Marine Structured Lipid Supplementation for 8 Weeks Enhances Endurance Performance and Fatty Acids Oxidation of Healthy Untrained Men during Moderate-intensity Exercise

Marine Structured Lipid Supplementation for 8 Weeks Enhances Endurance Performance and Fatty Acids Oxidation of Healthy Untrained Men during Moderate-intensity Exercise | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Marine Structured Lipid Supplementation for 8 Weeks Enhances Endurance Performance and Fatty Acids Oxidation of Healthy Untrained Men during Moderate-intensity Exercise Chen WANG, Jin-Yu Qi, Li Han, Kaori Yokoi, Kenichi Yanagimoto, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7277115/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Marine structured lipid is a type of functional supplement rich in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid) and medium-chain fatty acids. This study aimed to investigate the influence of marine structured lipid supplementation on endurance performance and substrate oxidation during moderate-intensity exercise in healthy untrained men. Methods A double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial was conducted, with participants assigned to either a placebo group or a marine structured lipid group. The placebo group received daily corn oil, while the marine structured lipid group received a daily supplement containing 600 mg eicosapentaenoic acid, 260 mg docosahexaenoic acid, and 1730 mg medium-chain fatty acids for 8 weeks. Before and after supplementation, all participants were assessed for erythrocyte membrane fatty acid profile, maximal oxygen uptake, time to exhaustion, and substrate oxidation during exercise at an intensity equivalent to 65% of their pre-supplementation maximal oxygen uptake. Results After supplementation, erythrocyte eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid percentages in the marine structured lipid group increased significantly and were notably higher than in the placebo group. Time to exhaustion in the marine structured lipid group also increased significantly and was longer than in the placebo group. During exercise, total fatty acid oxidation, mean fatty acid oxidation rate, and fatty acid oxidation percentage increased significantly in the marine structured lipid group compared to the placebo group, while mean carbohydrate oxidation was significantly lower. Total energy expenditure increased, and mean respiratory exchange rate decreased significantly in the marine structured lipid group. Conclusion An 8-week supplementation with marine structured lipid rich in eicosapentaenoic acid, docosahexaenoic acid, and medium-chain fatty acids extended moderate-intensity exercise duration. The potential mechanism may involve improved erythrocyte membrane fatty acid profile, enhanced fat oxidation, and reduced carbohydrate utilization, thereby improving endurance performance. marine structured lipid n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids medium-chain fatty acids fatty acids oxidation moderate-intensity exercise Background Aerobic exercise is essential for improving cardiorespiratory fitness and endurance performance by modulating substrate metabolism. Given the limited glycogen reserves relative to abundant fat stores [ 1 ], enhancing fat oxidation while sparing glycogen has become a key strategy in the field of sports nutrition [ 1 , 2 ]. Lipids supplementation before or during endurance exercise has been reported to enhance fat oxidation, thereby improving exercise performance [ 3 , 4 ]. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs), particularly eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5 n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6 n-3), are essential for human health and exercise metabolism. These fatty acids modify erythrocyte membrane composition, enhancing deformability [ 5 – 7 ] and oxygen delivery during aerobic exercise, while promoting β-oxidation of fatty acids to increase fat utilization [ 8 ], thus improving aerobic capacity or endurance performance. However, current evidence regarding their ergogenic effects remains controversial [ 9 , 10 ]. While some studies report no performance benefits [ 11 – 13 ], in which daily supplementation with 800mg of EPA and 2400mg of DHA for 8 weeks did not improve time to exhaustion (TTE) in cyclists exercising at the workload equivalent to 55% VO 2max [ 11 ]. In contrast, daily intake of 140mg of EPA and 560mg of DHA for 8 weeks improved endurance performance in a cycling time trial [ 14 ]. These discrepancies likely reflect variations in subject populations, exercise protocols, and supplementation regimens [ 10 ]. Currently, no consensus exists on the optimal dosage and duration of EPA/DHA supplementation for endurance performance. Notably, the hypothesis that supplementation with EPA and DHA can alter the fatty acids composition of erythrocyte membrane and thereby improve erythrocyte deformability and ultimately endurance performance, fewer of the above studies have compared the changes in fatty acids profile of erythrocyte membrane before and after supplementation as well as substrate oxidation during exercise. Medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) are triglycerides consisting of three medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs) and one glycerol molecule, which can cross the mitochondrial membrane for β-oxidation with relative ease compared to long-chain triglycerides (LCTs) [ 15 , 16 ], thus providing energy during exercise rapidly [ 17 – 19 ]. While acute MCTs ingestion shows limited ergogenic potential - with studies demonstrating no performance benefits in cyclists [ 20 , 21 ] and a recent systematic review confirming this conclusion [ 22 ]. All of the above studies have focused on acute use of MCTs, while fewer studies have focused on effects of continuous MCTs supplementation on energy metabolism and endurance performance during exercise. Two studies have examined the effects of 6g/d of MCTs supplementation on endurance over a sustained period of 14 days, in both studies, the adopted exercise protocol was for the subjects to perform a long period of moderate intensity exercise followed by high intensity exercise to exhaustion, with LCTs [ 23 ] or carbohydrate (CHO) [ 24 ] chosen as placebo respectively. The results of both studies showed that continuous ingestion of MCTs prolonged the duration of exercise to exhaustion significantly, but substrate oxidation during exercise was not consistent between studies and might be related to placebo used [ 23 , 24 ]. Notably, even lower-dose supplementation (2g/d for 14 days) enhanced fat oxidation during daily activities in overweight sedentary individuals [ 25 ], suggesting dose- and duration-dependent metabolic effects warranting further investigation in endurance contexts. According to the potential benefits of n-3 PUFAs or MCTs on endurance performance, especially in untrained men and recreational athletes, as above mentioned, we hypothesized that combination of n-3 PUFAs and MCFAs could be a good supplementation, which affects energy metabolism and endurance performance for non-aerobically trained men. The effectiveness of ingesting either of n3-PUFAs or MCTs alone in improving endurance performance and substrate utilization is undefined. Combined intake of EPA, DHA and MCFAs may have additive effects. The combination of these substances may exert ergogenic effects through different physiological pathways, improving erythrocyte deformability by EPA and DHA [ 5 – 7 ], and altering metabolism during exercise by MCFAs [ 17 – 19 ]. According to the distinct physiological effects of n-3 PUFAs and MCTs, we hypothesized that their combined supplementation may enhance endurance performance through complementary mechanisms: (1) n-3 PUFAs (EPA/DHA) improving erythrocyte function and oxygen delivery [ 5 – 7 ], and (2) MCFAs promoting rapid energy metabolism [ 17 – 19 ]. While the efficacy of individual compounds remains inconclusive, this combined approach may yield additive ergogenic effects, particularly in non-athletic populations with suboptimal metabolic efficiency. However, there are no relevant studies examining the long-term effects of combined EPA, DHA and MCFAs intake on endurance performance and substrate oxidation during exercise. Marine structured lipid (MSL) is chemically synthesized by randomly linking n-3 PUFAs (EPA and DHA) to MCTs to replace partial of MCFAs in special sites, generating a special structure containing n-3 PUFAs and MCFAs. Studies have shown that structured lipids are more easily absorbed than traditional fish oil [ 26 ], while enabling faster incorporation of EPA and DHA into erythrocyte membrane [ 27 ]. Therefore, the present study aimed at investigating the effect of 8 weeks of MSL supplementation on moderate intensity endurance performance of healthy untrained men by two characteristics: erythrocyte membrane lipids profile, and substrate oxidation during exercise. Methods Experimental design A double-blind, placebo controlled, randomized trial was designed and carried out. The trial had been approved by Ethics Committee of Sports Science Experiments of Beijing Sport University (2019065H) and registered on Chinese Clinical Trial Registry (ChiCTR1900025775) prior to performance along with a written informed consent obtained from all subjects who were enrolled and aware of the anticipated goals, potential risks and other issues like discomfort in relation to the very trial. In this study, the sample size was calculated using G*Power 3.1 software, and the independent samples t test was applied for the difference of TTE between two groups. The effect size was set at 1.265 based on previous study [ 28 ], with significance levels α = 0.05 and power = 80%, and the estimated minimum sample size was 11 subjects per group, with a total sample size of 22 subjects. Thirty-six subjects were enrolled and then randomly divided into two groups of marine structured lipid group (MG) and placebo group (PG) with identical number of 18 subjects for each, considering the physical characteristics of age, height, body weight (BW) and body mass index (BMI), as detailed in Table 1 . Erythrocyte membrane fatty acids (FAs) profile, maximal oxygen uptake (VO 2max ), TTE and substrate oxidation during exercise at the workload equivalent to 65% VO 2max of pre-supplementation were to be assessed at pre- and post-supplementation. Participants Inclusion criteria were: (1) Male at an age of 20 years or above; (2) Keeping their routine physical activity and dietary pattern without regular exercise training before and during the trial. Exclusion criteria were: (1) Indication of any contraindication to the trial during the initial physical assessment in the light of Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire; (2) Any coronary artery disease risk factor based on American College of Sports Medicine; (3) Any injuries of muscle and skeleton, or chronic pain of knee and ankle; (4) Supplementation with n-3 PUFAs and/or MCTs as dietary supplement or others in the last 3 months. Intervention The subjects ingested soft gels (0.44g per gel) of MSL or corn oil gels (as placebo, 0.44g per gel) provided by Nissui Corporation, Tokyo, Japan, being both products identical in appearance. The two groups were administrated twice per day for 8 weeks after each breakfast (5 gels) and dinner (5 gels) with either MSL containing 600mg EPA, 260mg DHA, and 1730mg MCFAs (C8:0 and C10:0) or corn oil containing abundant long-chain fatty acids (LCFAs, C18:1 and C18:2 n-6) and slight MCFAs (C8:0 and C10:0), without EPA and DHA. Fatty acids composition of MSL and corn oil is shown in Table 2 . To minimize the potential influence of other factors, prior to the initial assessment, all the subjects were provided with a written instruction for proper administration and they were informed to maintain their usual diet as before and to not take any supplements containing EPA, DHA and/or MCTs during the trial. Additionally, all workers and subjects were blind regarding group allocation before all data was collected. Blood sampling and pretreatment Blood sampling was performed for each subject in the morning after 12-h overnight fast just before and after 8 weeks of supplementation. On each occasion, 2ml of blood sample collection was performed by venepuncture from an antecubital vein into a vacutainer containing K 2 EDTA as anticoagulant. The samples firstly underwent a 10-min centrifugation at 3000 rpm and 4°C to obtain the erythrocytes. Then the erythrocytes were washed with physiological saline solution followed by 10-min centrifugation for twice at 3000rpm to obtain the prepared erythrocytes. Finally, erythrocyte membrane FAs profile was determined by the technique of Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy (GC/MS). Sustained exercise tests (SET) The SET was carried out 3 days after GXT. For a 48-h period before each test, subjects were notified to not take any alcohol, caffeine, and avoid strenuous exercise, and meanwhile, the dietary intake of subjects were recorded. After a 12-h overnight fast, all tests were always carried out between 8 ~ 12am. During the test, the subjects were fasted except for water and exercised at a workload equivalent to 65% VO 2max , which was calculated from the regression equation between VO 2 and watts during the pre-supplementation GXT. The test consisted of 5-min rest, 3-min warm up at 50W, and then sustained cycling at 60rpm at the workload to exhaustion on Monark Ergomedic 839E. The TTE was well recorded, and the expired gas was collected for 5min at rest, every 20min during exercise and the end of exercise by Quark CPET. Non-protein respiratory quotient equations were used to estimate substrate oxidation rate during the exercise test [ 31 ]. CHO oxidation (CHOO) rate (g/min) = 4.585×VCO 2 (l/min) − 3.226×VO 2 (l/min) Fatty acid oxidation (FAO) rate (g/min) = 1.695×VO 2 (l/min) − 1.701×VCO 2 (l/min) For each subject, the total CHOO (g) and FAO (g) were evaluated with the area under the oxidation rate (g/min) - time (min) curve, the total energy expenditure (EE) (kcal) equaled to total CHOO (g)×4 + total FAO (g)×9, the mean CHOO rate (g/min) was calculated from total CHOO (g) ÷ time (min), the mean FAO rate (g/min) was calculated from total FAO (g) ÷ time (min), the mean EE rate (kcal/min) was calculated from total EE (kcal) ÷ time (min), the FAO percentage (%) equaled to total FAO (g)×9 ÷ total EE (kcal)×100, the mean RER was evaluated from the area under RER-time curve, equaling to the area ÷ time (min). Statistical analysis All data are expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Statistical analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics version 22.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). Between-group comparisons at each time point were conducted using independent samples t -test, while within-group changes before and after supplementation were assessed with paired samples t- tests. The threshold for statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Results Erythrocyte membrane FAs profile After 8 weeks of supplementation, EPA ( p < 0.001), DHA ( p < 0.01), EPA + DHA ( p < 0.001), EPA/AA (arachidonic acid) ( p < 0.01), DHA/AA ( p < 0.001) and n-3/n-6 PUFAs ( p < 0.001) in MG increased significantly, and were significantly higher than those, which remained unchanged, in PG (EPA: p < 0.001, DHA: p < 0.01, EPA + DHA: p < 0.001, EPA/AA: p < 0.001, DHA/AA: p < 0.001, n-3/n-6 PUFAs: p < 0.001); in addition, PUFAs in MG increased significantly ( p < 0.05), while it remained unchanged in PG, as detailed in Table 3 . VO 2max and TTE at the workload equivalent to 65% VO 2max After 8 weeks of supplementation, although VO 2max did not change in either group, the TTE at the workload equivalent to 65% VO 2max in MG was prolonged significantly ( p < 0.001) and significantly longer than that, which remained unchanged, in PG ( p < 0.05), as detailed in Table 4 . Substrates oxidation at the workload equivalent to 65% VO 2max After 8 weeks of supplementation, total CHOO remained unchanged in both groups; however, total FAO increased significantly in either group (PG: p < 0.05, MG: p < 0.001), and which of MG was remarkably greater than that of PG ( p < 0.01); and total EE of MG increased significantly ( p < 0.05), while it remained unchanged for PG, as detailed in Table 5 . After 8 weeks of supplementation, mean CHOO rate decreased significantly in either group (PG: p < 0.05, MG: p < 0.001), and which of MG was apparently less than that of PG ( p < 0.05). On the contrary, mean FAO rate increased significantly in either group (PG: p < 0.05, MG: p < 0.001), while it was apparently greater in MG than in PG ( p < 0.05). Similar to mean FAO rate, mean FAO percentage increased significantly in either group (PG: p < 0.01, MG: p < 0.001); and it was apparently greater in MG than in PG ( p < 0.001). However, mean EE rate did not change in either group, as detailed in Table 5 . After 8 weeks of supplementation, mean RER of MG decreased significantly ( p < 0.001) and was apparently less than that of PG ( p < 0.05), since it remained unchanged in PG, as detailed in Table 5 . Discussion The present study demonstrated that 8-week MSL supplementation significantly enhanced endurance performance in untrained men, as evidenced by prolonged TTE. This improvement was associated with two key physiological adaptations: (1) increased incorporation of EPA and DHA into erythrocyte membrane, and (2) elevated fat oxidation rate during moderate-intensity exercise. These findings suggest that MSL may optimize energy metabolism during prolonged exercise by modulating both erythrocyte membrane fluidity and substrate utilization. MSL is a structured lipid containing long-chain n-3 PUFAs (EPA and DHA) and MCFAs. Since it is chemically combined, MSL differs from the physical mixture (PM) of n-3 PUFAs and MCTs. Compared to the conventional fish oil or lipids, specific structured triacylglycerols are digested and absorbed easily and improving the bioavailability in human body [ 26 ]. A recent study suggests that the structured combination of EPA and MCFAs exerts a greater ergogenic effect on endurance exercise than the PM of EPA and MCTs [ 28 ]. The significant elevation of EPA and DHA in erythrocyte membrane following 8 weeks of MSL supplementation aligns with existing evidence on n-3 PUFAs incorporation kinetics. Previous studies have shown that erythrocyte membrane FAs profile respond to supplementation within different timeframes: detectable changes occur by 6 weeks [ 32 ], while other interventions require 12 weeks to demonstrate significant alterations [ 33 ]. Notably, these modifications persist for extended periods post-supplementation, requiring approximately 18 weeks to return to baseline levels [ 10 ]. Our findings are consistent with recent recommendations suggesting that a minimum of 8 weeks of n-3 PUFAs intake is necessary to elicit ergogenic effects in trained individuals [ 10 ]. Importantly, the MSL group exhibited significantly greater erythrocyte EPA/DHA incorporation compared to the corn oil placebo group, underscoring the bioavailability advantages of structured lipids. Several studies have found that accompanying the increasing of n-3 PUFAs (such as EPA and DHA) in erythrocyte membrane, blood cholesterol, as well as the ratio of cholesterol to phospholipids and the stickiness of erythrocyte decreased, and the deformability of erythrocyte increased, which is beneficial for improving aerobic exercise capacity because of the improvement of oxygen transport to muscles for the substrate oxidation in exercise [ 34 – 36 ]. After 8 weeks of MSL supplementation, the elevation of EPA and DHA in erythrocyte membrane might increase the deformability of erythrocyte and contributed to the prolongation of TTE in moderate-intensity exercise. On the other hand, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) is an important regulator of mitochondrial biosynthesis, and EPA has an important facilitatory role in mitochondrial biosynthesis [ 37 ], MSL may also play a promotive role through this pathway. The present study observed a significant increase in FAO rate, fat oxidation, and a decrease in CHOO rate and CHO oxidation, along with a significant decrease in RER in the exercise-to-exhaustion test after 8 weeks of MSL supplementation compared to subjects supplemented with corn oil, although an elevated fat metabolism during exercise was also observed after 8 weeks of corn oil supplementation, the magnitude of the increase was significantly smaller than that in MSL group. Therefore, the effect of corn oil supplementation alone on substrate metabolism during prolonged sustained exercise at moderate intensity is not sufficient to exert ergogenic effect and improve endurance performance. In addition, RER reflects the state of substrate metabolism during exercise, and it is generally believed that a lower value represents an increase in fat oxidation and a decrease in CHO oxidation during exercise. Thus MSL-induced shifts in substrate metabolism may contribute to improve endurance performance. The role of MSL on substrate metabolism in endurance exercise is partly produced by EPA and DHA. Several previous studies have also found that sustained supplementation with EPA and DHA for 3 ~ 6 weeks elevates fat metabolism and stores limited glycogen during endurance exercise in different populations [ 38 – 40 ], and that these adaptive changes are favourable for improving endurance performance. The mechanisms by which EPA and DHA regulate fat metabolism during exercise may be related to their activation of transporter protein-fatty acid binding proteins (FABPs) [ 39 ] and activation of PGC-1α to promote mitochondrial synthesis, among others [ 37 ]. Another part of the role of MSL on substrate metabolism is produced by MCFAs. Compared to LCFAs, MCFAs do not demand carnitine-assisted transport to be taken up into mitochondria for oxidation [ 15 , 16 , 41 ]. The elevated metabolism of fat in endurance exercise observed in this study may be due to the increase of their reserves in the body through long-term supplementation of MCFAs and its preferential use as an energy source during endurance exercise. An acute intake of high-dose MCTs was shown to increase plasma free fatty acids (FFAs) concentrations and conserve glycogen, with ergogenic effect on endurance exercise [ 42 ]. Similarly, a study showed that an increase in FAO was also found in endurance exercise after 14 days of continuous MCTs supplementation, along with improved endurance performance [ 24 ]. Possible mechanisms by which sustained MCTs intake increases the oxidation of fat during endurance exercise are improved mitochondrial biosynthesis and increased FFAs reserves [ 25 , 43 ]. The supplement MSL in this study contained EPA 600mg, DHA 260mg, and MCFAs 1730mg, which was supplemented at a reduced daily dose compared to previous studies of EPA 2.4g, DHA 1.6g, and MCTs 6g, but lasted for a significantly longer period of time at 8 weeks than at 3 weeks, 6 weeks, and 14 days [ 24 , 38 – 40 ] Overall the supplemented doses were effective in improving endurance exercise performance. Choosing the appropriate placebo is a key factor in sports nutrition research. Ideally, the placebo is energy-matched and does not affect the outcome of the experiment, in which case any results observed can be considered to be the effect of the supplement [ 44 ]. The dose of MSL used in this study was equal to that of corn oil and energy matched. However, the intake of MCTs, EPA, and DHA alone, and the unstructured combined intake of EPA, DHA, and MCTs were lacking. So it was not possible to elucidate the efficacy of MSL from a more comprehensive perspective. Therefore, it was not possible to fully elucidate the efficacy of MSL from a comprehensive perspective. Future studies should be more comprehensive in their choice of placebo to fully account for the effects of several of these supplements on endurance performance, and a two- or three-factor trial design is recommended to account for main and interaction effects between supplements. Conclusions Continued 8 week supplementation of MSL rich in EPA, DHA, and MCFAs extended the duration of moderate-intensity exercise, with the possible mechanism being that MSL improved endurance performance by improving erythrocyte membrane fatty acids profile as well as increasing fat oxidation while conserving CHO. Abbreviations AA Arachidonic Acid BW body weight BMI body mass index CHO carbohydrate CHOO carbohydrate oxidation DHA docosahexaenoic acid EPA eicosapentaenoic acid EE energy expenditure FAs fatty acids FAO fatty acid oxidation FFAs free fatty acids GXT graded exercise test LCTs long-chain triglycerides MCFAs medium-chain fatty acids MCTs medium-chain triglycerides MSL marine structured lipid MG marine structured lipid group n-3 PUFAs omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids PG placebo group RER respiratory exchange rate SET sustained exercise tests TTE time to exhaustion VO 2max maximal oxygen uptake Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate: This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Sports Science Experiments of Beijing Sport University (Approval No.: 2019065H). Prior to participation, all recruited subjects were provided with a detailed explanation of the experimental procedures and potential risks by the researchers. Written informed consent was obtained from each participant after full disclosure, and only then were they formally enrolled in the study. Consent for publication: Not Applicable Availability of data and materials: All data generated during this study are included in this published article. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests. Funding: The present research was sponsored by Nissui Corporation, and the sponsor was irrelevant to the collection and entry of data and expressed no restrictions on publication. Authors' contributions: S-L.H., L.H. and Z-L.F.; methodology, S-L.H., X-T.W. and Z-L.F.; formal analysis, C.W., J-Y.Q. and Z-L.F.; data curation, C.W., J-Y.Q. and X-T.W.; writing-original draft preparation, C.W., J-Y.Q. and X-T.W.; writing-review and editing, Z-L.F., S-L.H., L.H., K.Y. (Kaori Yokoi) and K.Y. (Kenichi Yanagimoto); all authors have reviewed and reached an agreement on the finalized manuscript to be published. 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Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2019. 10.1016/j.numecd.2018.10.002 . Berlin E, Bhathena SJ, McClure D, Peters RC. Dietary menhaden and corn oils and the red blood cell membrane lipid composition and fluidity in hyper- and normocholesterolemic miniature swine. J Nutr. 1998. 10.1093/jn/128.9.1421 . Popp-Snijders C, Schouten JA, van der Meer J, van der Veen EA. Fatty fish-induced changes in membrane lipid composition and viscosity of human erythrocyte suspensions. Scand J Clin Lab Invest. 1986. 10.3109/00365518609083667 . Berlin E, Bhathena SJ, Judd JT, Nair PP, Jones DY, Taylor PR. Dietary fat and hormonal effects on erythrocyte membrane fluidity and lipid composition in adult women. Metabolism. 1989. 10.1016/0026-0495(89)90068-1 . Laiglesia LM, Lorente-Cebrián S, Prieto-Hontoria PL, Fernández-Galilea M, Ribeiro SM, Sáinz N, et al. Eicosapentaenoic acid promotes mitochondrial biogenesis and beige-like features in subcutaneous adipocytes from overweight subjects. J Nutr Biochem. 2016. 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2016.07.019 . Jeukendrup AE, Aldred S. Fat supplementation, health, and endurance performance. Nutrition. 2004. 10.1016/j.nut.2004.04.018 . Logan SL, Spriet LL. Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation for 12 Weeks Increases Resting and Exercise Metabolic Rate in Healthy Community-Dwelling Older Females. PLoS ONE. 2015. 10.1371/journal.pone.0144828 . Delarue J, Labarthe F, Cohen R. Fish-oil supplementation reduces stimulation of plasma glucose fluxes during exercise in untrained males. Br J Nutr. 2003. 10.1079/bjn2003964 . Glatz JF, Luiken JJ, Bonen A. Involvement of membrane-associated proteins in the acute regulation of cellular fatty acid uptake. J Mol Neurosci. 2001. 10.1385/JMN:16:2-3:123 . Van Zyl CG, Lambert EV, Hawley JA, Noakes TD, Dennis SC. Effects of medium-chain triglyceride ingestion on fuel metabolism and cycling performance. J Appl Physiol (1985). 1996. 10.1152/jappl.1996.80.6.2217 . Wang Y, Liu Z, Han Y, Xu J, Huang W, Li Z. Medium Chain Triglycerides enhances exercise endurance through the increased mitochondrial biogenesis and metabolism. PLoS ONE. 2018. 10.1371/journal.pone.0191182 . Murphy CH, McGlory C. Fish Oil for Healthy Aging: Potential Application to Master Athletes. Sports Med. 2021. 10.1007/s40279-021-01509-7 . Tables Table 1. Physical characteristics of the subjects. PG (n=18) MG (n=18) Age (yr) 21.3±1.9 21.3±2.1 Height (cm) 178.3±4.3 178.9±7.1 Body weight (kg) 76.0±8.6 75.5±10.7 BMI (kg/m 2 ) 23.9±2.5 23.6±2.9 Note: Data was expressed as mean ± SD. Table 2. Fatty acid composition of corn oil and MSL. Fatty acid Wt% of total fatty acids Corn oil MSL 8:0 (MCFA) % 0.4 25.3 10:0 (MCFA) % 0.3 19.1 12:0 % ND 0.2 14:0 % ND 3.2 15:0 % ND 0.2 16:0 % 11.5 3.7 16:1 % 0.1 5.5 16:2 % ND 1.1 16:4 % ND 2.4 17:1 % ND 0.1 18:0 % 1.7 0.3 18:1 (LCFA) % 29.6 4.9 18:2 n-6 (LCFA) % 54.2 0.7 18:3 n-6 % ND 0.2 18:3 n-3 % 1.1 0.5 18:4 n-3 % ND 2.3 20:0 % 0.4 ND 20:1 % 0.3 0.3 20:3 n-6 % ND 0.1 20:4 n-6 % ND 0.9 20:4 n-3 % ND 0.6 20:5 n-3 (EPA) % ND 16.0 21:5 n-3 % ND 0.6 22:0 % 0.1 ND 22:1 % ND 0.2 22:5 n-6 % ND 0.2 22:5 n-3 % ND 1.5 22:6 n-3 (DHA) % ND 7.0 24:0 % 0.2 ND Unidentified % 0.1 3.0 Note: ND, not detected. Table 3. Changes of erythrocyte membrane FAs content before and after supplementation. PG-pre PG-post MG-pre MG-post 16:0 % 27.88±2.99 26.50±2.79 27.68±3.30 25.63±1.32 * 18:2 n-9 % 12.15±2.46 13.67±2.05 ** 11.72±1.81 13.15±1.18 * 18:1 n-9 % 13.36±1.26 13.33±0.96 13.02±0.99 12.84±1.27 18:0 % 21.04±2.39 20.24±1.32 21.57±2.83 20.18±0.69 * 20:4 n-6 (AA) % 12.37±2.95 12.12±2.08 12.60±3.07 11.85±1.06 20:5 n-3 (EPA) % 1.06±0.73 1.24±0.49 1.10±0.63 2.36±0.56 *** ## 20:3 n-6 % 1.12±0.37 1.09±0.27 1.13±0.28 1.25±0.28 22:6 n-3 (DHA) % 4.95±1.26 5.18±1.38 5.24±1.52 6.47±0.85 ** # 22:3 n-3 % 1.56±1.09 1.70±0.67 1.48±0.85 1.68±0.62 24:0 % 2.23±1.51 2.48±0.93 2.13±1.23 2.40±0.73 EPA+DHA % 6.02±1.44 6.42±1.68 6.34±1.52 8.82±1.19 *** ## PUFAs % 33.21±5.61 34.99±4.76 33.28±5.20 36.75±2.03 * EPA/AA 0.09±0.06 0.10±0.04 0.10±0.09 0.20±0.05 **## DHA/AA 0.40±0.08 0.43±0.09 0.42±0.10 0.55±0.08 ***## n-3/n-6 PUFAs 0.58±0.15 0.62±0.13 0.60±0.20 0.81±0.11 *** ## Note: Data was expressed as mean ± SD and showed only mean wt% of total FAs of >1%. * , ** , *** : p < 0.05, < 0.01 and < 0.001, respectively, with respect to pre-supplementation within each of groups. # , ## : p < 0.01 and < 0.001, respectively, with respect to post-supplementation between groups. AA: Arachidonic Acid Table 4. Changes of VO 2max and TTE at the workload equivalent to 65% VO 2max before and after supplementation. PG-pre PG-post MG-pre MG-post VO 2max (ml/min/kgBW) 39.63±5.32 37.85±5.90 38.57±5.96 37.70±5.70 TTE (min) 54.39±13.15 56.78±9.47 52.39±12.00 62.28±6.45 * # Note: Data was expressed as mean ± SD. * : p < 0.001 with respect to pre-supplementation within each of groups. # : p < 0.05 with respect to post-supplementation between groups. Table 5. Changes of substrate oxidation at the workload equivalent to 65% VO 2max before and after supplementation. PG-pre PG-post MG-pre MG-post Total CHOO (g) 108.11±31.16 104.11±23.41 106.21±36.03 100.11±28.65 Total FAO (g) 9.57±4.54 12.76±5.51 * 8.70±5.49 19.35±6.60 *** ## Total EE (kcal) 518.62±151.92 531.30±102.21 503.13±157.10 574.58±104.59 * Mean CHOO rate (g/min) 1.98±0.29 1.83±0.25 * 2.00±0.37 1.60±0.39 *** # Mean FAO rate (g/min) 0.17±0.07 0.23±0.09 * 0.16±0.08 0.31±0.10 *** # FAO percentage (%) 16.04±6.46 21.76±8.39 ** 15.45±8.26 31.24±11.47 *** ## Mean EE rate (kcal/min) 9.45±1.18 9.36±0.84 9.46±1.35 9.20±1.23 Mean RER 0.92±0.03 0.91±0.02 0.93±0.03 0.88±0.04 *** # Note: Data was expressed as mean ± SD. * , ** , *** : p < 0.05, < 0.01 and < 0.001, respectively, with respect to pre-supplementation within each of groups. # , ## : p < 0.01 and < 0.001, respectively, with respect to post-supplementation between groups. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7277115","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":502381081,"identity":"3cf2449e-0886-4fa8-87d3-398ce3c8412f","order_by":0,"name":"Chen WANG","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Beijing Sport University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Chen","middleName":"","lastName":"WANG","suffix":""},{"id":502381082,"identity":"f3b3f75f-5a42-4f0e-b991-7d704f29d4da","order_by":1,"name":"Jin-Yu Qi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Beijing Sport University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jin-Yu","middleName":"","lastName":"Qi","suffix":""},{"id":502381084,"identity":"48aefaa1-0841-4f34-afd5-95182305b2f8","order_by":2,"name":"Li Han","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nippon Suisan Kaisha, Ltd. (Nissui Corporation)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Li","middleName":"","lastName":"Han","suffix":""},{"id":502381085,"identity":"962ccd7f-f40f-4a93-b280-a77b8d5ab47f","order_by":3,"name":"Kaori Yokoi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nippon Suisan Kaisha, Ltd. (Nissui Corporation)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kaori","middleName":"","lastName":"Yokoi","suffix":""},{"id":502381086,"identity":"52a58651-d9d8-433a-871d-bd98dd90051a","order_by":4,"name":"Kenichi Yanagimoto","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nippon Suisan Kaisha, Ltd. (Nissui Corporation)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kenichi","middleName":"","lastName":"Yanagimoto","suffix":""},{"id":502381087,"identity":"bb78be69-c9e9-42e7-98df-3715d1478530","order_by":5,"name":"Xin-Tang Wang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Beijing Sport University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Xin-Tang","middleName":"","lastName":"Wang","suffix":""},{"id":502381088,"identity":"f02ea87c-135a-4561-85e7-c04d8992a6d7","order_by":6,"name":"Shi-Lun Hou","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA0ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACAyBmZjCwYGBg7wELMDYQqUWCgYHnDElaGIBaJHKI1GLO3mP8uaBAInG75NvDn3kYbGQ3HGB+9gCfFsueM2bSMwwkEnfOzkuT5mFIM95wgM3cAK/DbuSYMfMAtWy4DWIwHE7ccICHTYKAFuPPYC03zwAZDP+J0mIgDdZygwfIYDhAhJYzx8pAWow3nMlLk5xjkGw88zCbGX4tx5s3f+b5Awyo42cPf3hTYSfbd7z5GV4t6CYwgKNpFIyCUTAKRgGFAABp40TxNsgpbAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Beijing Sport University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shi-Lun","middleName":"","lastName":"Hou","suffix":""},{"id":502381089,"identity":"5c8b591e-9cae-454a-b0c8-c42f7acd620e","order_by":7,"name":"Zi-Long Fang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Beijing Sport University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zi-Long","middleName":"","lastName":"Fang","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-08-02 09:23:21","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7277115/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7277115/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":96240590,"identity":"e7dc3319-2af0-4afc-bb48-a11223d8eed3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-19 07:09:10","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":879452,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7277115/v1/20761113-2576-4f80-8d6a-ea5d4a4b0fe5.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Marine Structured Lipid Supplementation for 8 Weeks Enhances Endurance Performance and Fatty Acids Oxidation of Healthy Untrained Men during Moderate-intensity Exercise","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eAerobic exercise is essential for improving cardiorespiratory fitness and endurance performance by modulating substrate metabolism. Given the limited glycogen reserves relative to abundant fat stores [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e], enhancing fat oxidation while sparing glycogen has become a key strategy in the field of sports nutrition [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Lipids supplementation before or during endurance exercise has been reported to enhance fat oxidation, thereby improving exercise performance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOmega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs), particularly eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5 n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6 n-3), are essential for human health and exercise metabolism. These fatty acids modify erythrocyte membrane composition, enhancing deformability [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR6\" citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e] and oxygen delivery during aerobic exercise, while promoting β-oxidation of fatty acids to increase fat utilization [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e], thus improving aerobic capacity or endurance performance. However, current evidence regarding their ergogenic effects remains controversial [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. While some studies report no performance benefits [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR12\" citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e], in which daily supplementation with 800mg of EPA and 2400mg of DHA for 8 weeks did not improve time to exhaustion (TTE) in cyclists exercising at the workload equivalent to 55% VO\u003csub\u003e2max\u003c/sub\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. In contrast, daily intake of 140mg of EPA and 560mg of DHA for 8 weeks improved endurance performance in a cycling time trial [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. These discrepancies likely reflect variations in subject populations, exercise protocols, and supplementation regimens [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Currently, no consensus exists on the optimal dosage and duration of EPA/DHA supplementation for endurance performance. Notably, the hypothesis that supplementation with EPA and DHA can alter the fatty acids composition of erythrocyte membrane and thereby improve erythrocyte deformability and ultimately endurance performance, fewer of the above studies have compared the changes in fatty acids profile of erythrocyte membrane before and after supplementation as well as substrate oxidation during exercise.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMedium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) are triglycerides consisting of three medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs) and one glycerol molecule, which can cross the mitochondrial membrane for β-oxidation with relative ease compared to long-chain triglycerides (LCTs) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e], thus providing energy during exercise rapidly [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR18\" citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. While acute MCTs ingestion shows limited ergogenic potential - with studies demonstrating no performance benefits in cyclists [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e] and a recent systematic review confirming this conclusion [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. All of the above studies have focused on acute use of MCTs, while fewer studies have focused on effects of continuous MCTs supplementation on energy metabolism and endurance performance during exercise. Two studies have examined the effects of 6g/d of MCTs supplementation on endurance over a sustained period of 14 days, in both studies, the adopted exercise protocol was for the subjects to perform a long period of moderate intensity exercise followed by high intensity exercise to exhaustion, with LCTs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e] or carbohydrate (CHO) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e] chosen as placebo respectively. The results of both studies showed that continuous ingestion of MCTs prolonged the duration of exercise to exhaustion significantly, but substrate oxidation during exercise was not consistent between studies and might be related to placebo used [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. Notably, even lower-dose supplementation (2g/d for 14 days) enhanced fat oxidation during daily activities in overweight sedentary individuals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e], suggesting dose- and duration-dependent metabolic effects warranting further investigation in endurance contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to the potential benefits of n-3 PUFAs or MCTs on endurance performance, especially in untrained men and recreational athletes, as above mentioned, we hypothesized that combination of n-3 PUFAs and MCFAs could be a good supplementation, which affects energy metabolism and endurance performance for non-aerobically trained men. The effectiveness of ingesting either of n3-PUFAs or MCTs alone in improving endurance performance and substrate utilization is undefined. Combined intake of EPA, DHA and MCFAs may have additive effects. The combination of these substances may exert ergogenic effects through different physiological pathways, improving erythrocyte deformability by EPA and DHA [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR6\" citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e], and altering metabolism during exercise by MCFAs [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR18\" citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. According to the distinct physiological effects of n-3 PUFAs and MCTs, we hypothesized that their combined supplementation may enhance endurance performance through complementary mechanisms: (1) n-3 PUFAs (EPA/DHA) improving erythrocyte function and oxygen delivery [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR6\" citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e], and (2) MCFAs promoting rapid energy metabolism [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR18\" citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. While the efficacy of individual compounds remains inconclusive, this combined approach may yield additive ergogenic effects, particularly in non-athletic populations with suboptimal metabolic efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, there are no relevant studies examining the long-term effects of combined EPA, DHA and MCFAs intake on endurance performance and substrate oxidation during exercise. Marine structured lipid (MSL) is chemically synthesized by randomly linking n-3 PUFAs (EPA and DHA) to MCTs to replace partial of MCFAs in special sites, generating a special structure containing n-3 PUFAs and MCFAs. Studies have shown that structured lipids are more easily absorbed than traditional fish oil [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e], while enabling faster incorporation of EPA and DHA into erythrocyte membrane [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, the present study aimed at investigating the effect of 8 weeks of MSL supplementation on moderate intensity endurance performance of healthy untrained men by two characteristics: erythrocyte membrane lipids profile, and substrate oxidation during exercise.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eExperimental design\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA double-blind, placebo controlled, randomized trial was designed and carried out. The trial had been approved by Ethics Committee of Sports Science Experiments of Beijing Sport University (2019065H) and registered on Chinese Clinical Trial Registry (ChiCTR1900025775) prior to performance along with a written informed consent obtained from all subjects who were enrolled and aware of the anticipated goals, potential risks and other issues like discomfort in relation to the very trial.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn this study, the sample size was calculated using G*Power 3.1 software, and the independent samples \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e test was applied for the difference of TTE between two groups. The effect size was set at 1.265 based on previous study [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e], with significance levels \u0026alpha;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05 and power\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%, and the estimated minimum sample size was 11 subjects per group, with a total sample size of 22 subjects.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThirty-six subjects were enrolled and then randomly divided into two groups of marine structured lipid group (MG) and placebo group (PG) with identical number of 18 subjects for each, considering the physical characteristics of age, height, body weight (BW) and body mass index (BMI), as detailed in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Erythrocyte membrane fatty acids (FAs) profile, maximal oxygen uptake (VO\u003csub\u003e2max\u003c/sub\u003e), TTE and substrate oxidation during exercise at the workload equivalent to 65% VO\u003csub\u003e2max\u003c/sub\u003e of pre-supplementation were to be assessed at pre- and post-supplementation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eParticipants\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInclusion criteria were: (1) Male at an age of 20 years or above; (2) Keeping their routine physical activity and dietary pattern without regular exercise training before and during the trial. Exclusion criteria were: (1) Indication of any contraindication to the trial during the initial physical assessment in the light of Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire; (2) Any coronary artery disease risk factor based on American College of Sports Medicine; (3) Any injuries of muscle and skeleton, or chronic pain of knee and ankle; (4) Supplementation with n-3 PUFAs and/or MCTs as dietary supplement or others in the last 3 months.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eIntervention\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe subjects ingested soft gels (0.44g per gel) of MSL or corn oil gels (as placebo, 0.44g per gel) provided by Nissui Corporation, Tokyo, Japan, being both products identical in appearance. The two groups were administrated twice per day for 8 weeks after each breakfast (5 gels) and dinner (5 gels) with either MSL containing 600mg EPA, 260mg DHA, and 1730mg MCFAs (C8:0 and C10:0) or corn oil containing abundant long-chain fatty acids (LCFAs, C18:1 and C18:2 n-6) and slight MCFAs (C8:0 and C10:0), without EPA and DHA. Fatty acids composition of MSL and corn oil is shown in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo minimize the potential influence of other factors, prior to the initial assessment, all the subjects were provided with a written instruction for proper administration and they were informed to maintain their usual diet as before and to not take any supplements containing EPA, DHA and/or MCTs during the trial. Additionally, all workers and subjects were blind regarding group allocation before all data was collected.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eBlood sampling and pretreatment\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBlood sampling was performed for each subject in the morning after 12-h overnight fast just before and after 8 weeks of supplementation. On each occasion, 2ml of blood sample collection was performed by venepuncture from an antecubital vein into a vacutainer containing K\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eEDTA as anticoagulant.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe samples firstly underwent a 10-min centrifugation at 3000 rpm and 4\u0026deg;C to obtain the erythrocytes. Then the erythrocytes were washed with physiological saline solution followed by 10-min centrifugation for twice at 3000rpm to obtain the prepared erythrocytes. Finally, erythrocyte membrane FAs profile was determined by the technique of Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy (GC/MS).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSustained exercise tests (SET)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe SET was carried out 3 days after GXT. For a 48-h period before each test, subjects were notified to not take any alcohol, caffeine, and avoid strenuous exercise, and meanwhile, the dietary intake of subjects were recorded. After a 12-h overnight fast, all tests were always carried out between 8\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;12am. During the test, the subjects were fasted except for water and exercised at a workload equivalent to 65% VO\u003csub\u003e2max\u003c/sub\u003e, which was calculated from the regression equation between VO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and watts during the pre-supplementation GXT. The test consisted of 5-min rest, 3-min warm up at 50W, and then sustained cycling at 60rpm at the workload to exhaustion on Monark Ergomedic 839E. The TTE was well recorded, and the expired gas was collected for 5min at rest, every 20min during exercise and the end of exercise by Quark CPET. Non-protein respiratory quotient equations were used to estimate substrate oxidation rate during the exercise test [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCHO oxidation (CHOO) rate (g/min)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.585\u0026times;VCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e (l/min) \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3.226\u0026times;VO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e (l/min)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFatty acid oxidation (FAO) rate (g/min)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.695\u0026times;VO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e (l/min) \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1.701\u0026times;VCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e (l/min)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor each subject, the total CHOO (g) and FAO (g) were evaluated with the area under the oxidation rate (g/min)\u003cem\u003e-\u003c/em\u003etime (min) curve, the total energy expenditure (EE) (kcal) equaled to total CHOO (g)\u0026times;4\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;total FAO (g)\u0026times;9, the mean CHOO rate (g/min) was calculated from total CHOO (g)\u0026thinsp;\u0026divide;\u0026thinsp;time (min), the mean FAO rate (g/min) was calculated from total FAO (g)\u0026thinsp;\u0026divide;\u0026thinsp;time (min), the mean EE rate (kcal/min) was calculated from total EE (kcal)\u0026thinsp;\u0026divide;\u0026thinsp;time (min), the FAO percentage (%) equaled to total FAO (g)\u0026times;9\u0026thinsp;\u0026divide;\u0026thinsp;total EE (kcal)\u0026times;100, the mean RER was evaluated from the area under RER-time curve, equaling to the area\u0026thinsp;\u0026divide;\u0026thinsp;time (min).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAll data are expressed as mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard deviation. Statistical analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics version 22.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). Between-group comparisons at each time point were conducted using independent samples \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e-test, while within-group changes before and after supplementation were assessed with paired samples t- tests. The threshold for statistical significance was set at \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eErythrocyte membrane FAs profile\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAfter 8 weeks of supplementation, EPA (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), DHA (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01), EPA\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;DHA (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), EPA/AA (arachidonic acid) (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01), DHA/AA (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) and n-3/n-6 PUFAs (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) in MG increased significantly, and were significantly higher than those, which remained unchanged, in PG (EPA: \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, DHA: \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01, EPA\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;DHA: \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, EPA/AA: \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, DHA/AA: \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, n-3/n-6 PUFAs: \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001); in addition, PUFAs in MG increased significantly (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), while it remained unchanged in PG, as detailed in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eVO\u003csub\u003e2max\u003c/sub\u003e and TTE at the workload equivalent to 65% VO\u003csub\u003e2max\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAfter 8 weeks of supplementation, although VO\u003csub\u003e2max\u003c/sub\u003e did not change in either group, the TTE at the workload equivalent to 65% VO\u003csub\u003e2max\u003c/sub\u003e in MG was prolonged significantly (\u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.001) and significantly longer than that, which remained unchanged, in PG (\u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.05), as detailed in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eSubstrates oxidation at the workload equivalent to 65% VO\u003csub\u003e2max\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAfter 8 weeks of supplementation, total CHOO remained unchanged in both groups; however, total FAO increased significantly in either group (PG: \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.05, MG: \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.001), and which of MG was remarkably greater than that of PG (\u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.01); and total EE of MG increased significantly (\u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.05), while it remained unchanged for PG, as detailed in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAfter 8 weeks of supplementation, mean CHOO rate decreased significantly in either group (PG: \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.05, MG: \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.001), and which of MG was apparently less than that of PG (\u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.05). On the contrary, mean FAO rate increased significantly in either group (PG: \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.05, MG: \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.001), while it was apparently greater in MG than in PG (\u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.05). Similar to mean FAO rate, mean FAO percentage increased significantly in either group (PG: \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.01, MG: \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.001); and it was apparently greater in MG than in PG (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). However, mean EE rate did not change in either group, as detailed in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAfter 8 weeks of supplementation, mean RER of MG decreased significantly (\u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.001) and was apparently less than that of PG (\u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.05), since it remained unchanged in PG, as detailed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present study demonstrated that 8-week MSL supplementation significantly enhanced endurance performance in untrained men, as evidenced by prolonged TTE. This improvement was associated with two key physiological adaptations: (1) increased incorporation of EPA and DHA into erythrocyte membrane, and (2) elevated fat oxidation rate during moderate-intensity exercise. These findings suggest that MSL may optimize energy metabolism during prolonged exercise by modulating both erythrocyte membrane fluidity and substrate utilization.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMSL is a structured lipid containing long-chain n-3 PUFAs (EPA and DHA) and MCFAs. Since it is chemically combined, MSL differs from the physical mixture (PM) of n-3 PUFAs and MCTs. Compared to the conventional fish oil or lipids, specific structured triacylglycerols are digested and absorbed easily and improving the bioavailability in human body [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. A recent study suggests that the structured combination of EPA and MCFAs exerts a greater ergogenic effect on endurance exercise than the PM of EPA and MCTs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe significant elevation of EPA and DHA in erythrocyte membrane following 8 weeks of MSL supplementation aligns with existing evidence on n-3 PUFAs incorporation kinetics. Previous studies have shown that erythrocyte membrane FAs profile respond to supplementation within different timeframes: detectable changes occur by 6 weeks [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e], while other interventions require 12 weeks to demonstrate significant alterations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Notably, these modifications persist for extended periods post-supplementation, requiring approximately 18 weeks to return to baseline levels [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Our findings are consistent with recent recommendations suggesting that a minimum of 8 weeks of n-3 PUFAs intake is necessary to elicit ergogenic effects in trained individuals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Importantly, the MSL group exhibited significantly greater erythrocyte EPA/DHA incorporation compared to the corn oil placebo group, underscoring the bioavailability advantages of structured lipids.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeveral studies have found that accompanying the increasing of n-3 PUFAs (such as EPA and DHA) in erythrocyte membrane, blood cholesterol, as well as the ratio of cholesterol to phospholipids and the stickiness of erythrocyte decreased, and the deformability of erythrocyte increased, which is beneficial for improving aerobic exercise capacity because of the improvement of oxygen transport to muscles for the substrate oxidation in exercise [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR35\" citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. After 8 weeks of MSL supplementation, the elevation of EPA and DHA in erythrocyte membrane might increase the deformability of erythrocyte and contributed to the prolongation of TTE in moderate-intensity exercise. On the other hand, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) is an important regulator of mitochondrial biosynthesis, and EPA has an important facilitatory role in mitochondrial biosynthesis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e], MSL may also play a promotive role through this pathway.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe present study observed a significant increase in FAO rate, fat oxidation, and a decrease in CHOO rate and CHO oxidation, along with a significant decrease in RER in the exercise-to-exhaustion test after 8 weeks of MSL supplementation compared to subjects supplemented with corn oil, although an elevated fat metabolism during exercise was also observed after 8 weeks of corn oil supplementation, the magnitude of the increase was significantly smaller than that in MSL group. Therefore, the effect of corn oil supplementation alone on substrate metabolism during prolonged sustained exercise at moderate intensity is not sufficient to exert ergogenic effect and improve endurance performance. In addition, RER reflects the state of substrate metabolism during exercise, and it is generally believed that a lower value represents an increase in fat oxidation and a decrease in CHO oxidation during exercise. Thus MSL-induced shifts in substrate metabolism may contribute to improve endurance performance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe role of MSL on substrate metabolism in endurance exercise is partly produced by EPA and DHA. Several previous studies have also found that sustained supplementation with EPA and DHA for 3\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;6 weeks elevates fat metabolism and stores limited glycogen during endurance exercise in different populations [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR39\" citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e], and that these adaptive changes are favourable for improving endurance performance. The mechanisms by which EPA and DHA regulate fat metabolism during exercise may be related to their activation of transporter protein-fatty acid binding proteins (FABPs) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e] and activation of PGC-1α to promote mitochondrial synthesis, among others [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnother part of the role of MSL on substrate metabolism is produced by MCFAs. Compared to LCFAs, MCFAs do not demand carnitine-assisted transport to be taken up into mitochondria for oxidation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. The elevated metabolism of fat in endurance exercise observed in this study may be due to the increase of their reserves in the body through long-term supplementation of MCFAs and its preferential use as an energy source during endurance exercise. An acute intake of high-dose MCTs was shown to increase plasma free fatty acids (FFAs) concentrations and conserve glycogen, with ergogenic effect on endurance exercise [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. Similarly, a study showed that an increase in FAO was also found in endurance exercise after 14 days of continuous MCTs supplementation, along with improved endurance performance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. Possible mechanisms by which sustained MCTs intake increases the oxidation of fat during endurance exercise are improved mitochondrial biosynthesis and increased FFAs reserves [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe supplement MSL in this study contained EPA 600mg, DHA 260mg, and MCFAs 1730mg, which was supplemented at a reduced daily dose compared to previous studies of EPA 2.4g, DHA 1.6g, and MCTs 6g, but lasted for a significantly longer period of time at 8 weeks than at 3 weeks, 6 weeks, and 14 days [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR39\" citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e] Overall the supplemented doses were effective in improving endurance exercise performance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eChoosing the appropriate placebo is a key factor in sports nutrition research. Ideally, the placebo is energy-matched and does not affect the outcome of the experiment, in which case any results observed can be considered to be the effect of the supplement [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. The dose of MSL used in this study was equal to that of corn oil and energy matched. However, the intake of MCTs, EPA, and DHA alone, and the unstructured combined intake of EPA, DHA, and MCTs were lacking. So it was not possible to elucidate the efficacy of MSL from a more comprehensive perspective. Therefore, it was not possible to fully elucidate the efficacy of MSL from a comprehensive perspective. Future studies should be more comprehensive in their choice of placebo to fully account for the effects of several of these supplements on endurance performance, and a two- or three-factor trial design is recommended to account for main and interaction effects between supplements.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eContinued 8 week supplementation of MSL rich in EPA, DHA, and MCFAs extended the duration of moderate-intensity exercise, with the possible mechanism being that MSL improved endurance performance by improving erythrocyte membrane fatty acids profile as well as increasing fat oxidation while conserving CHO.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionList\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eAA\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArachidonic Acid\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eBW\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ebody weight\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eBMI\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ebody mass index\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eCHO\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ecarbohydrate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eCHOO\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ecarbohydrate oxidation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eDHA\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003edocosahexaenoic acid\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eEPA\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eeicosapentaenoic acid\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eEE\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eenergy expenditure\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eFAs\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003efatty acids\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eFAO\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003efatty acid oxidation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eFFAs\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003efree fatty acids\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eGXT\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003egraded exercise test\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eLCTs\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003elong-chain triglycerides\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eMCFAs\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003emedium-chain fatty acids\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eMCTs\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003emedium-chain triglycerides\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eMSL\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003emarine structured lipid\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eMG\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003emarine structured lipid group\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003en-3 PUFAs\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eomega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003ePG\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eplacebo group\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eRER\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003erespiratory exchange rate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eSET\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003esustained exercise tests\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eTTE\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003etime to exhaustion\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eVO\u003csub\u003e2max\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003emaximal oxygen uptake\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThis study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Sports Science Experiments of Beijing Sport University (Approval No.:\u0026nbsp;2019065H). Prior to participation, all recruited subjects were provided with a detailed explanation of the experimental procedures and potential risks by the researchers. Written informed consent was obtained from each participant after full disclosure, and only then were they formally enrolled in the study.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eAll data generated during this study are included in this published article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u003c/strong\u003e The present research was sponsored by Nissui Corporation, and the sponsor was irrelevant to the collection and entry of data and expressed no restrictions on publication.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eS-L.H., L.H. and Z-L.F.; methodology, S-L.H., X-T.W. and Z-L.F.; formal analysis, C.W., J-Y.Q. and Z-L.F.; data curation, C.W., J-Y.Q. and X-T.W.; writing-original draft preparation, C.W., J-Y.Q. and X-T.W.; writing-review and editing, Z-L.F., S-L.H., L.H., K.Y. (Kaori Yokoi) and K.Y. (Kenichi Yanagimoto);\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003eall authors have reviewed and reached an agreement on the finalized manuscript to be published.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements:\u003c/strong\u003e We would like to greatly appreciate the contributions and efforts provided voluntarily by all the participants.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHawley JA, Brouns F, Jeukendrup A. Strategies to enhance fat utilisation during exercise. Sports Med. 1998. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.2165/00007256-199825040-00003\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.2165/00007256-199825040-00003\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSpriet LL. New insights into the interaction of carbohydrate and fat metabolism during exercise. 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Fish Oil for Healthy Aging: Potential Application to Master Athletes. Sports Med. 2021. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/s40279-021-01509-7\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s40279-021-01509-7\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ePhysical characteristics of the subjects.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"92%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 25px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePG (n=18)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 31px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMG (n=18)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAge (yr)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 25px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.3\u0026plusmn;1.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 31px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.3\u0026plusmn;2.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHeight (cm)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 25px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e178.3\u0026plusmn;4.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 31px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e178.9\u0026plusmn;7.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBody weight (kg)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 25px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e76.0\u0026plusmn;8.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 31px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e75.5\u0026plusmn;10.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBMI (kg/m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 25px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.9\u0026plusmn;2.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 31px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.6\u0026plusmn;2.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNote:\u003c/strong\u003e Data was expressed as mean \u0026plusmn; SD.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eFatty acid composition of corn oil and MSL.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"97%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFatty acid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWt% of total fatty acids\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn oil\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMSL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8:0 (MCFA)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10:0 (MCFA)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12:0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14:0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15:0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16:0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16:1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16:2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16:4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17:1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18:0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18:1 (LCFA)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18:2 n-6 (LCFA)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18:3 n-6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18:3 n-3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18:4 n-3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20:0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20:1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20:3 n-6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20:4 n-6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20:4 n-3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20:5 n-3 (EPA)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21:5 n-3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22:0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22:1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22:5 n-6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22:5 n-3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22:6 n-3 (DHA)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24:0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnidentified\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNote:\u003c/strong\u003e ND, not detected.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3.\u003c/strong\u003e Changes of erythrocyte membrane FAs content before and after supplementation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePG-pre\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePG-post\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMG-pre\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMG-post\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16:0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.88\u0026plusmn;2.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.50\u0026plusmn;2.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.68\u0026plusmn;3.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.63\u0026plusmn;1.32\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18:2 n-9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.15\u0026plusmn;2.46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.67\u0026plusmn;2.05\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.72\u0026plusmn;1.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.15\u0026plusmn;1.18\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18:1 n-9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.36\u0026plusmn;1.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.33\u0026plusmn;0.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.02\u0026plusmn;0.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.84\u0026plusmn;1.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18:0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.04\u0026plusmn;2.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.24\u0026plusmn;1.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.57\u0026plusmn;2.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.18\u0026plusmn;0.69\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20:4 n-6 (AA)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.37\u0026plusmn;2.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.12\u0026plusmn;2.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.60\u0026plusmn;3.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.85\u0026plusmn;1.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20:5 n-3 (EPA)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.06\u0026plusmn;0.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.24\u0026plusmn;0.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.10\u0026plusmn;0.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.36\u0026plusmn;0.56\u003csup\u003e*** ##\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20:3 n-6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.12\u0026plusmn;0.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.09\u0026plusmn;0.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.13\u0026plusmn;0.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.25\u0026plusmn;0.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22:6 n-3 (DHA)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.95\u0026plusmn;1.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.18\u0026plusmn;1.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.24\u0026plusmn;1.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.47\u0026plusmn;0.85\u003csup\u003e** #\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22:3 n-3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.56\u0026plusmn;1.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.70\u0026plusmn;0.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.48\u0026plusmn;0.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.68\u0026plusmn;0.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24:0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.23\u0026plusmn;1.51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.48\u0026plusmn;0.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.13\u0026plusmn;1.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.40\u0026plusmn;0.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEPA+DHA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.02\u0026plusmn;1.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.42\u0026plusmn;1.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.34\u0026plusmn;1.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.82\u0026plusmn;1.19\u003csup\u003e*** ##\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePUFAs\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.21\u0026plusmn;5.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34.99\u0026plusmn;4.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.28\u0026plusmn;5.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36.75\u0026plusmn;2.03\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEPA/AA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.09\u0026plusmn;0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026plusmn;0.05\u003csup\u003e**##\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDHA/AA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.40\u0026plusmn;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.43\u0026plusmn;0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.42\u0026plusmn;0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.55\u0026plusmn;0.08\u003csup\u003e***##\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003en-3/n-6 PUFAs\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.58\u0026plusmn;0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.62\u0026plusmn;0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.60\u0026plusmn;0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.81\u0026plusmn;0.11\u003csup\u003e*** ##\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNote:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eData was expressed as mean \u0026plusmn; SD and showed only mean wt% of total FAs of \u0026gt;1%.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e, \u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e, \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e: \u003cem\u003ep \u0026lt;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e0.05, \u003cem\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e0.01 and \u003cem\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e0.001, respectively, with respect to pre-supplementation within each of groups.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e#\u003c/sup\u003e, \u003csup\u003e##\u003c/sup\u003e: \u003cem\u003ep \u0026lt;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e0.01 and \u003cem\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e0.001, respectively, with respect to post-supplementation between groups.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAA: Arachidonic Acid\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eChanges of VO\u003csub\u003e2max\u003c/sub\u003e and TTE at the workload equivalent to 65% VO\u003csub\u003e2max\u003c/sub\u003e before and after supplementation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 32px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePG-pre\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePG-post\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMG-pre\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMG-post\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 32px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVO\u003csub\u003e2max\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e(ml/min/kgBW)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.63\u0026plusmn;5.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.85\u0026plusmn;5.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.57\u0026plusmn;5.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.70\u0026plusmn;5.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 32px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTTE (min)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54.39\u0026plusmn;13.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56.78\u0026plusmn;9.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52.39\u0026plusmn;12.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62.28\u0026plusmn;6.45\u003csup\u003e*\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e#\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNote:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eData was expressed as mean \u0026plusmn; SD.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e:\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;p \u0026lt;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e0.001 with respect to pre-supplementation within each of groups.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e#\u003c/sup\u003e: \u003cem\u003ep \u0026lt;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e0.05 with respect to post-supplementation between groups.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eChanges of substrate oxidation at the workload equivalent to 65% VO\u003csub\u003e2max\u003c/sub\u003e before and after supplementation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 28px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePG-pre\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePG-post\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMG-pre\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMG-post\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 28px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal CHOO (g)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e108.11\u0026plusmn;31.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e104.11\u0026plusmn;23.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e106.21\u0026plusmn;36.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100.11\u0026plusmn;28.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 28px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal FAO (g)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.57\u0026plusmn;4.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.76\u0026plusmn;5.51\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.70\u0026plusmn;5.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.35\u0026plusmn;6.60\u003csup\u003e***\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e##\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 28px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal EE (kcal)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e518.62\u0026plusmn;151.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e531.30\u0026plusmn;102.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e503.13\u0026plusmn;157.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e574.58\u0026plusmn;104.59\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 28px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean CHOO rate (g/min)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.98\u0026plusmn;0.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.83\u0026plusmn;0.25\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.00\u0026plusmn;0.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.60\u0026plusmn;0.39\u003csup\u003e***\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e#\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 28px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean FAO rate (g/min)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17\u0026plusmn;0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23\u0026plusmn;0.09\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.16\u0026plusmn;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.31\u0026plusmn;0.10\u003csup\u003e***\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e#\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 28px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFAO percentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.04\u0026plusmn;6.46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.76\u0026plusmn;8.39\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.45\u0026plusmn;8.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.24\u0026plusmn;11.47\u003csup\u003e***\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e##\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 28px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean EE rate (kcal/min)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.45\u0026plusmn;1.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.36\u0026plusmn;0.84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.46\u0026plusmn;1.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.20\u0026plusmn;1.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 28px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean RER\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.92\u0026plusmn;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.91\u0026plusmn;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.93\u0026plusmn;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.88\u0026plusmn;0.04\u003csup\u003e***\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e#\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNote:\u003c/strong\u003e Data was expressed as mean \u0026plusmn; SD.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e, \u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e, \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e: \u003cem\u003ep \u0026lt;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e0.05, \u003cem\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e0.01 and \u003cem\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e0.001, respectively, with respect to pre-supplementation within each of groups.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e#\u003c/sup\u003e,\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;##\u003c/sup\u003e: \u003cem\u003ep \u0026lt;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e0.01 and \u003cem\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e0.001, respectively, with respect to post-supplementation between groups.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"marine structured lipid, n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, medium-chain fatty acids, fatty acids oxidation, moderate-intensity exercise","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7277115/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7277115/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eMarine structured lipid is a type of functional supplement rich in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid) and medium-chain fatty acids. This study aimed to investigate the influence of marine structured lipid supplementation on endurance performance and substrate oxidation during moderate-intensity exercise in healthy untrained men.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial was conducted, with participants assigned to either a placebo group or a marine structured lipid group. The placebo group received daily corn oil, while the marine structured lipid group received a daily supplement containing 600 mg eicosapentaenoic acid, 260 mg docosahexaenoic acid, and 1730 mg medium-chain fatty acids for 8 weeks. Before and after supplementation, all participants were assessed for erythrocyte membrane fatty acid profile, maximal oxygen uptake, time to exhaustion, and substrate oxidation during exercise at an intensity equivalent to 65% of their pre-supplementation maximal oxygen uptake.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter supplementation, erythrocyte eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid percentages in the marine structured lipid group increased significantly and were notably higher than in the placebo group. Time to exhaustion in the marine structured lipid group also increased significantly and was longer than in the placebo group. During exercise, total fatty acid oxidation, mean fatty acid oxidation rate, and fatty acid oxidation percentage increased significantly in the marine structured lipid group compared to the placebo group, while mean carbohydrate oxidation was significantly lower. Total energy expenditure increased, and mean respiratory exchange rate decreased significantly in the marine structured lipid group.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn 8-week supplementation with marine structured lipid rich in eicosapentaenoic acid, docosahexaenoic acid, and medium-chain fatty acids extended moderate-intensity exercise duration. The potential mechanism may involve improved erythrocyte membrane fatty acid profile, enhanced fat oxidation, and reduced carbohydrate utilization, thereby improving endurance performance.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Marine Structured Lipid Supplementation for 8 Weeks Enhances Endurance Performance and Fatty Acids Oxidation of Healthy Untrained Men during Moderate-intensity Exercise","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-20 07:07:12","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7277115/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"60a7c42e-2dfa-4b31-bfcc-9b727b96c252","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 20th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-13T16:08:41+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-20 07:07:12","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7277115","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7277115","identity":"rs-7277115","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}