLet me give an example from my career; I have Morton's neuroma disease, which is a thickening of the nerves between the toes between number 3 and 4. Because I ran for a long time and distance, the nerves thickened and I was diagnosed with this disease. The doctor said that it was a disease caused by tight shoes and running for a long time.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSubtheme 2: Disease in Sports\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe demanding nature of intensive and intense training can negatively impact athletes' immune systems, increasing their susceptibility to illnesses like migraines, according to the participants. They further indicated that healthcare expenses incurred during such illnesses are typically covered through a combination of sources: the athlete's club (at contracted private hospitals), the athlete themselves, or the state (through their parents' or spouse's general health insurance). One of the participants UPA3 stated the following:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eIf the club does not provide support, their expenses are covered by themselves.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInsured employees are eligible for temporary incapacity benefits contingent upon the submission of a medical report. Interviews revealed that athlete eligibility for temporary incapacity benefits, disbursed during periods of illness, is independent of insurance status. Athletes typically do not obtain medical reports during illness, nor do they report their illness to the insurer, resulting in the non-payment of temporary incapacity benefits. This sentiment was echoed by one participant, NTC2, who stated the following:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eIn clubs, athletes go to contracted hospitals, yet they remain ineligible for benefits due to the lack of reporting to the insurer.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUPA1 further elaborated, stating: \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eThe absence of insurance records for athletes precludes their reporting to the insurer, thereby preventing them from obtaining medical reports. Consequently, uninsured athletes bear the burden of their healthcare expenses.\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSubtheme 3: Maternity in Sports\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe interviews revealed that participants primarily assessed athlete maternity during pregnancy, highlighting the inability of athletes to engage in training and competitions due to inherent risks. They emphasized the necessity for increased health support during this period, given the susceptibility to injuries and strain on the musculoskeletal system. As PA4 stated,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eThe athlete cannot attend training sessions or competitions during pregnancy.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePA5 further elaborated, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eIn case of pregnancy, sports activities should cease, and strenuous movements should be avoided. Sports inherently carry risks, necessitating the provision of special conditions for athletes.\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the interviews unveiled that athletes' contracts are often terminated by clubs upon the onset of pregnancy, leading to the cessation of insurance coverage. Participants underscored that athletes bear the financial burden of healthcare expenses incurred during this period. Simultaneously, the demanding nature of sports hinders athletes from continuing training and competitions, rendering the maternity leave rights accorded to the general population inadequate for athletes. CD1 shed light on this issue, explaining,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eThe contract is terminated in the event of pregnancy, as the athlete signs the contract with the commitment not to become pregnant during the season. We have a clause in the contract stipulating, 'As long as you serve me, I will transfer you, but you will not get pregnant during the time you serve me...' The athlete signs the contract with full knowledge of this clause. If she becomes pregnant mid-season, she breaches her promise, and a termination decision is made.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSA1 stated, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eClubs engage in yearly planning and construct their team rosters accordingly. If an athlete becomes pregnant during the season, the entire planning is disrupted, and there must be consequences for this. Therefore, the contract is terminated immediately, and insurance coverage ceases.\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSubtheme 4: Unemployment in Sports\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe participants contended that athletes who continue their sports careers but cannot secure a club contract to sustain their athletic pursuits are effectively unemployed. Moreover, they emphasized that athletes who engage in individual sports due to challenging circumstances but are forced to abandon their athletic endeavors because they cannot meet their financial needs and turn to other occupations should also be classified as unemployed athletes. UPA3 elucidated this perspective, stating:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eMore accomplished athletes who have participated in the Olympics, for instance, may have more opportunities, but athletes in a transitional period face a difficult choice: dedicate themselves further to sports or give up their athletic aspirations. The expectation is that they should fully commit to sports and achieve exceptional results. However, without support during this phase, and having often sacrificed their education to focus on sports, these athletes find themselves in a precarious position, unable to succeed academically or pursue alternative careers. They risk remaining unemployed for the rest of their lives.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding unemployment benefits, the participants underscored the necessity for athletes to be insured to qualify for such benefits. They acknowledged that insured athletes can receive unemployment benefits if they fulfill the requisite conditions. However, they also pointed out that the contracts signed with clubs do not confer any rights to unemployment benefits. CD1 observed:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eAthletes typically sign 10-month contracts, aligning with federation calendars, where September to June constitutes the active period, and July to August is the passive period. During these two to three months, athletes can receive unemployment benefits.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNTC3 added: \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eClubs often sign contracts with athletes and provide payments under the guise of scholarships, but they do not offer insurance coverage. As a result, athletes are unable to access unemployment benefits\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSubtheme 5: Disability in Sports\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipant data indicates that permanent injuries leading to disability often preclude athletes from executing sport-specific techniques, forcing them to retire prematurely. PA5 articulated this, stating,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eEvery sport has essential techniques. If an injury prevents an athlete from performing these techniques, they are effectively unable to continue their profession and must leave the sport.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUPA1 further elaborated on the potential severity of injuries, noting, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eAthletes face the risk of multiple injuries requiring surgery. Repeated surgeries, while sometimes necessary, can negatively and permanently impact performance, preventing a return to previous levels. This can ultimately lead to the end of an athlete's career.\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, an examination of the working conditions of disabled athletes revealed that those with permanent disabilities are often dismissed from both their clubs and insurance coverage, leaving them unable to assert any rights. It was noted that the healthcare expenses of these athletes are either borne by themselves, their families (as general health insured individuals), or the state. The participants also highlighted that the increased expenses and decreased income following a disability often necessitate a return to work. To address this need, many athletes transition to other professions. UPA2 provided a poignant example:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eIn our field, an Achilles tendon injury can be career-ending. Years of overuse can lead to ruptures, making even walking difficult, let alone running. I have close friends who were top athletes but had to leave the sport and couldn't even secure a civil servant position due to this injury. One is now a market vendor.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSubtheme 6: Old Age in Sports\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe participants indicated that the definition of an \"old athlete\" varies across different sports, positions, and roles. However, a general consensus emerged that the age limit typically falls between 30 and 35 years old. They emphasized that after 35, performance and success tend to decline due to biological, physiological, and mental aging, often leading to the end of an athlete's career. IR2, for instance, noted:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eIn professional volleyball, the maximum age for playing, depending on the position, is around 32\u0026ndash;33.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNTC2 stated, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eAthletes aged 30\u0026ndash;35 are considered old. After that, they're classified as veteran athletes.\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, it was highlighted that when athletes' careers end, their insurance coverage is terminated, and their contracts are not renewed. Furthermore, they often do not meet the necessary premium days and age requirements to qualify for a retirement pension. Consequently, to meet these requirements and sustain themselves after their sports careers, athletes often transition to roles such as coaches, teachers, or managers within the sports industry, or they pursue employment in other sectors like hospitality, landscaping, manufacturing, or industry. SA1 and PA1 shared their perspective:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSA1: \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eWe start at a very young age and dedicate many years to intense and demanding training. If we can't remain in sports after 35, we have to turn to other jobs.\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePA1: \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eThe retirement age for athletes should be lower. I'm 28, but I'm not as healthy as my peers. My body feels like it's 48. I'll likely need a cane by 60, and my knees are already in bad shape. After so much wear and tear, I'll have to quit sports around 35. If I can't stay in sports to accumulate enough premium days, I'll have to work in another field.\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSubtheme 7: Death in Sports\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSports inherently involve fatal risks, with deaths stemming from both the sport or branch itself and external factors. In-sport fatalities can arise from impacts, traumas, heart attacks, or acute injuries becoming chronic. External causes may include traffic accidents, drowning, and assaults. Participants offered insights into these risks:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCD2: \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eWe had an accident returning from a competition, leaving two athletes seriously injured. Another group I know also experienced a traffic accident, tragically resulting in an athlete's death.\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUPA2: \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eWe run on roads (for training), and accidents like being hit by a car are always a possibility. These can be fatal.\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNTC2: \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eSports inherently involve stress, and stress-related disorders can cause sudden deaths. I know friends who've had heart attacks. Even a taekwondo athlete died from a heart condition during a competition.\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, it was noted that insured athletes and their dependents are entitled to legal rights, pensions, and allowances in the event of a sports-related death. However, uninsured athletes lack such protections. PIS1 and UPA1 explained the insurance complexities:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePIS1: \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eIn our country, private insurance typically excludes athletes from accident coverage. This is because professional sports and athletes are considered high-risk, so they are not covered and cannot make claims like other insured individuals with lower risk factors.\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUPA1: \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eUnfortunately, clubs often contract athletes without providing insurance. If an uninsured athlete dies, their survivors have no legal recourse.\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch findings indicate that sports accidents incurred by athletes, whether during or outside of training and competition, are classified as occupational accidents. Existing literature supports this categorization (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e). For instance, the incident involving the Austrian synchronized swimming team being hit by a bus during the 2015 European Games in Baku underscores the occupational hazards athletes face\u003csup\u003e16\u003c/sup\u003e. As professional athletes engage in sports as their occupation, any accidents occurring during or after training or competition can be considered work-related.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, one study highlights that athlete injuries are an inherent part of professional sports. These injuries can become chronic and lead to permanent damage due to repetitive strain. The study advocates for legal recognition of chronic injuries as occupational diseases (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e). The intense and physically demanding nature of sports can result in long-term health issues, warranting their classification as occupational diseases.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe research also reveals that training regimens increase the likelihood of athletes falling ill. Consequently, the associated healthcare costs are often borne by the state, sports clubs, health insurance providers, and the athletes themselves. The literature emphasizes the elevated risk of illness among professional athletes and suggests that their healthcare expenses should be included in the compulsory insurance system (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e). This implies that the state should assume responsibility for covering the healthcare costs of professional athletes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study's findings highlight the necessity for more comprehensive support for athlete mothers, recognizing that intense and vigorous training can jeopardize pregnancy. Existing literature corroborates this, suggesting that high-intensity sports during pregnancy can potentially harm the fetus, thus emphasizing the need for increased support for female athletes both during and after pregnancy (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e). Given the physically demanding nature of professional sports, it is advisable for athletes to avoid such activities during pregnancy, as they may pose a risk. The intensive training often required postpartum to regain previous performance levels can also lead to family neglect. For such reasons, any support offered to athletes should also consider these factors and be tailored to address the unique challenges athlete mothers face.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study confirms that professional athletes' primary occupation is sports, with sports clubs serving as their workplaces and club managers as their employers. Consequently, they face potential unemployment if they cannot secure a club contract. Previous literature has also highlighted this risk of unemployment for professional athletes after their careers end, especially when they struggle to find suitable jobs aligned with their skills and experience (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e). This research contributes to the existing body of knowledge by specifically focusing on the unemployment challenges faced by professional athletes, emphasizing their unique employment context.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the study reveals that permanent sports-related injuries can not only end an athlete's career but also hinder future employment opportunities, potentially leading to poverty. The literature supports this finding, noting the detrimental impact of career-ending injuries on athletes' lives and the fact that thousands of athletes are forced to retire each year due to such injuries (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e). Accordingly, it is crucial to recognize the significant risks associated with permanent disabilities in sports and implement comprehensive social security measures to safeguard athletes from poverty.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe concept of an \"older athlete\" was also explored in this study, with findings indicating that active sports careers typically commence between the ages of 10 and 15 and conclude between 30 and 35, depending on the sport and position. The literature aligns with this observation, emphasizing that athletes' careers start early and end, on average, between 30 and 35 (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, \"old age\" for athletes represents a relatively young age compared to the general population. This necessitates the establishment of a specialized social security system to ensure athletes can access retirement benefits earlier in life.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, the study identified sudden deaths in athletes, often caused by head injuries and heart attacks. It also noted that athletes experience deaths outside of competition, with traffic accidents being a common cause. The literature supports these findings, discussing sudden deaths in athletes and highlighting the contributing factors of traumatic injuries, cardiomyopathy, and the impact of intense training on heart attacks (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, it is imperative to acknowledge the inherent risks of sports, including the potential for fatalities, and to develop social security systems that provide protective measures for the dependents of professional athletes in the event of their deaths.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e16\u003c/sup\u003e https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/avrupa-oyunlari-trafik-kazasiyla-basladi-29264048 (Accessed on 07.07.2024)\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, this study highlights a significant disparity in social security coverage within the sports industry. While sports club employees enjoy comprehensive legal protections as insured individuals within the social security system, professional athletes\u0026mdash;the very core of the industry\u0026mdash;often lack such coverage. Research findings, coupled with participant perspectives, reveal the existence of social risks inherent to sports that can adversely impact athletes' well-being. The absence of a dedicated social security system for professional athletes, despite their critical role in the industry, represents a substantial gap in social protection. Bridging this gap is essential to support athletes and ensure the continued success of sports on a global scale. Our research underscores the urgent need for policy reforms and social security practices that safeguard professional athletes against the social risks associated with their profession. By addressing this disparity, we can foster a more equitable and sustainable sports industry that benefits all stakeholders, from athletes to club employees.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec29\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eRecommendations\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBased on the research findings, we recommend the following actions to address the identified social security gaps for professional athletes:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePolicy and Legal Framework\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDevelop a Comprehensive Social Security Model: Establish a model that explicitly recognizes professional athletes as insured workers, clubs as their employers, and training/competition venues as their workplaces. This model should encompass all relevant social security benefits, including health insurance, unemployment benefits, and retirement provisions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlign Athlete Transfer Contracts with Labor Laws: Ensure that athlete transfer contracts comply with labor contract regulations, guaranteeing athletes the same rights and protections as other workers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMandate Insurance Coverage: Require clubs to notify relevant institutions about athletes' insurance coverage, calculate monthly premiums based on actual wages, and ensure timely payment of these premiums.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStreamline Work Accident and Occupational Disease Reporting: Establish clear procedures for sports clubs to promptly report work accidents and occupational diseases to the appropriate authorities, facilitating access to relevant benefits and compensation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec31\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eUnemployment and Retirement Provisions\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRecognize Unemployment in Athletes: Define the inability to find a club after contract expiration as unemployment, enabling athletes to access unemployment benefits and count these periods towards their service record for future benefits.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIntroduce Foreign Service Credit: Allow athletes who have spent their careers abroad to transfer their service credits to their home country's social security system, ensuring they receive appropriate benefits upon retirement.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eImplement \"Actual Service Increase\" for Early Retirement: Acknowledge the physically demanding nature of professional sports by introducing an \"Actual Service Increase\" provision for athletes. This would allow them to accumulate additional service years, potentially leading to earlier retirement eligibility.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eExtend Maternity Leave for Athlete Mothers: Increase the duration of maternity leave for athlete mothers, both before and after childbirth, recognizing the unique challenges they face in balancing motherhood and their sporting careers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec32\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eResearch and Data Collection\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSport-Specific Future Research: Encourage researchers to investigate the working conditions, retirement age limits, and social risks of athletes across various sports branches, developing a risk map to identify and address specific vulnerabilities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec33\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary information. \u003c/strong\u003eThis study was presented as an oral presentation at the 22nd International Sports Sciences Congress held in Ankara on November 21-24.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research received no external funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest/Competing interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and the ethical conduct of this research was ensured through the acquisition of necessary permissions from the Akdeniz University Social and Human Sciences Ethics Committee. Their approval, granted on May 12, 2022, under decision number 190, underscores the researchers' commitment to upholding ethical standards throughout the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed written consent was obtained from all study participants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and/or analyzed during this study are not publicly available due to the protection of participants' confidentiality; therefore, participant information has been anonymized. However, the datasets can be obtained from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCode availability: \u003c/strong\u003ethe codesets can be obtained from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contribution: \u003c/strong\u003eRevealing the research problem, methodology and data analysis, collection of research data, and research findings and discussion: \u0026Ccedil;.G., C.T., and Y.A.; coordinating the process and responsible author: \u0026Ccedil;.G.; spelling and stylistic arrangement: \u0026Ccedil;.G., C.T., and Y.A.; writing, reviewing, and editing, \u0026Ccedil;.G., C.T., and Y.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSteinfeldt H, Dallmeyer S, Breuer C. 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Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://bjsm.bmj.com/lookup/doi/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://bjsm.bmj.com/lookup/doi/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1136/bjsports-2012-091415\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1136/bjsports-2012-091415\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Professional athlete, social security, social risks, social insurance","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5753949/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5753949/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground: \u003c/strong\u003eThis study investigated the integration of professional athletes into social security systems to enhance their welfare. It comprehensively examined the risk factors that necessitate social security for athletes across various sports disciplines. Moreover, it explored the conditions required for professional athletes to be recognized as insured employees (sports workers) within the sports industry. This research offers a definitive guide to the occupational, physiological, and socioeconomic risks professional athletes encounter, highlighting branch-specific differences in necessary social security measures.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethod:\u003c/strong\u003e A phenomenological qualitative research design was employed. Data collection involved semi-structured interviews using an 11-question form developed by the researcher. Purposeful sampling ensured diverse perspectives among the 22 participants, including unofficial and open professional athletes, club directors, national coaches, international referees, sports agents, social security experts, and private insurance specialists. NVivo 10 software facilitated data analysis, with findings presented through content and descriptive analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults:\u003c/strong\u003e The overarching theme identified was \"Social Risks in Sports,\" with seven subthemes encompassing Work Accidents and Injury in Sports, Disease in Sports, Maternity in Sports, Unemployment in Sports, Disability in Sports, Old Age in Sports, and Death in Sports. The results reveal distinct risk factors in sports, necessitating tailored social security provisions. The study also demonstrates that conditions can be established to safeguard professional athletes against these social risks through specialized practices.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusion:\u003c/strong\u003e This research confirms the significant impact of occupational, physiological, and socioeconomic risks on the careers of both active and retired athletes transitioning into various sports-related fields. It underscores the critical importance of a secure future and social security protection for athletes to achieve optimal performance and motivation. Addressing these concerns through specialized policies will likely enhance success in sports and encourage broader participation.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Social Security Practices for Professional Athletes","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-01-10 18:01:33","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5753949/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"e4d43e59-d9a5-4987-bf93-4607d3040382","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 10th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-01-27T13:53:28+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-01-10 18:01:33","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5753949","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5753949","identity":"rs-5753949","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}