Solid particle erosion behaviors of walnut shell-filled (acrylic-styrene-acrylate) [ASA] and (polycarbonate/acrylic-styrene-acrylate) [PC/ASA] thermoplastic blend biocomposites

Solid particle erosion behaviors of walnut shell-filled (acrylic-styrene-acrylate) [ASA] and (polycarbonate/acrylic-styrene-acrylate) [PC/ASA] thermoplastic blend biocomposites | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Solid particle erosion behaviors of walnut shell-filled (acrylic-styrene-acrylate) [ASA] and (polycarbonate/acrylic-styrene-acrylate) [PC/ASA] thermoplastic blend biocomposites Harun Sepetcioglu, Seyit Mehmet Demet, İdris Karagöz, Mehmet Bagci This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5600372/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The aim of this study is to investigate the solid particle erosion behavior of walnut shell (WS)-filled acrylic-styrene-acrylate (ASA) and polycarbonate/acrylic-styrene-acrylate (PC/ASA) thermoplastic blend composites under various erosion conditions. Erosion resistance tests were conducted using Al₂O₃ particles (600 µm, Mohs hardness 9) as erodent, at a velocity of 34 m/s, with impingement angles ranging from 30° to 90°. Test samples were subjected to these conditions for 24 seconds, and weight loss was measured to determine erosion rates. Key parameters such as density, hardness, and erosion coefficients were also evaluated. Composites with 10 wt.% WS filler exhibited optimal performance, reducing erosion rates by up to 36.7% compared to unfilled PC/ASA blend. Macro and SEM imaging revealed the damage mechanisms, showing less material loss and better surface durability in WS-filled composites. This study demonstrates that incorporating WS into ASA and PC/ASA matrices not only improves erosion resistance but also aligns with the goal of sustainable material development. The results suggest that these composites could be highly effective in industries where materials are exposed to wear and tear from abrasive forces, such as in construction or automotive applications. Solid particle erosion Walnut shell ASA PC/ASA blend Erosion resistance Macro imaging Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16 Figure 17 Figure 18 Highlights • Walnut shell filler reduces erosion rates by up to 36.7%. • Improved hardness and density achieved with optimized filler content. • Ductile erosion mechanism ensures better impact energy dissipation. 1. INTRODUCTION The creation of sustainable and high-performance materials has become increasingly important in recent years, driven by both environmental concerns and the demand for improved material properties in industrial applications [ 1 ]. Among the most promising solutions are thermoplastic composites reinforced with natural fillers [ 2 ], which offer the potential to reduce environmental impact while enhancing the mechanical [ 3 ], thermal [ 4 ], and erosion resistance [ 5 ] of polymeric materials. The combination of acrylic-styrene-acrylate (ASA) with various thermoplastic fillers, such as styrene-acrylonitrile copolymer (SAN), poly(ether-ether-ketone) (PEEK) and Polycarbonate (PC), has been shown to enhance the mechanical and thermal properties of the resulting alloys, broadening their potential applications [ 6 – 8 ]. An example of a thermoplastic blend is the micro-particle-filled ASA and PEEK thermoplastic alloy. In this blend system, ASA serves as the polymer matrix while reused PEEK micro-particles act as fillers. The incorporation of PEEK enhances the stiffness, tensile strength, and thermal stability of the composite, making it a potential candidate for sustainable material applications [ 8 ]. Another example is that Huang et al. developed a blend consisting of 70% polycarbonate (PC) and 30% ASA, introducing ASA into the PC matrix to enhance performance [ 9 ]. To further understand the advantages of combining these materials, examining the individual contributions of PC and ASA to the blend is essential. Exploring the properties of each component separately clarifies how their unique characteristics synergize in the PC/ASA blend. The PC is a high-performance engineering polymer known for its exceptional toughness, impact resistance, and thermal stability. PC exhibits superior mechanical properties over a wide temperature range, making it suitable for demanding applications such as automotive components, electronic parts, and industrial tools. Furthermore, PC's amorphous structure imparts excellent dimensional stability and transparency, which are desirable features in many consumer products [ 10 – 12 ]. On the other hand, the ASA is a weather-resistant thermoplastic that was originally developed as an alternative to acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS). ASA shares similar mechanical properties with ABS, but with enhanced resistance to UV radiation, weathering, and chemicals due to the absence of double bonds in its molecular structure. This makes ASA particularly suitable for outdoor applications, where prolonged exposure to sunlight, moisture, and harsh environmental conditions can degrade other polymer materials. The ability of ASA to retain its color, gloss, and mechanical integrity over time makes it a highly attractive material for applications such as automotive exterior parts, outdoor products, and building materials [ 13 – 15 ]. The PC/ASA thermoplastic blends are widely utilized in various industries such as automotive, outdoor electronics, sports equipment, and medical care due to their excellent mechanical and thermal properties; however, their use is restricted by poor impact resistance and aging characteristics [ 9 ]. The blending of ASA with PC results in a thermoplastic alloy that synergistically integrates the advantageous properties of both materials. The PC/ASA blend offers enhanced heat resistance, toughness, and impact strength, while maintaining superior resistance to environmental factors such as UV-radiation and moisture. This combination makes PC/ASA belnds particularly well-suited for applications that require high mechanical performance along with long-term environmental stability [ 6 , 7 , 16 ]. Walnut shell (WS) is an abundant agricultural byproduct that may enhance the properties of polymer composites [ 17 ]. Composed of lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose, they provide mechanical filler in polymer matrices. Incorporating WS filler into ASA and PC/ASA thermoplastic alloy can improve stiffness and reduce density, while also introducing an eco-friendly aspect that supports the demand for sustainable materials [ 18 , 19 ]. A key challenge in industrial applications is resistance to solid particle erosion, which occurs due to repeated impacts by hard particles, leading to material degradation. This is particularly relevant in industries such as aerospace, automotive, and construction [ 20 ]. The erosion behavior of polymer composites is influenced by factors like the mechanical properties of the polymer matrix and the nature of the filler [ 21 , 22 ]. Adding WS particles could enhance the erosion resistance of ASA and PC/ASA blend by dissipating impact energy and leveraging the inherent toughness of the matrix. This development aligns with the goal of creating sustainable materials that deliver high performance while minimizing environmental impact. In this study, ASAWS and PC/ASAWS composites with WS concentrations of 5 wt.%, 10 wt.%, and 15 wt.% have been fabricated using a single-screw extruder, along with a neat ASA matrix and a PC/ASA blend with a constant weight ratio of 80% PC and 20% ASA. The aim of this study is to investigate the solid particle erosion behavior of WS-filled ASA and PC/ASA thermoplastic blend biocomposites. By combining the toughness and environmental resistance of the PC/ASA blend with the natural reinforcing properties of WSs, this research seeks to evaluate the potential of these green composites for use in applications where both high mechanical performance and erosion resistance are required, particularly in challenging outdoor or abrasive environments. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 Materials and Production In the study, Lotte Starex® WR-9140 General Purpose ASA, with a density of 1.06 g/cm³ and a melt flow index (MFI) of 7 g/10 min, was used. Similarly, Kazan PC-022, a commercial-grade polycarbonate, with a density of 1.20 g/cm³ and an MFI of 22 g/10 min, was utilized. Walnut shells from the Maraş18 variety, cultivated in the Çağlayancerit region of Kahramanmaraş and exhibiting a density range of 0.8–1.2 g/cm³, served as the reinforcing filler. Prior to extrusion, walnut shells were dried at 100°C for one hour. In the sample coding system, composites made of ASA and walnut shell (WS) are labeled to reflect the walnut shell content in the composite. For example, a sample with an ASA matrix containing 5% walnut shell is coded as ASAWS5. In composites containing PC, ASA, and WS, 80% of the matrix is PC, with the remaining 20% divided between ASA and WS. Similarly, the coding system for PC-based composites indicates the walnut shell content within the PC matrix. For instance, a sample with 80 wt.% PC, 15 wt.% ASA, and 5 wt.% walnut shell is coded as PC/ASAWS5. The samples were processed into granules using a Gülnar twin-screw extruder (Türkiye) featuring a length-to-diameter (L/D) ratio of 24 and a screw diameter of 16 mm. Mixing was conducted at barrel temperatures from 30 to 200°C along the extruder zones, with a screw rotation speed set to 300 rpm. After granulation, samples were dried at 80°C for three hours, then stored in a desiccator to maintain dryness until the injection molding stage. Sample molding was performed on an Engel Spex Victory 80 injection molding machine (Germany) with a clamping force of 800 kN. For the molding process, an injection speed of 50 mm/s, injection pressure of 100 bar, and holding pressure of 40 kN were used. The process from the production of samples to the execution of erosion tests is schematically shown in Fig. 1 . 2.2. Methods 2.2.1. Erosion Resistance Analysis The properties of composite materials significantly influence the erosive rate and mechanisms under erosive conditions. References [ 23 – 25 ] suggest that the extent of erosion can be quantified using a dimensionless parameter known as the erosion coefficient (𝑘), which is derived from a simple energy balance for normal impingement of particles onto the surface, as shown in Eq. 1 . $$\:E=\frac{k\rho\:{\upsilon\:}^{2}}{2H}$$ 1 Here, 𝐸 represents the erosion rate, 𝜌 is the density of the eroded material, 𝑣 is the impact velocity of the eroding particles, and 𝐻 is the hardness of the test sample. The erosion coefficient (𝑘) provides a quantitative measure of the test material’s resistance to erosion. A higher value of 𝑘 typically indicates greater susceptibility to erosion, whereas a lower value reflects better resistance [ 24 ]. The erosion behavior of composite materials is strongly affected by the fillers or fillers incorporated into their structure. These additives enhance the material's mechanical properties, such as hardness and toughness, which are critical factors in improving erosion resistance [ 5 , 22 ]. However, the precise value of 𝑘 may vary widely based on several factors, including the material’s inherent properties and the specific test conditions employed. Parameters such as particle size, impact angle, particle velocity, and environmental conditions play a vital role in determining the erosion response [ 26 , 27 ]. These variations may lead to significant differences in 𝑘, sometimes spanning several orders of magnitude, emphasizing the complexity of the erosion process. Understanding these factors is essential for designing and optimizing composite materials to withstand erosive environments. By carefully considering material properties and testing conditions, the erosion performance of both polymers and composites can be accurately assessed and enhanced for a wide range of applications. 2.2.2. Density and Hardness Measurements Density and hardness measurements were conducted to evaluate the material properties of the test samples. Firstly, the density measurements for all test samples were conducted using a Precisa XB 220A precise scale, by weighing them both in air and in distilled water, in accordance with ISO 1183. Secondly, the hardness measurements were also conducted on all test samples using a universal hardness testing machine, following the Rockwell R scale (HRR). The test parameters included a 1/2" steel ball indenter with a 100 kgf load applied for 10 seconds, in accordance with ASTM D785. All tests were carried out in a temperature- and humidity-controlled laboratory, and the samples were conditioned for at least 24 hours under these conditions before measurements. A minimum of 5 samples were tested for each condition to ensure the accuracy and consistency of the results. 2.2.3. Erosion testing The erosion rig used for the experiment is schematically shown in Fig. 2 (a) and follows the ASTM G76-95 standard. Additionally, Fig. 2 (b) illustrates the solid particle erosion process, while Fig. 2 (c) depicts the impact-induced erosive mechanism. Test samples, with dimensions of 30x30x4 mm, were produced using an injection molding machine. Table 1 Conditions for the solid particle erosion test setup Test Parameters Description Erodent Aluminum Oxide (Al 2 O 3 ) Erodent size 600 µm Erodent shape Angular Hardness of erodent Mohs 9 Density of Al 2 O 3 particles 3.94 g/cm 3 Impingement angles 30–90 ° Impact velocity 34 m/s Erodent feed rate 24 g/s Test temperature 20–22°C Nozzle to sample distance 10 mm The samples were mounted on a steel holder using 5 mm thick adjustable clips. Abrasive particles are propelled by static pressure and directed onto the test sample through a 10 mm diameter nozzle. The velocity of the particles is theoretically calculated using the rotating disc method. In the erosion test, the average particle speed at 2 bar pressure was 34.0 m/s when the nozzle-to-sample distance was set to 10 mm. Abrasive Al2O3 particles were applied to the surface of samples at various impingement angles (30°, 45°, 60°, 75°, and 90°) and in axial and radial positions, as depicted in Fig. 2 (B). Each test lasted an average of 24 seconds, and the wear due to erosion was measured by recording the weight loss using a precision balance with ± 0.0001g accuracy. The parameters for the erosion test are outlined in Table 1 . 2.2.4. Damage analysis The eroded surfaces of the samples obtained from the erosion test was cut for detailed damage analysis. The sectioned areas of the samples were coated with a thin gold layer (3–4 nm) for SEM analysis. Using a Zeiss LS10 SEM and a DSLR with a macro lens, both micro and macro damages were observed, revealing the eroded surface morphology and material removal mechanisms on the test samples' surface. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results first focus on the erosion behavior of ASA and ASAWS composite, then evaluate the performance of PC and PC/ASA blend, and conclude with a comparative analysis of PC/ASAWS composites. This organization provides a comprehensive understanding of the effect of each material's composition on its erosion resistance. 3.1. Erosion behavior of ASA and ASAWS composites The density and hardness data for ASA and WS-reinforced ASA composites are presented in Table 2 , followed by the solid particle erosion rates of ASA and ASAWS composites with different walnut shell concentrations across varying impingement angles, as shown in Table 3 and Fig. 3 . The erosion rates, reported in [mg/kg] alongside standard deviations, reveal trends in material performance and the effects of WS filler. The results demonstrate a consistent increase in density with higher WS content. Specifically, the density of ASA was measured at 1.048 ± 0.009 g/cm³, which increased to 1.132 ± 0.015 g/cm³ for ASAWS15. This increase, as noted by Saran and Satapathy [ 28 ], is attributed to WS particles enhancing the composite's dense structure. Similarly, the Rockwell R hardness measurements reveal that the addition of WS enhances the hardness of the composites, peaking at 107.2 ± 0.49 for ASAWS10. Table 2 Density and Hardness Rocwell R (HRR) measurements of ASA and ASAWS composites with mean values and standard deviations. Samples Density, g/cm 3 Hardness, Rockwell R ASA 1.048 ± 0.009 101.7 ± 2.05 ASAWS5 1.051 ± 0.018 103.8 ± 0.75 ASAWS10 1.071 ± 0.004 107.2 ± 0.49 ASAWS15 1.132 ± 0.015 106.15 ± 0.31 Table 3 Solid particle erosion rate at varying impingement angles for neat ASA and ASAWS composites with mean values and standard deviations. Impingement Angle, ° Erosion Rate, [mg/kg] ASA ASAWS5 ASAWS10 ASAWS15 30 169.25 ± 7.26 161.00 ± 9.48 151.50 ± 10.25 180.75 ± 8.37 45 84.75 ± 4.82 80.50 ± 3.89 75.50 ± 4.52 93.00 ± 4.05 60 55.25 ± 3.75 53.00 ± 2.77 48.75 ± 3.87 57.50 ± 3.62 75 25.60 ± 3.87 23.12 ± 2.32 22.00 ± 2.99 34.08 ± 3.47 90 24.27 ± 1.45 23.00 ± 1.19 20.25 ± 1.51 27.33 ± 1.26 At a 30° impingement angle, ASA exhibits the highest erosion rate of 169.25 ± 7.26 mg/kg, whereas the addition of 10 wt.% WS achieves a notable improvement, reducing this rate by 10.5% to 151.50 ± 10.25 mg/kg. This trend continues across angles, with ASAWC10 showing reductions in erosion rate of 10.92% at 45°, 11.77% at 60°, 14.06% at 75°, and 16.57% at 90°, demonstrating an effective enhancement in erosion resistance with optimal WS content. As the impingement angle increases to 45°, 60°, 75°, and finally 90°, all materials show a general decline in erosion rate. At 90°, neat ASA’s erosion rate reaches its lowest at 24.27 ± 1.45 mg/kg, while ASAWS10 achieves the lowest erosion rate overall at 20.25 ± 1.51 mg/kg, indicating that 10 wt.% WS filler enhances erosion resistance, especially at higher angles. Figure 3 visually confirms these findings, showing the trend of decreasing erosion rates with increased impingement angle and reinforcing the superior performance of ASAWS composites. The erosion pattern observed aligns with ductile erosion behavior, where erosion rates are higher at lower impingement angles and decrease as the angle approaches perpendicular impact. The erosion resistance as a function of impingement angle for neat ASA and ASAWS composites is depicted in Fig. 4 . The graph reveals a clear trend where the erosion coefficient decreases as the impingement angle increases from 30° to 90°. Among the composites, ASAWS10 consistently exhibits the lowest erosion coefficient across all angles, reinforcing the earlier conclusion that 10 wt.% WS filler provides optimal erosion rate. The data suggest that the interaction between the WS particles and the polymer matrix effectively dissipates impact energy, thereby reducing material loss [ 29 , 30 ]. In contrast, ASAWS15 shows a slight increase in the erosion coefficient, particularly at lower angles, which may indicate suboptimal dispersion or agglomeration of WS particles at higher loadings. A slight decrease in hardness is observed for ASAWS15. These findings could be attributed to the untreated-WS content leading to weak interfacial bonding [ 31 , 32 ] and suboptimal distribution within the matrix [ 3 ]. This observation aligns with findings reported by Shejkar and co-workers [ 33 , 34 ], emphasizing the importance of surface treatment in improving filler-matrix interactions. The results from Fig. 4 , in conjunction with those in Table 3 , underline the significance of optimizing filler content to achieve a balance between improved mechanical properties and erosion resistance. 3.2. Erosion behavior of PC, ASA, PC/ASA blend The density and hardness values of ASA, PC, and PC/ASA blend are summarized in Table 4 . The PC exhibits the highest density and hardness, highlighting its inherent material strength and compact structure. In contrast, ASA has a lower density and hardness, reflecting its relatively less dense and softer nature. Table 4 Density and Hardness Rocwell R (HRR) measurements of ASA, PC and PC/ASA blend with mean values and standard deviations. Samples Density, g/cm3 Hardness Rocwell R PC 1.185 ± 0.016 120.7 ± 2.49 ASA 1.048 ± 0.009 101.7 ± 2.05 PC/ASA 1.133 ± 0.016 112.4 ± 2.86 The PC/ASA blend achieves intermediate values with a density of 1.133 ± 0.016 g/cm³ and hardness of 112.4 ± 2.86 HRR. This result indicates that blending ASA into a PC moderately reduces the hardness of the PC while enhancing the properties of ASA. These intermediate values underscore the balance achieved in the PC/ASA blend, which offers improved density and hardness over neat ASA while maintaining reasonable performance compared to neat PC. The solid particle erosion rates of ASA, PC, and PC/ASA blend across various impingement angles are detailed in Table 5 and Fig. 5 , showing the erosion resistance of each material under different impact conditions. Table 5 Solid particle erosion rate at varying impingement angles for ASA, PC and PC/ASA blend with mean values and standard deviations. Impingement Angle, ° Erosion Rate, [mg/kg] PC ASA PC/ASA 30 52.5 ± 2.91 169.25 ± 7.26 127.5 ± 5.26 45 33.75 ± 1.55 84.75 ± 4.82 56.50 ± 3.58 60 22.25 ± 1.84 55.25 ± 3.75 34.75 ± 3.05 75 10.28 ± 1.58 25.60 ± 3.87 16.90 ± 1.98 90 6.25 ± 1.36 24.27 ± 1.45 15.00 ± 1.08 At a 30° impingement angle, ASA exhibits the highest erosion rate at 169.25 ± 7.26 mg/kg, while the PC demonstrates a significantly lower rate of 52.5 ± 2.91 mg/kg, highlighting a substantial 69% reduction in erosion rate compared to ASA. The PC/ASA blend exhibits an intermediate erosion rate of 127.5 ± 5.26 mg/kg, signifying a 25% improvement compared to ASA but a 142% increase in erosion rate relative to PC. As the angle increases to 45°, the ASA’s erosion rate decreases to 84.75 ± 4.82 mg/kg. In comparison, the PC maintains a lower rate of 33.75 ± 1.55 mg/kg, representing a 60% improvement over ASA at this angle. The PC/ASA blend’s erosion rate is 56.50 ± 3.58 mg/kg, showing a 33% improvement over ASA yet a 67% increase relative to PC. At 60° and 75° angles, the PC continues to show the highest erosion resistance, with rates of 22.25 ± 1.84 mg/kg and 10.28 ± 1.58 mg/kg, respectively. The ASA’s erosion rates for these angles are 55.25 ± 3.75 mg/kg and 25.60 ± 3.87 mg/kg, while the PC/ASA blend reaches intermediate values of 34.75 ± 3.05 mg/kg and 16.90 ± 1.98 mg/kg. These results indicate erosion resistance improvements of approximately 60% and 56% for neat PC over neat ASA at 60° and 75° angles, while the PC/ASA blend shows improvements of 37% and 34%, respectively, compared to neat ASA. At a perpendicular impact of 90°, neat PC achieves the lowest erosion rate of 6.25 ± 1.36 mg/kg, while ASA’s rate is 22.00 ± 1.45 mg/kg. The PC/ASA blend, with an erosion rate of 15.00 ± 1.08 mg/kg, demonstrates a 32% improvement over ASA but a 140% increase relative to PC. These results reveal that incorporating ASA into PC to form a PC/ASA blend creates a new matrix that decreases the erosion rate of ASA but sacrifices some of the erosion rate inherent to PC alone. The overall erosion pattern observed in Fig. 2 suggests a ductile erosion behavior, with erosion rates decreasing as the impingement angle approaches perpendicular impact (90°). This behavior reflects the material’s ability to absorb energy and resist material loss effectively under erosive forces, indicating that the PC/ASA blend could be optimized for applications requiring improved durability against erosive wear. The erosion coefficient variations for ASA, PC, and the PC/ASA blend are presented in Fig. 6 . The graph illustrates a decreasing trend in the erosion coefficient as the impingement angle increases from 30° to 90°. The PC exhibits the lowest erosion coefficient at all angles, consistent with its superior erosion resistance, while ASA has the highest values. The PC/ASA blend shows intermediate erosion coefficients, reflecting its balanced performance. Notably, the reduction in the erosion coefficient with increasing angles highlights the ductile erosion mechanism, where lower angles cause higher material removal due to tangential forces. At 90°, where the impact is perpendicular, the materials demonstrate their best erosion resistance, with PC showing the highest durability. By combining insights from Table 2 and Fig. 6 , it is evident that the PC/ASA blend offers a practical compromise between the superior erosion resistance of PC and the enhanced toughness of ASA, as supported by previous studies[ 16 , 35 ]. This blend is particularly suited for applications where moderate erosion resistance and enhanced mechanical properties are essential. 3.3. Erosion behavior of PC/ASA blend and PC/ASAWS composites In the previous section, the erosion rates of the PC/ASA blend were examined, and further analysis was conducted by incorporating WS filler at concentrations of 5 wt.%, 10 wt.%, and 15 wt.% to evaluate the effect of natural filler on erosion behavior. The density and hardness values for the PC/ASA blend and PC/ASAWS composites are summarized in Table 6 , while Table 7 presents the solid particle erosion rates at varying impingement angles for both PC/ASA blend and PC/ASAWS composites. The incorporation of WS filler leads to a gradual increase in density from 1.133 ± 0.016 g/cm³ for the PC/ASA blend to 1.217 ± 0.007 g/cm³ for the composite containing 15 wt.% WS. Similarly, the hardness values exhibit an initial improvement, peaking at 122.04 ± 2.75 HRR for PC/ASAWC10, followed by a slight reduction for PC/ASAWC15. This decrease at higher WS content suggests possible agglomeration of WS particles, leading to localized stress concentrations that compromise the material's overall hardness. These observations indicate that a 10 wt.% WS filler provides the optimal balance for enhancing both density and hardness. Table 6 Density and Hardness Rocwell R (HRR) measurements of PC/ASA blend and PC/ASAWS composites with mean values and standard deviations. Samples Density, g/cm 3 Hardness Rockwell R PC/ASA 1.133 ± 0.016 112.40 ± 2.86 PC/ASAWS5 1.160 ± 0.014 119.78 ± 3.27 PC/ASAWS10 1.181 ± 0.019 122.04 ± 2.75 PC/ASAWS15 1.217 ± 0.007 109.10 ± 3.34 Table 7 Solid particle erosion rate at varying impingement angles for PC/ASA blend and PC/ASAWS composites with mean values and standard deviations. Impingement angle, ° Erosion Rate, [mg/kg] PC/ASA PC/ASAWS5 PC/ASAWS10 PC/ASAWS15 30 127.5 ± 5.26 111.25 ± 4.25 100.50 ± 5.89 120.75 ± 8.37 45 56.50 ± 3.58 51.25 ± 3.14 44.50 ± 2.56 55.25 ± 3.1 60 34.75 ± 3.05 25.75 ± 1.89 23.50 ± 1.63 27.75 ± 2.56 75 16.90 ± 1.98 13.47 ± 1.1 12.09 ± 1.73 15.58 ± 1.56 90 15.00 ± 1.08 11.25 ± 0.88 9.50 ± 0.78 14.25 ± 1.83 At a 30° impingement angle, the erosion rate for the PC/ASA blend is 127.5 ± 5.26 mg/kg. With the addition of 10 wt.% WS, the erosion rate improves by 21%, decreasing to 100.50 ± 5.89 mg/kg. This trend of improvement continues at other angles; for example, at a 45° angle, PC/ASAWC10 achieves an erosion rate of 44.50 ± 2.56 mg/kg, which is a 21.3% improvement over PC/ASA0 at 56.50 ± 3.58 mg/kg. At a 60° angle, the erosion rate of PC/ASAWC10 further improves by 32.3%, reaching 23.50 ± 1.63 mg/kg compared to PC/ASA’s 34.75 ± 3.05 mg/kg. Similarly, at 75° and 90° angles, PC/ASAWC10 shows reductions in erosion rate of 28.4% and 36.7%, with rates of 12.09 ± 1.73 mg/kg and 9.50 ± 0.78 mg/kg, respectively, compared to PC/ASA0 values of 16.90 ± 1.98 mg/kg and 15.00 ± 1.08 mg/kg. The results indicate that the 10 wt.% WS concentration optimally enhances erosion resistance across all tested angles. This finding suggests that 10 wt.% WS filler provides an optimal balance between impact absorption and erosion resistance in the PC/ASA matrix. Additionally, as the impingement angle increases from 30° to 90°, a general reduction in erosion rate is observed, typical of ductile erosion behavior. Ductile erosion is characterized by higher erosion rates at lower angles, with rates diminishing as the impact angle becomes more perpendicular (90°), due to the material’s ability to deform and absorb impact energy more effectively [ 36 ]. Overall, the addition of WS to the PC/ASA blend results in a new composite matrix that improves erosion resistance, especially at 10 wt.% WS. The ductile erosion behavior observed in Fig. 7 confirms the composite’s ability to withstand erosive wear, suggesting that PC/ASAWS composites are well-suited for applications requiring high erosion resistance in abrasive environments. The variation in erosion coefficient as a function of impingement angle for PC/ASA and PC/ASAWS composites is shown in Fig. 8 . The graph illustrates a decreasing trend in the erosion coefficient with increasing impingement angle, consistent with ductile erosion behavior. At lower angles (e.g., 30°), tangential forces dominate [ 37 ], causing higher erosion rates, while at higher angles (e.g., 90°), perpendicular impacts lead to lower material removal due to better energy absorption [ 38 ]. The PC/ASAWS10 composite consistently exhibits the lowest erosion coefficients across all angles, further confirming its superior erosion resistance. The data underline that the addition of 10 wt.% WS to the PC/ASA matrix optimally balances impact absorption and erosion resistance, creating a composite with enhanced durability against erosive forces. Based on the comprehensive test results, it is clear that the PC/ASAWS10 sample represents the most effective formulation for enhancing both hardness properties and erosion resistance. This composite demonstrates enhanced performance while being an eco-friendly green composite, making it an up-and-coming candidate for applications in abrasive environments where improved material durability and sustainability are essential. 3.4. Damage Analysis at Micro and Macro Scales The damage analysis of ASA, PC, PC/ASA, and their respective 10 wt.% WS-filled composites was conducted using both macro photography and SEM imaging at varying magnifications. As shown in Fig. 9 , at a 30° impingement angle, in the neat ASA exhibited prominent plowing marks and significant material removal in macro images, consistent with ductile erosion behavior. SEM images at 500× magnification revealed irregular grooves and deformation patterns aligned with the particle flow direction. At higher magnifications (5000×), the eroded surface showed microcracks and plastic deformation. In contrast, as shown in Fig. 10 , the ASAWS10 composite displayed reduced material removal and smoother surface features, suggesting improved erosion resistance. SEM images highlighted the dispersion of walnut shell particles within the ASA matrix, which effectively dissipated impact energy and restricted crack propagation. At a 90° impingement angle, neat ASA showed crater-like formations in Fig. 11 due to the perpendicular impact, while ASAWS10 in Fig. 12 demonstrated fewer craters and a more compact surface, confirming enhanced impact resistance from WS filler. As shown in Figs. 13 and 14 , the PC exhibited minimal surface damage at both 30° and 90° impingement angles, consistent with its superior hardness and erosion resistance. The macro images Fig. 13 a and 14 a showed slight surface roughening, while SEM images revealed small, shallow craters without significant material displacement. The PC/ASA blend, while showing more surface damage compared to the PC, presented intermediate erosion characteristics in Figs. 15 and 16 . At 500× magnification showing in Fig. 15 b-c and Fig. 16 b-c, the SEM images revealed material removal patterns aligned with the flow direction of abrasive particles. These features, characterized by parallel grooves or scratches, indicate the sliding action of particles on the surface, resulting in localized material displacement or ploughing. In the PC/ASA blend, the toughness of ASA and the hardness of PC create a balanced response to erosion. The PC matrix resists deeper deformation, while ASA's ductility accommodates impact, leading to visible microstructural features such as shallow grooves and subtle surface undulations. As shown in Fig. 17 , at a 30° impingement angle, macro images displayed a smoother surface compared to PC/ASA showing in Fig. 15 . The images at 500× and 5000× magnifications in Fig. 17 revealed a compact microstructure with fewer erosion marks, attributed to the reinforcing effect of WS particles. As detected in Fig. 18 , at 90°impingement angle, PC/ASAWS10 exhibited minimal cratering and a uniform surface morphology, highlighting the synergistic effects of PC/ASA and WS. Overall, The ASA showed the highest damage levels under all conditions, while the PC had the least. WS-filled composites, particularly ASAWS10 and PC/ASAWS10, demonstrated significant improvements in erosion resistance. The micro and macro imaging results consistently highlighted the role of WS as a filler, enhancing toughness and mitigating damage caused by erosive forces, specifically the normal force (F n ) and tangential force (F t ). 4. CONCLUSIONS The study findings reveal that incorporating walnut shell (WS) into ASA and PC/ASA matrices significantly enhances their erosion resistance and provides a sustainable material solution. The erosion analysis demonstrated that adding WS, particularly at an optimal concentration of 10 wt.%, effectively reduced material loss by up to 36.7% compared to unfilled PC/ASA. This improvement is attributed to the energy-dissipating and crack-mitigating properties of WS particles, as evidenced by micro and macro imaging of erosion damage. Density and hardness measurements indicated that WS filler increased the composite’s compactness and mechanical strength, peaking at 10 wt.% WS, while higher concentrations led to minor declines due to potential agglomeration. SEM analysis confirmed the uniform dispersion of WS in the matrix, contributing to enhanced erosion resistance and reduced surface damage under impact. The WS-filled PC/ASA composites also exhibited a ductile erosion mechanism, with decreasing erosion rates observed as the impingement angle approached 90°. This behavior reflects the material's ability to absorb and dissipate impact energy effectively. The improved erosion resistance, combined with its lightweight and eco-friendly nature, makes PC/ASAWS composites promising candidates for sectors such as construction, automotive, and outdoor equipment manufacturing. Declarations Author Contribution H.S. and S.M.D. conducted the experimental work, including the solid particle erosion tests and related analyses. İ.K. was responsible for the preparation and production of the composite materials. M.B. reviewed the manuscript. H.S. and İ.K wrote the main manuscript text, prepared it. All authors discussed the results, contributed to the interpretation, and approved the final version of the manuscript. References Karagöz İ (2024) Production and characterization of sustainable biocompatible PLA/walnut shell composite materials. Polymer Bulletin:1-21.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-024-05247-4 Karagöz İ, Büyükkaya K, Demirer H, Mudu M, Kartal İ (2024) Mechanical and thermal characterization of elastomer modified polypropylene hybrid composites reinforced with hazelnut shell and wollastonite fillers. J Appl Polym Sci:e55710.https://doi.org/10.1002/app.55710 Karagöz İ, Mutlu D, Çavuşoğlu A, Çelebi M, Ceylan Ö (2024) A comprehensive study on the effect of small rates of walnut shell and talc fillers on the thermal, mechanical, and morphological properties of epoxy hybrid composites. Biomass Convers and Biorefin:1-12.https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-024-05660-9 Salasinska K, Barczewski M, Borucka M, Górny RL, Kozikowski P, Celiński M, et al. (2019) Thermal stability, fire and smoke behaviour of epoxy composites modified with plant waste fillers. Polymers 11:1234.https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11081234 Sepetcioglu H, Demet SM, Bagci M (2023) A comprehensive experimental study of enhanced solid particle erosive resistance on the inner/outer surface of graphene nanoplatelets modified basalt/epoxy composite pipe. Polym Compos 44:6944-56.https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.27609 Han Y, Liu J, He XJ, Zhou C (2012) Morphology and properties of ASA/PC blends. Adv Mater Res 450:1467-70.https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.450-451.1467 Han Y, Tai Z-X, Zhou C, Zhang M-Y, Zhang H-X, Liu F-Q (2009) Influence of blend composition on the mechanical properties and morphology of PC/ASA/SAN ternary blends. Polym Bull 62:855-66.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-009-0057-8 Palacios-Ibáñez B, Relinque JJ, Moreno-Sánchez D, de León AS, Delgado FJ, Escobar-Galindo R, et al. (2022) Synthesis and Characterisation of ASA-PEEK Composites for Fused Filament Fabrication. Polymers 14:496.https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14030496 Huang J, Kuo C, Tsai H-Y (2022) Stiffness enhancement, anti-aging, and self-forming holes in polycarbonate/acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylic by the core-shell structure of acrylic resin. Polymers 14:782.https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14030496 Boehme M, Fu G, Ionescu E, Ensinger W (2010) Fabrication of anatase titanium dioxide nanotubes by electroless deposition using polycarbonate for separate casting method. Nano-Micro Letters 2:26-30.https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03353613 Redjala S, Ferhoum R, Aït Hocine N, Azem S (2019) Degradation of polycarbonate properties under thermal aging. J Fail Analy and Prev 19:536-42.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11668-019-00630-0 Zhang W, Dai J, Wu Y-C, Chen J-X, Shan S-Y, Cai Z, et al. (2022) Highly reactive cyclic carbonates with a fused ring toward functionalizable and recyclable polycarbonates. ACS Macro Letters 11:173-8.https://doi.org/10.1021/acsmacrolett.1c00653 Guessasma S, Belhabib S, Nouri H (2019) Microstructure, thermal and mechanical behavior of 3D printed acrylonitrile styrene acrylate. Macromol Mater Eng 304:1800793.https://doi.org/10.1002/mame.201800793 Kumar SR, Sridhar S, Venkatraman R, Venkatesan M (2021) Polymer additive manufacturing of ASA structure: Influence of printing parameters on mechanical properties. Mater Today 39:1316-9.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.04.500 Ramírez-Revilla S, Camacho-Valencia D, Gonzales-Condori EG, Márquez G (2023) Evaluation and comparison of the degradability and compressive and tensile properties of 3D printing polymeric materials: PLA, PETG, PC, and ASA. MRS Commun 13:55-62.https://doi.org/10.1557/s43579-022-00311-4 Ramteke AA, Maiti S (2010) Mechanical properties of polycarbonate/modified acrylonitrile‐styrene‐acrylate terpolymer blend. J Appl Polym Sci 116:486-92. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.31560 Arzumanova NB (2021) Polymer biocomposites based on agro waste: Part iii. shells of various nuts as natural filler for polymer composites. New Mater Comp Appl 5:19-44 Kabir MM, Alhaik MY, Aldajah SH, Lau KT, Wang H, Islam MM (2021) Effect of Hemp Fibre Surface Treatment on the Fibre‐Matrix Interface and the Influence of Cellulose, Hemicellulose, and Lignin Contents on Composite Strength Properties. Adv Mater Sci 2021:9753779. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/9753779 Miao C, Hamad WY (2013) Cellulose reinforced polymer composites and nanocomposites: a critical review. Cellulose 20:2221-62.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-013-0007-3 Shahapurkar K, Darekar V, Banjan R, Nidasosi N, Soudagar MEM (2021) Factors affecting the solid particle erosion of environment pollutant and natural particulate filled polymer composites—A review. Polym Polym Compos 29:1587-98.https://doi.org/10.1177/0967391120971411 Demet SM (2023) Grafen Nanoplaka Katkılı Bazalt Elyaf Takviyeli Kompozit Boruların İç Yüzey Erozif Aşınma Direncinde Aşındırıcı Partikül Hızının Rolünün İncelenmesi. Çukurova Üniversitesi Mühendislik Fakültesi Dergisi 38:907-15.https://doi.org/10.21605/cukurovaumfd.1410220 Demet SM, Sepetcioglu H, Bagci M (2023) Solid particle erosion behavior on the outer surface of basalt/epoxy composite pipes produced by the filament winding technique. Polymers 15:319.https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15020319 Hutchings I (1993) Mechanisms of wear in powder technology: a review. Powder Technol 76:3-13.https://doi.org/10.1016/0032-5910(93)80035-9 Hutchings I, Shipway P. Tribology: friction and wear of engineering materials: Butterworth-heinemann; 2017. Sundararajan G, Roy M, Venkataraman B (1990) Erosion efficiency-a new parameter to characterize the dominant erosion micromechanism. Wear 140:369-81.https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1648(90)90096-S Clark HM (1992) The influence of the flow field in slurry erosion. Wear 152:223-40.https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1648(92)90122-O Miyazaki N (2016) Solid particle erosion of composite materials: A critical review. J Compos Mater 50:3175-217.https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998315617818 Saran CS, Satapathy A (2024) Epoxy‐hemp and epoxy‐flax composites filled with glass dust for enhanced thermal insulation: An analytical and experimental study. Polym Compos 45:5244-55. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.28123 Das O, Sarmah AK, Bhattacharyya D (2016) Biocomposites from waste derived biochars: Mechanical, thermal, chemical, and morphological properties. J Waste Manag 49:560-70.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2015.12.007 Ho M-P, Lau K-T (2014) Enhancement of impact resistance of biodegradable polymer using bamboo charcoal particles. Mater Lett 136:122-5.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2014.07.165 Karagöz İ, Tamer İM, Çavuşoğlu A, Sepetcioglu H (2024) Investigation of mechanical, thermal, and morphological properties of walnut shell and nano clay reinforced HDPE composites. Mater Today Commun:110905.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2024.110905 Yang J, Zhang K, Chen D, Zhang Y, Zhang X (2022) Physical, mechanical and abrasive wear behavior of attapulgite reinforced walnut shell/PVC composites. J Polym Res 29:522.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10965-022-03374-y Shejkar SK, Agrawal B, Agrawal A, Gupta G (2022) Physical, mechanical, and sliding wear behavior of epoxy composites filled with surface modified walnut shell particulate. Polym Compos 43:7526-37. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.26847 Shejkar SK, Agrawal B, Agrawal A, Gupta G, Pati PR (2023) Influence of filler content and surface modification on physical and mechanical properties of epoxy/walnut shell particulate composites. J Adhes Sci Technol 37:1215-32.https://doi.org/10.1080/01694243.2022.2066915 Kang M, Kim CK, Lee JW (2006) PC/ASA blends having enhanced interfacial and mechanical properties. J Rheol 18:1-8 Panchal M, Minugu OP, Gujjala R, Ojha S, Mallampati Chowdary S, Mohammad A (2022) Study of environmental behavior and its effect on solid particle erosion behavior of hierarchical porous activated carbon‐epoxy composite. Polym Compos 43:2276-87.https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.26539 Kumar R, Rezapourian M, Rahmani R, Maurya HS, Kamboj N, Hussainova I (2024) Bioinspired and Multifunctional Tribological Materials for Sliding, Erosive, Machining, and Energy-Absorbing Conditions: A Review. Biomimetics 9:209.https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics9040209 Uzi A, Levy A (2018) Energy absorption by the particle and the surface during impact. Wear 404:92-110.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2018.03.007 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5600372","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":394439776,"identity":"3554846e-d75c-4a64-a7a7-36143a6a5b9c","order_by":0,"name":"Harun Sepetcioglu","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA/klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACAwST+QADQwEDgwQDBBOhhY0tAcyFajEgRguPAXFazNnPPpMu+GOTxy/f8/nDBwO7xJkNzAdv8zD8ycelxbIn3Ux6ZltasWQb7zbJGQbJibMZ2JKteRgMLBtwOexAGps0b8PhxA3HeLcx8xgcSJzHwGMmDdSC02UG55+xSfP8+Z+4/xjP489/wFr4v+HXcgNoCw/bgcQNbDwM0kBLgQ7jYSOg5RmzNW9bcrHEsTQzyR6DZOOZzWzGlnMMjPE4LI3xNs8fuzz+5sOPP/yosJOdcbz54Y03FXK4QxkKEhBMZrBRhDSgaBkFo2AUjIJRgAYAGYBMFmqp8tcAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Selçuk University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Harun","middleName":"","lastName":"Sepetcioglu","suffix":""},{"id":394439777,"identity":"29c1e8b1-aac9-4b2b-af81-04646c68af2b","order_by":1,"name":"Seyit Mehmet Demet","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Konya Technical University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Seyit","middleName":"Mehmet","lastName":"Demet","suffix":""},{"id":394439779,"identity":"3c5620ef-56b0-45b5-96ec-ed98bcb7f415","order_by":2,"name":"İdris Karagöz","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Yalova University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"İdris","middleName":"","lastName":"Karagöz","suffix":""},{"id":394439780,"identity":"254cd239-db2b-4be5-ac68-3c20156a5bda","order_by":3,"name":"Mehmet Bagci","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Konya Technical University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mehmet","middleName":"","lastName":"Bagci","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-12-07 19:23:06","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5600372/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5600372/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":72610714,"identity":"38f16d18-ca5e-43c8-821e-5ced14721e99","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-30 10:22:53","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":346612,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSchematic representation of the sample preparation and testing process, including granulation using a twin-screw extruder, drying, storage in a desiccator, injection molding, and subsequent erosion testing.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5600372/v1/1e28d5c6938c122f7b9679a4.png"},{"id":72610717,"identity":"6fab0e27-4bd9-46b6-9ff7-bf774f9fd186","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-30 10:22:53","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":134966,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSchematic illustration showing (a) the setup of solid particle erosion rig, (b) the erosion process, and (c) the impact-induced erosive mechanism.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5600372/v1/8f74326d4285a88c7db30683.png"},{"id":72610720,"identity":"241dd869-d4e0-498a-96e2-6f56220e76ee","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-30 10:22:53","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":355434,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVariation in solid particle erosion rate and impingement angle for ASA and ASAWS composites\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5600372/v1/e2a43344cd65cdb1e94ab86e.png"},{"id":72610743,"identity":"7a060c92-1fda-47d5-bf7e-c844794ea37e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-30 10:22:54","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":309152,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVariation in erosion coefficient and impingement angle for ASA and ASAWS composites\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5600372/v1/029c5507c660253e3a68b7e6.png"},{"id":72610726,"identity":"9468d441-75f2-4336-aad2-16f06e6fd810","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-30 10:22:53","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":406571,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVariation in solid particle erosion rate and impingement angle for ASA, PC, and PC/ASA blend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5600372/v1/9b11f8d1e85054f566563b4c.png"},{"id":72612610,"identity":"55e55166-7d57-4c43-aaa5-5fd8370d9832","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-30 10:30:53","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":327567,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVariation in erosion coefficient and impingement angle for PC, ASA, and PC/ASA blend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5600372/v1/f554ac8de52d1e7f54f1d94d.png"},{"id":72610716,"identity":"225ecc4d-9598-4631-8899-beee8f792c55","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-30 10:22:53","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":389824,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVariation in solid particle erosion rate and impingement angle for PC/ASA blend and PC/ASAWS composites\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5600372/v1/0c72b109c9f4471407e37cc6.png"},{"id":72612605,"identity":"ecd70880-19e9-48ed-bc01-1aa395cf7e48","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-30 10:30:53","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":417717,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVariation in erosion coefficient and impingement angle for PC/ASA blend and PC/ASAWS composites\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5600372/v1/1c39c50a5a198d6a59e9caa0.png"},{"id":72610736,"identity":"fa979e59-da60-4be6-9e16-4ddfe742913f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-30 10:22:54","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":621979,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe solid particle erosion damage analysis of the ASA at 30º impingement angle: (a) macro image and SEM images at magnifications of (b) 500×, (c) 5000×, and (d) 1000×\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5600372/v1/ca3820f13bc765686304b3b8.png"},{"id":72612618,"identity":"9b9a1162-8609-4930-bad2-6b88a40e71e0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-30 10:30:54","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":824830,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe solid particle erosion damage analysis of the ASAWS10 at 30º impingement angle: (a) macro image and SEM images at magnifications of (b) 500×, (c) 5000×, and (d) 1000×\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5600372/v1/4d55d39365e458efef584c64.png"},{"id":72610719,"identity":"fda31178-83d1-4f43-8649-5cc7b3dd100d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-30 10:22:53","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":686345,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe solid particle erosion damage analysis of the ASA at 90º impingement angle: (a) macro image and SEM images at magnifications of (b) 500×, (c) 5000×, and (d) 1000×\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5600372/v1/8544b5724a7218d14464ded1.png"},{"id":72612606,"identity":"9e575bfe-ddd5-4f55-9eca-956692426eed","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-30 10:30:53","extension":"png","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":779222,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe solid particle erosion damage analysis of the ASAWS10 at 90º impingement angle: (a) macro image and SEM images at magnifications of (b) 500×, (c) 5000×, and (d) 1000×\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5600372/v1/5edbf857a740feb2eeb53a1f.png"},{"id":72613858,"identity":"cc4076e5-3a00-477a-a695-bfffe3a6ec4e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-30 10:46:54","extension":"png","order_by":13,"title":"Figure 13","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":761436,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe solid particle erosion damage analysis of the PC at 30º impingement angle: (a) macro image and SEM images at magnifications of (b) 500×, (c) 5000×, and (d) 1000×\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"13.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5600372/v1/fcfa2444e76598e1a34893e0.png"},{"id":72612620,"identity":"ec392131-8f5c-4a8a-9142-c5e52930087f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-30 10:30:54","extension":"png","order_by":14,"title":"Figure 14","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":661949,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe solid particle erosion damage analysis of the PC at 90º impingement angle: (a) macro image and SEM images at magnifications of (b) 500×, (c) 5000×, and (d) 1000×\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"14.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5600372/v1/787e1348497e08c632a168bd.png"},{"id":72610738,"identity":"04fd4cdb-f581-488d-8b93-ffb9189d0f77","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-30 10:22:54","extension":"png","order_by":15,"title":"Figure 15","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":612117,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe solid particle erosion damage analysis of the PC/ASA at 30º impingement angle: (a) macro image and SEM images at magnifications of (b) 500×, (c) 5000×, and (d) 1000×\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"15.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5600372/v1/2cb54b49d943fc9d19014445.png"},{"id":72610766,"identity":"7e6c7363-2d7a-4dd6-8b88-41c503e19707","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-30 10:22:54","extension":"png","order_by":16,"title":"Figure 16","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":561761,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe solid particle erosion damage analysis of the PC/ASA at 90º impingement angle: (a) macro image and SEM images at magnifications of (b) 500×, (c) 5000×, and (d) 1000×\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"16.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5600372/v1/0ab513c397b4e0270bcf3165.png"},{"id":72612619,"identity":"13466657-25ca-44cf-a2f9-71cb2e28baa9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-30 10:30:54","extension":"png","order_by":17,"title":"Figure 17","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":744621,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe solid particle erosion damage analysis of the PC/ASAWS10 at 30º impingement angle: (a) macro image and SEM images at magnifications of (b) 500×, (c) 5000×, and (d) 1000×\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"17.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5600372/v1/2a9ea0e222027ad9116889f2.png"},{"id":72610752,"identity":"a4c1ec67-765a-429c-ab9e-0bccd90bc5cc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-30 10:22:54","extension":"png","order_by":18,"title":"Figure 18","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":609273,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe solid particle erosion damage analysis of the PC/ASAWS10 at 90º impingement angle: (a) macro image and SEM images at magnifications of (b) 500×, (c) 5000×, and (d) 1000×\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"18.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5600372/v1/e42ec199db632b767561bcde.png"},{"id":73156918,"identity":"7d488016-88fd-404d-86c6-e099c2371d68","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-07 09:09:49","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":10936476,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5600372/v1/d3ba43f6-7f96-46a3-9226-d0804011fbd3.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Solid particle erosion behaviors of walnut shell-filled (acrylic-styrene-acrylate) [ASA] and (polycarbonate/acrylic-styrene-acrylate) [PC/ASA] thermoplastic blend biocomposites","fulltext":[{"header":"Highlights","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Walnut shell filler reduces erosion rates by up to 36.7%.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Improved hardness and density achieved with optimized filler content.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Ductile erosion mechanism ensures better impact energy dissipation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"1. INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe creation of sustainable and high-performance materials has become increasingly important in recent years, driven by both environmental concerns and the demand for improved material properties in industrial applications [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Among the most promising solutions are thermoplastic composites reinforced with natural fillers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e], which offer the potential to reduce environmental impact while enhancing the mechanical [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e], thermal [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e], and erosion resistance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e] of polymeric materials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe combination of acrylic-styrene-acrylate (ASA) with various thermoplastic fillers, such as styrene-acrylonitrile copolymer (SAN), poly(ether-ether-ketone) (PEEK) and Polycarbonate (PC), has been shown to enhance the mechanical and thermal properties of the resulting alloys, broadening their potential applications [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR7\" citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. An example of a thermoplastic blend is the micro-particle-filled ASA and PEEK thermoplastic alloy. In this blend system, ASA serves as the polymer matrix while reused PEEK micro-particles act as fillers. The incorporation of PEEK enhances the stiffness, tensile strength, and thermal stability of the composite, making it a potential candidate for sustainable material applications [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Another example is that Huang et al. developed a blend consisting of 70% polycarbonate (PC) and 30% ASA, introducing ASA into the PC matrix to enhance performance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. To further understand the advantages of combining these materials, examining the individual contributions of PC and ASA to the blend is essential. Exploring the properties of each component separately clarifies how their unique characteristics synergize in the PC/ASA blend. The PC is a high-performance engineering polymer known for its exceptional toughness, impact resistance, and thermal stability. PC exhibits superior mechanical properties over a wide temperature range, making it suitable for demanding applications such as automotive components, electronic parts, and industrial tools. Furthermore, PC's amorphous structure imparts excellent dimensional stability and transparency, which are desirable features in many consumer products [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR11\" citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. On the other hand, the ASA is a weather-resistant thermoplastic that was originally developed as an alternative to acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS). ASA shares similar mechanical properties with ABS, but with enhanced resistance to UV radiation, weathering, and chemicals due to the absence of double bonds in its molecular structure. This makes ASA particularly suitable for outdoor applications, where prolonged exposure to sunlight, moisture, and harsh environmental conditions can degrade other polymer materials. The ability of ASA to retain its color, gloss, and mechanical integrity over time makes it a highly attractive material for applications such as automotive exterior parts, outdoor products, and building materials [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR14\" citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe PC/ASA thermoplastic blends are widely utilized in various industries such as automotive, outdoor electronics, sports equipment, and medical care due to their excellent mechanical and thermal properties; however, their use is restricted by poor impact resistance and aging characteristics [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. The blending of ASA with PC results in a thermoplastic alloy that synergistically integrates the advantageous properties of both materials. The PC/ASA blend offers enhanced heat resistance, toughness, and impact strength, while maintaining superior resistance to environmental factors such as UV-radiation and moisture. This combination makes PC/ASA belnds particularly well-suited for applications that require high mechanical performance along with long-term environmental stability [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWalnut shell (WS) is an abundant agricultural byproduct that may enhance the properties of polymer composites [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. Composed of lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose, they provide mechanical filler in polymer matrices. Incorporating WS filler into ASA and PC/ASA thermoplastic alloy can improve stiffness and reduce density, while also introducing an eco-friendly aspect that supports the demand for sustainable materials [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. A key challenge in industrial applications is resistance to solid particle erosion, which occurs due to repeated impacts by hard particles, leading to material degradation. This is particularly relevant in industries such as aerospace, automotive, and construction [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. The erosion behavior of polymer composites is influenced by factors like the mechanical properties of the polymer matrix and the nature of the filler [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Adding WS particles could enhance the erosion resistance of ASA and PC/ASA blend by dissipating impact energy and leveraging the inherent toughness of the matrix. This development aligns with the goal of creating sustainable materials that deliver high performance while minimizing environmental impact.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, ASAWS and PC/ASAWS composites with WS concentrations of 5 wt.%, 10 wt.%, and 15 wt.% have been fabricated using a single-screw extruder, along with a neat ASA matrix and a PC/ASA blend with a constant weight ratio of 80% PC and 20% ASA. The aim of this study is to investigate the solid particle erosion behavior of WS-filled ASA and PC/ASA thermoplastic blend biocomposites. By combining the toughness and environmental resistance of the PC/ASA blend with the natural reinforcing properties of WSs, this research seeks to evaluate the potential of these green composites for use in applications where both high mechanical performance and erosion resistance are required, particularly in challenging outdoor or abrasive environments.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Materials and Production\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the study, Lotte Starex\u0026reg; WR-9140 General Purpose ASA, with a density of 1.06 g/cm\u0026sup3; and a melt flow index (MFI) of 7 g/10 min, was used. Similarly, Kazan PC-022, a commercial-grade polycarbonate, with a density of 1.20 g/cm\u0026sup3; and an MFI of 22 g/10 min, was utilized. Walnut shells from the Maraş18 variety, cultivated in the \u0026Ccedil;ağlayancerit region of Kahramanmaraş and exhibiting a density range of 0.8\u0026ndash;1.2 g/cm\u0026sup3;, served as the reinforcing filler.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrior to extrusion, walnut shells were dried at 100\u0026deg;C for one hour. In the sample coding system, composites made of ASA and walnut shell (WS) are labeled to reflect the walnut shell content in the composite. For example, a sample with an ASA matrix containing 5% walnut shell is coded as ASAWS5. In composites containing PC, ASA, and WS, 80% of the matrix is PC, with the remaining 20% divided between ASA and WS. Similarly, the coding system for PC-based composites indicates the walnut shell content within the PC matrix. For instance, a sample with 80 wt.% PC, 15 wt.% ASA, and 5 wt.% walnut shell is coded as PC/ASAWS5. The samples were processed into granules using a G\u0026uuml;lnar twin-screw extruder (T\u0026uuml;rkiye) featuring a length-to-diameter (L/D) ratio of 24 and a screw diameter of 16 mm. Mixing was conducted at barrel temperatures from 30 to 200\u0026deg;C along the extruder zones, with a screw rotation speed set to 300 rpm. After granulation, samples were dried at 80\u0026deg;C for three hours, then stored in a desiccator to maintain dryness until the injection molding stage. Sample molding was performed on an Engel Spex Victory 80 injection molding machine (Germany) with a clamping force of 800 kN. For the molding process, an injection speed of 50 mm/s, injection pressure of 100 bar, and holding pressure of 40 kN were used. The process from the production of samples to the execution of erosion tests is schematically shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Methods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.1. Erosion Resistance Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe properties of composite materials significantly influence the erosive rate and mechanisms under erosive conditions. References [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR24\" citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e] suggest that the extent of erosion can be quantified using a dimensionless parameter known as the erosion coefficient (\u0026#119896;), which is derived from a simple energy balance for normal impingement of particles onto the surface, as shown in Eq.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Equ1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ1\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:E=\\frac{k\\rho\\:{\\upsilon\\:}^{2}}{2H}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e1\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHere, \u0026#119864; represents the erosion rate, \u0026#120588; is the density of the eroded material, \u0026#119907; is the impact velocity of the eroding particles, and \u0026#119867; is the hardness of the test sample. The erosion coefficient (\u0026#119896;) provides a quantitative measure of the test material\u0026rsquo;s resistance to erosion. A higher value of \u0026#119896; typically indicates greater susceptibility to erosion, whereas a lower value reflects better resistance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. The erosion behavior of composite materials is strongly affected by the fillers or fillers incorporated into their structure. These additives enhance the material's mechanical properties, such as hardness and toughness, which are critical factors in improving erosion resistance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. However, the precise value of \u0026#119896; may vary widely based on several factors, including the material\u0026rsquo;s inherent properties and the specific test conditions employed. Parameters such as particle size, impact angle, particle velocity, and environmental conditions play a vital role in determining the erosion response [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. These variations may lead to significant differences in \u0026#119896;, sometimes spanning several orders of magnitude, emphasizing the complexity of the erosion process. Understanding these factors is essential for designing and optimizing composite materials to withstand erosive environments. By carefully considering material properties and testing conditions, the erosion performance of both polymers and composites can be accurately assessed and enhanced for a wide range of applications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.2. Density and Hardness Measurements\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDensity and hardness measurements were conducted to evaluate the material properties of the test samples. Firstly, the density measurements for all test samples were conducted using a Precisa XB 220A precise scale, by weighing them both in air and in distilled water, in accordance with ISO 1183. Secondly, the hardness measurements were also conducted on all test samples using a universal hardness testing machine, following the Rockwell R scale (HRR). The test parameters included a 1/2\" steel ball indenter with a 100 kgf load applied for 10 seconds, in accordance with ASTM D785. All tests were carried out in a temperature- and humidity-controlled laboratory, and the samples were conditioned for at least 24 hours under these conditions before measurements. A minimum of 5 samples were tested for each condition to ensure the accuracy and consistency of the results.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.3. Erosion testing\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe erosion rig used for the experiment is schematically shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e(a) and follows the ASTM G76-95 standard. Additionally, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e(b) illustrates the solid particle erosion process, while Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e(c) depicts the impact-induced erosive mechanism. Test samples, with dimensions of 30x30x4 mm, were produced using an injection molding machine.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConditions for the solid particle erosion test setup\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTest Parameters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescription\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eErodent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAluminum Oxide (Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eErodent size\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e600 \u0026micro;m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eErodent shape\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAngular\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHardness of erodent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMohs 9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDensity of Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e particles\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.94 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImpingement angles\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;90\u003csup\u003e\u0026deg;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImpact velocity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34 m/s\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eErodent feed rate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24 g/s\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTest temperature\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u0026ndash;22\u0026deg;C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNozzle to sample distance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 mm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe samples were mounted on a steel holder using 5 mm thick adjustable clips. Abrasive particles are propelled by static pressure and directed onto the test sample through a 10 mm diameter nozzle. The velocity of the particles is theoretically calculated using the rotating disc method. In the erosion test, the average particle speed at 2 bar pressure was 34.0 m/s when the nozzle-to-sample distance was set to 10 mm. Abrasive Al2O3 particles were applied to the surface of samples at various impingement angles (30\u0026deg;, 45\u0026deg;, 60\u0026deg;, 75\u0026deg;, and 90\u0026deg;) and in axial and radial positions, as depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e (B). Each test lasted an average of 24 seconds, and the wear due to erosion was measured by recording the weight loss using a precision balance with \u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0001g accuracy. The parameters for the erosion test are outlined in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.4. Damage analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe eroded surfaces of the samples obtained from the erosion test was cut for detailed damage analysis. The sectioned areas of the samples were coated with a thin gold layer (3\u0026ndash;4 nm) for SEM analysis. Using a Zeiss LS10 SEM and a DSLR with a macro lens, both micro and macro damages were observed, revealing the eroded surface morphology and material removal mechanisms on the test samples' surface.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe results first focus on the erosion behavior of ASA and ASAWS composite, then evaluate the performance of PC and PC/ASA blend, and conclude with a comparative analysis of PC/ASAWS composites. This organization provides a comprehensive understanding of the effect of each material's composition on its erosion resistance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Erosion behavior of ASA and ASAWS composites\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe density and hardness data for ASA and WS-reinforced ASA composites are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, followed by the solid particle erosion rates of ASA and ASAWS composites with different walnut shell concentrations across varying impingement angles, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. The erosion rates, reported in [mg/kg] alongside standard deviations, reveal trends in material performance and the effects of WS filler.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results demonstrate a consistent increase in density with higher WS content. Specifically, the density of ASA was measured at 1.048\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.009 g/cm\u0026sup3;, which increased to 1.132\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.015 g/cm\u0026sup3; for ASAWS15. This increase, as noted by Saran and Satapathy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e], is attributed to WS particles enhancing the composite's dense structure. Similarly, the Rockwell R hardness measurements reveal that the addition of WS enhances the hardness of the composites, peaking at 107.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.49 for ASAWS10.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDensity and Hardness Rocwell R (HRR) measurements of ASA and ASAWS composites with mean values and standard deviations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSamples\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDensity, g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHardness, Rockwell R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eASA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.048\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e101.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eASAWS5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.051\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e103.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eASAWS10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.071\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e107.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eASAWS15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.132\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e106.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolid particle erosion rate at varying impingement angles for neat ASA and ASAWS composites with mean values and standard deviations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImpingement Angle, \u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eErosion Rate, [mg/kg]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eASA\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eASAWS5\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eASAWS10\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eASAWS15\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e169.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e161.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e151.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e180.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt a 30\u0026deg; impingement angle, ASA exhibits the highest erosion rate of 169.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.26 mg/kg, whereas the addition of 10 wt.% WS achieves a notable improvement, reducing this rate by 10.5% to 151.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.25 mg/kg. This trend continues across angles, with ASAWC10 showing reductions in erosion rate of 10.92% at 45\u0026deg;, 11.77% at 60\u0026deg;, 14.06% at 75\u0026deg;, and 16.57% at 90\u0026deg;, demonstrating an effective enhancement in erosion resistance with optimal WS content. As the impingement angle increases to 45\u0026deg;, 60\u0026deg;, 75\u0026deg;, and finally 90\u0026deg;, all materials show a general decline in erosion rate. At 90\u0026deg;, neat ASA\u0026rsquo;s erosion rate reaches its lowest at 24.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.45 mg/kg, while ASAWS10 achieves the lowest erosion rate overall at 20.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.51 mg/kg, indicating that 10 wt.% WS filler enhances erosion resistance, especially at higher angles. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e visually confirms these findings, showing the trend of decreasing erosion rates with increased impingement angle and reinforcing the superior performance of ASAWS composites. The erosion pattern observed aligns with ductile erosion behavior, where erosion rates are higher at lower impingement angles and decrease as the angle approaches perpendicular impact.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe erosion resistance as a function of impingement angle for neat ASA and ASAWS composites is depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. The graph reveals a clear trend where the erosion coefficient decreases as the impingement angle increases from 30\u0026deg; to 90\u0026deg;. Among the composites, ASAWS10 consistently exhibits the lowest erosion coefficient across all angles, reinforcing the earlier conclusion that 10 wt.% WS filler provides optimal erosion rate. The data suggest that the interaction between the WS particles and the polymer matrix effectively dissipates impact energy, thereby reducing material loss [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. In contrast, ASAWS15 shows a slight increase in the erosion coefficient, particularly at lower angles, which may indicate suboptimal dispersion or agglomeration of WS particles at higher loadings. A slight decrease in hardness is observed for ASAWS15. These findings could be attributed to the untreated-WS content leading to weak interfacial bonding [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e] and suboptimal distribution within the matrix [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. This observation aligns with findings reported by Shejkar and co-workers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e], emphasizing the importance of surface treatment in improving filler-matrix interactions. The results from Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, in conjunction with those in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, underline the significance of optimizing filler content to achieve a balance between improved mechanical properties and erosion resistance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Erosion behavior of PC, ASA, PC/ASA blend\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe density and hardness values of ASA, PC, and PC/ASA blend are summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. The PC exhibits the highest density and hardness, highlighting its inherent material strength and compact structure. In contrast, ASA has a lower density and hardness, reflecting its relatively less dense and softer nature.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDensity and Hardness Rocwell R (HRR) measurements of ASA, PC and PC/ASA blend with mean values and standard deviations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSamples\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDensity, g/cm3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHardness Rocwell R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.185\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e120.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eASA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.048\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e101.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePC/ASA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.133\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e112.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe PC/ASA blend achieves intermediate values with a density of 1.133\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.016 g/cm\u0026sup3; and hardness of 112.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.86 HRR. This result indicates that blending ASA into a PC moderately reduces the hardness of the PC while enhancing the properties of ASA. These intermediate values underscore the balance achieved in the PC/ASA blend, which offers improved density and hardness over neat ASA while maintaining reasonable performance compared to neat PC. The solid particle erosion rates of ASA, PC, and PC/ASA blend across various impingement angles are detailed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, showing the erosion resistance of each material under different impact conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolid particle erosion rate at varying impingement angles for ASA, PC and PC/ASA blend with mean values and standard deviations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImpingement\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAngle, \u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eErosion Rate, [mg/kg]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eASA\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePC/ASA\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e169.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e127.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt a 30\u0026deg; impingement angle, ASA exhibits the highest erosion rate at 169.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.26 mg/kg, while the PC demonstrates a significantly lower rate of 52.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.91 mg/kg, highlighting a substantial 69% reduction in erosion rate compared to ASA. The PC/ASA blend exhibits an intermediate erosion rate of 127.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.26 mg/kg, signifying a 25% improvement compared to ASA but a 142% increase in erosion rate relative to PC. As the angle increases to 45\u0026deg;, the ASA\u0026rsquo;s erosion rate decreases to 84.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.82 mg/kg. In comparison, the PC maintains a lower rate of 33.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.55 mg/kg, representing a 60% improvement over ASA at this angle. The PC/ASA blend\u0026rsquo;s erosion rate is 56.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.58 mg/kg, showing a 33% improvement over ASA yet a 67% increase relative to PC. At 60\u0026deg; and 75\u0026deg; angles, the PC continues to show the highest erosion resistance, with rates of 22.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.84 mg/kg and 10.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.58 mg/kg, respectively. The ASA\u0026rsquo;s erosion rates for these angles are 55.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.75 mg/kg and 25.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.87 mg/kg, while the PC/ASA blend reaches intermediate values of 34.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.05 mg/kg and 16.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.98 mg/kg. These results indicate erosion resistance improvements of approximately 60% and 56% for neat PC over neat ASA at 60\u0026deg; and 75\u0026deg; angles, while the PC/ASA blend shows improvements of 37% and 34%, respectively, compared to neat ASA. At a perpendicular impact of 90\u0026deg;, neat PC achieves the lowest erosion rate of 6.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.36 mg/kg, while ASA\u0026rsquo;s rate is 22.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.45 mg/kg. The PC/ASA blend, with an erosion rate of 15.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.08 mg/kg, demonstrates a 32% improvement over ASA but a 140% increase relative to PC. These results reveal that incorporating ASA into PC to form a PC/ASA blend creates a new matrix that decreases the erosion rate of ASA but sacrifices some of the erosion rate inherent to PC alone. The overall erosion pattern observed in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e suggests a ductile erosion behavior, with erosion rates decreasing as the impingement angle approaches perpendicular impact (90\u0026deg;). This behavior reflects the material\u0026rsquo;s ability to absorb energy and resist material loss effectively under erosive forces, indicating that the PC/ASA blend could be optimized for applications requiring improved durability against erosive wear.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe erosion coefficient variations for ASA, PC, and the PC/ASA blend are presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e. The graph illustrates a decreasing trend in the erosion coefficient as the impingement angle increases from 30\u0026deg; to 90\u0026deg;. The PC exhibits the lowest erosion coefficient at all angles, consistent with its superior erosion resistance, while ASA has the highest values. The PC/ASA blend shows intermediate erosion coefficients, reflecting its balanced performance. Notably, the reduction in the erosion coefficient with increasing angles highlights the ductile erosion mechanism, where lower angles cause higher material removal due to tangential forces. At 90\u0026deg;, where the impact is perpendicular, the materials demonstrate their best erosion resistance, with PC showing the highest durability. By combining insights from Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, it is evident that the PC/ASA blend offers a practical compromise between the superior erosion resistance of PC and the enhanced toughness of ASA, as supported by previous studies[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. This blend is particularly suited for applications where moderate erosion resistance and enhanced mechanical properties are essential.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3. Erosion behavior of PC/ASA blend and PC/ASAWS composites\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the previous section, the erosion rates of the PC/ASA blend were examined, and further analysis was conducted by incorporating WS filler at concentrations of 5 wt.%, 10 wt.%, and 15 wt.% to evaluate the effect of natural filler on erosion behavior.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe density and hardness values for the PC/ASA blend and PC/ASAWS composites are summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, while Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e presents the solid particle erosion rates at varying impingement angles for both PC/ASA blend and PC/ASAWS composites. The incorporation of WS filler leads to a gradual increase in density from 1.133\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.016 g/cm\u0026sup3; for the PC/ASA blend to 1.217\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.007 g/cm\u0026sup3; for the composite containing 15 wt.% WS. Similarly, the hardness values exhibit an initial improvement, peaking at 122.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.75 HRR for PC/ASAWC10, followed by a slight reduction for PC/ASAWC15. This decrease at higher WS content suggests possible agglomeration of WS particles, leading to localized stress concentrations that compromise the material's overall hardness. These observations indicate that a 10 wt.% WS filler provides the optimal balance for enhancing both density and hardness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDensity and Hardness Rocwell R (HRR) measurements of PC/ASA blend and PC/ASAWS composites with mean values and standard deviations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSamples\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDensity, g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHardness Rockwell R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePC/ASA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.133\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e112.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePC/ASAWS5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.160\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e119.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePC/ASAWS10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.181\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e122.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePC/ASAWS15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.217\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.007\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e109.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolid particle erosion rate at varying impingement angles for PC/ASA blend and PC/ASAWS composites with mean values and standard deviations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImpingement angle, \u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eErosion Rate, [mg/kg]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePC/ASA\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePC/ASAWS5\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePC/ASAWS10\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePC/ASAWS15\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e127.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e111.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e120.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.58\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt a 30\u0026deg; impingement angle, the erosion rate for the PC/ASA blend is 127.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.26 mg/kg. With the addition of 10 wt.% WS, the erosion rate improves by 21%, decreasing to 100.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.89 mg/kg. This trend of improvement continues at other angles; for example, at a 45\u0026deg; angle, PC/ASAWC10 achieves an erosion rate of 44.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.56 mg/kg, which is a 21.3% improvement over PC/ASA0 at 56.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.58 mg/kg. At a 60\u0026deg; angle, the erosion rate of PC/ASAWC10 further improves by 32.3%, reaching 23.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.63 mg/kg compared to PC/ASA\u0026rsquo;s 34.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.05 mg/kg. Similarly, at 75\u0026deg; and 90\u0026deg; angles, PC/ASAWC10 shows reductions in erosion rate of 28.4% and 36.7%, with rates of 12.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.73 mg/kg and 9.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.78 mg/kg, respectively, compared to PC/ASA0 values of 16.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.98 mg/kg and 15.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.08 mg/kg. The results indicate that the 10 wt.% WS concentration optimally enhances erosion resistance across all tested angles. This finding suggests that 10 wt.% WS filler provides an optimal balance between impact absorption and erosion resistance in the PC/ASA matrix. Additionally, as the impingement angle increases from 30\u0026deg; to 90\u0026deg;, a general reduction in erosion rate is observed, typical of ductile erosion behavior. Ductile erosion is characterized by higher erosion rates at lower angles, with rates diminishing as the impact angle becomes more perpendicular (90\u0026deg;), due to the material\u0026rsquo;s ability to deform and absorb impact energy more effectively [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. Overall, the addition of WS to the PC/ASA blend results in a new composite matrix that improves erosion resistance, especially at 10 wt.% WS. The ductile erosion behavior observed in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e confirms the composite\u0026rsquo;s ability to withstand erosive wear, suggesting that PC/ASAWS composites are well-suited for applications requiring high erosion resistance in abrasive environments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe variation in erosion coefficient as a function of impingement angle for PC/ASA and PC/ASAWS composites is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e. The graph illustrates a decreasing trend in the erosion coefficient with increasing impingement angle, consistent with ductile erosion behavior. At lower angles (e.g., 30\u0026deg;), tangential forces dominate [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e], causing higher erosion rates, while at higher angles (e.g., 90\u0026deg;), perpendicular impacts lead to lower material removal due to better energy absorption [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. The PC/ASAWS10 composite consistently exhibits the lowest erosion coefficients across all angles, further confirming its superior erosion resistance. The data underline that the addition of 10 wt.% WS to the PC/ASA matrix optimally balances impact absorption and erosion resistance, creating a composite with enhanced durability against erosive forces. Based on the comprehensive test results, it is clear that the PC/ASAWS10 sample represents the most effective formulation for enhancing both hardness properties and erosion resistance. This composite demonstrates enhanced performance while being an eco-friendly green composite, making it an up-and-coming candidate for applications in abrasive environments where improved material durability and sustainability are essential.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4. Damage Analysis at Micro and Macro Scales\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe damage analysis of ASA, PC, PC/ASA, and their respective 10 wt.% WS-filled composites was conducted using both macro photography and SEM imaging at varying magnifications. As shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, at a 30\u0026deg; impingement angle, in the neat ASA exhibited prominent plowing marks and significant material removal in macro images, consistent with ductile erosion behavior. SEM images at 500\u0026times; magnification revealed irregular grooves and deformation patterns aligned with the particle flow direction. At higher magnifications (5000\u0026times;), the eroded surface showed microcracks and plastic deformation. In contrast, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, the ASAWS10 composite displayed reduced material removal and smoother surface features, suggesting improved erosion resistance. SEM images highlighted the dispersion of walnut shell particles within the ASA matrix, which effectively dissipated impact energy and restricted crack propagation. At a 90\u0026deg; impingement angle, neat ASA showed crater-like formations in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e due to the perpendicular impact, while ASAWS10 in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig12\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e demonstrated fewer craters and a more compact surface, confirming enhanced impact resistance from WS filler.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs shown in Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig13\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig14\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, the PC exhibited minimal surface damage at both 30\u0026deg; and 90\u0026deg; impingement angles, consistent with its superior hardness and erosion resistance. The macro images Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig13\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003ea and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig14\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003ea showed slight surface roughening, while SEM images revealed small, shallow craters without significant material displacement.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe PC/ASA blend, while showing more surface damage compared to the PC, presented intermediate erosion characteristics in Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig15\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig16\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e. At 500\u0026times; magnification showing in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig15\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003eb-c and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig16\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003eb-c, the SEM images revealed material removal patterns aligned with the flow direction of abrasive particles. These features, characterized by parallel grooves or scratches, indicate the sliding action of particles on the surface, resulting in localized material displacement or ploughing. In the PC/ASA blend, the toughness of ASA and the hardness of PC create a balanced response to erosion. The PC matrix resists deeper deformation, while ASA's ductility accommodates impact, leading to visible microstructural features such as shallow grooves and subtle surface undulations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig17\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, at a 30\u0026deg; impingement angle, macro images displayed a smoother surface compared to PC/ASA showing in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig15\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e. The images at 500\u0026times; and 5000\u0026times; magnifications in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig17\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e revealed a compact microstructure with fewer erosion marks, attributed to the reinforcing effect of WS particles. As detected in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig18\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, at 90\u0026deg;impingement angle, PC/ASAWS10 exhibited minimal cratering and a uniform surface morphology, highlighting the synergistic effects of PC/ASA and WS.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall, The ASA showed the highest damage levels under all conditions, while the PC had the least. WS-filled composites, particularly ASAWS10 and PC/ASAWS10, demonstrated significant improvements in erosion resistance. The micro and macro imaging results consistently highlighted the role of WS as a filler, enhancing toughness and mitigating damage caused by erosive forces, specifically the normal force (F\u003csub\u003en\u003c/sub\u003e) and tangential force (F\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. CONCLUSIONS","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study findings reveal that incorporating walnut shell (WS) into ASA and PC/ASA matrices significantly enhances their erosion resistance and provides a sustainable material solution. The erosion analysis demonstrated that adding WS, particularly at an optimal concentration of 10 wt.%, effectively reduced material loss by up to 36.7% compared to unfilled PC/ASA. This improvement is attributed to the energy-dissipating and crack-mitigating properties of WS particles, as evidenced by micro and macro imaging of erosion damage. Density and hardness measurements indicated that WS filler increased the composite\u0026rsquo;s compactness and mechanical strength, peaking at 10 wt.% WS, while higher concentrations led to minor declines due to potential agglomeration. SEM analysis confirmed the uniform dispersion of WS in the matrix, contributing to enhanced erosion resistance and reduced surface damage under impact. The WS-filled PC/ASA composites also exhibited a ductile erosion mechanism, with decreasing erosion rates observed as the impingement angle approached 90\u0026deg;. This behavior reflects the material's ability to absorb and dissipate impact energy effectively. The improved erosion resistance, combined with its lightweight and eco-friendly nature, makes PC/ASAWS composites promising candidates for sectors such as construction, automotive, and outdoor equipment manufacturing.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eH.S. and S.M.D. conducted the experimental work, including the solid particle erosion tests and related analyses. İ.K. was responsible for the preparation and production of the composite materials. M.B. reviewed the manuscript. H.S. and İ.K wrote the main manuscript text, prepared it. All authors discussed the results, contributed to the interpretation, and approved the final version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKarag\u0026ouml;z İ (2024) Production and characterization of sustainable biocompatible PLA/walnut shell composite materials. Polymer Bulletin:1-21.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-024-05247-4\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKarag\u0026ouml;z İ, B\u0026uuml;y\u0026uuml;kkaya K, Demirer H, Mudu M, Kartal İ (2024) Mechanical and thermal characterization of elastomer modified polypropylene hybrid composites reinforced with hazelnut shell and wollastonite fillers. J Appl Polym Sci:e55710.https://doi.org/10.1002/app.55710\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKarag\u0026ouml;z İ, Mutlu D, \u0026Ccedil;avuşoğlu A, \u0026Ccedil;elebi M, Ceylan \u0026Ouml; (2024) A comprehensive study on the effect of small rates of walnut shell and talc fillers on the thermal, mechanical, and morphological properties of epoxy hybrid composites. Biomass Convers and Biorefin:1-12.https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-024-05660-9\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSalasinska K, Barczewski M, Borucka M, G\u0026oacute;rny RL, Kozikowski P, Celiński M, et al. (2019) Thermal stability, fire and smoke behaviour of epoxy composites modified with plant waste fillers. Polymers 11:1234.https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11081234\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSepetcioglu H, Demet SM, Bagci M (2023) A comprehensive experimental study of enhanced solid particle erosive resistance on the inner/outer surface of graphene nanoplatelets modified basalt/epoxy composite pipe. Polym Compos 44:6944-56.https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.27609\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHan Y, Liu J, He XJ, Zhou C (2012) Morphology and properties of ASA/PC blends. Adv Mater Res 450:1467-70.https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.450-451.1467\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHan Y, Tai Z-X, Zhou C, Zhang M-Y, Zhang H-X, Liu F-Q (2009) Influence of blend composition on the mechanical properties and morphology of PC/ASA/SAN ternary blends. Polym Bull 62:855-66.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-009-0057-8\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePalacios-Ib\u0026aacute;\u0026ntilde;ez B, Relinque JJ, Moreno-S\u0026aacute;nchez D, de Le\u0026oacute;n AS, Delgado FJ, Escobar-Galindo R, et al. (2022) Synthesis and Characterisation of ASA-PEEK Composites for Fused Filament Fabrication. Polymers 14:496.https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14030496\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHuang J, Kuo C, Tsai H-Y (2022) Stiffness enhancement, anti-aging, and self-forming holes in polycarbonate/acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylic by the core-shell structure of acrylic resin. Polymers 14:782.https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14030496\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBoehme M, Fu G, Ionescu E, Ensinger W (2010) Fabrication of anatase titanium dioxide nanotubes by electroless deposition using polycarbonate for separate casting method. Nano-Micro Letters 2:26-30.https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03353613\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRedjala S, Ferhoum R, A\u0026iuml;t Hocine N, Azem S (2019) Degradation of polycarbonate properties under thermal aging. J Fail Analy and Prev 19:536-42.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11668-019-00630-0\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang W, Dai J, Wu Y-C, Chen J-X, Shan S-Y, Cai Z, et al. (2022) Highly reactive cyclic carbonates with a fused ring toward functionalizable and recyclable polycarbonates. ACS Macro Letters 11:173-8.https://doi.org/10.1021/acsmacrolett.1c00653\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGuessasma S, Belhabib S, Nouri H (2019) Microstructure, thermal and mechanical behavior of 3D printed acrylonitrile styrene acrylate. Macromol Mater Eng 304:1800793.https://doi.org/10.1002/mame.201800793\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKumar SR, Sridhar S, Venkatraman R, Venkatesan M (2021) Polymer additive manufacturing of ASA structure: Influence of printing parameters on mechanical properties. Mater Today 39:1316-9.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.04.500\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRam\u0026iacute;rez-Revilla S, Camacho-Valencia D, Gonzales-Condori EG, M\u0026aacute;rquez G (2023) Evaluation and comparison of the degradability and compressive and tensile properties of 3D printing polymeric materials: PLA, PETG, PC, and ASA. MRS Commun 13:55-62.https://doi.org/10.1557/s43579-022-00311-4\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRamteke AA, Maiti S (2010) Mechanical properties of polycarbonate/modified acrylonitrile‐styrene‐acrylate terpolymer blend. J Appl Polym Sci 116:486-92. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.31560\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eArzumanova NB (2021) Polymer biocomposites based on agro waste: Part iii. shells of various nuts as natural filler for polymer composites. New Mater Comp Appl 5:19-44 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKabir MM, Alhaik MY, Aldajah SH, Lau KT, Wang H, Islam MM (2021) Effect of Hemp Fibre Surface Treatment on the Fibre‐Matrix Interface and the Influence of Cellulose, Hemicellulose, and Lignin Contents on Composite Strength Properties. Adv Mater Sci 2021:9753779. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/9753779\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMiao C, Hamad WY (2013) Cellulose reinforced polymer composites and nanocomposites: a critical review. Cellulose 20:2221-62.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-013-0007-3\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShahapurkar K, Darekar V, Banjan R, Nidasosi N, Soudagar MEM (2021) Factors affecting the solid particle erosion of environment pollutant and natural particulate filled polymer composites\u0026mdash;A review. Polym Polym Compos 29:1587-98.https://doi.org/10.1177/0967391120971411\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDemet SM (2023) Grafen Nanoplaka Katkılı Bazalt Elyaf Takviyeli Kompozit Boruların İ\u0026ccedil; Y\u0026uuml;zey Erozif Aşınma Direncinde Aşındırıcı Partik\u0026uuml;l Hızının Rol\u0026uuml;n\u0026uuml;n İncelenmesi. \u0026Ccedil;ukurova \u0026Uuml;niversitesi M\u0026uuml;hendislik Fak\u0026uuml;ltesi Dergisi 38:907-15.https://doi.org/10.21605/cukurovaumfd.1410220\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDemet SM, Sepetcioglu H, Bagci M (2023) Solid particle erosion behavior on the outer surface of basalt/epoxy composite pipes produced by the filament winding technique. Polymers 15:319.https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15020319\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHutchings I (1993) Mechanisms of wear in powder technology: a review. Powder Technol 76:3-13.https://doi.org/10.1016/0032-5910(93)80035-9\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHutchings I, Shipway P. Tribology: friction and wear of engineering materials: Butterworth-heinemann; 2017.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSundararajan G, Roy M, Venkataraman B (1990) Erosion efficiency-a new parameter to characterize the dominant erosion micromechanism. Wear 140:369-81.https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1648(90)90096-S\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eClark HM (1992) The influence of the flow field in slurry erosion. Wear 152:223-40.https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1648(92)90122-O\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMiyazaki N (2016) Solid particle erosion of composite materials: A critical review. J Compos Mater 50:3175-217.https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998315617818\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSaran CS, Satapathy A (2024) Epoxy‐hemp and epoxy‐flax composites filled with glass dust for enhanced thermal insulation: An analytical and experimental study. Polym Compos 45:5244-55. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.28123\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDas O, Sarmah AK, Bhattacharyya D (2016) Biocomposites from waste derived biochars: Mechanical, thermal, chemical, and morphological properties. J Waste Manag 49:560-70.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2015.12.007\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHo M-P, Lau K-T (2014) Enhancement of impact resistance of biodegradable polymer using bamboo charcoal particles. Mater Lett 136:122-5.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2014.07.165\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKarag\u0026ouml;z İ, Tamer İM, \u0026Ccedil;avuşoğlu A, Sepetcioglu H (2024) Investigation of mechanical, thermal, and morphological properties of walnut shell and nano clay reinforced HDPE composites. Mater Today Commun:110905.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2024.110905\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYang J, Zhang K, Chen D, Zhang Y, Zhang X (2022) Physical, mechanical and abrasive wear behavior of attapulgite reinforced walnut shell/PVC composites. J Polym Res 29:522.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10965-022-03374-y\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShejkar SK, Agrawal B, Agrawal A, Gupta G (2022) Physical, mechanical, and sliding wear behavior of epoxy composites filled with surface modified walnut shell particulate. Polym Compos 43:7526-37. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.26847\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShejkar SK, Agrawal B, Agrawal A, Gupta G, Pati PR (2023) Influence of filler content and surface modification on physical and mechanical properties of epoxy/walnut shell particulate composites. J Adhes Sci Technol 37:1215-32.https://doi.org/10.1080/01694243.2022.2066915\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKang M, Kim CK, Lee JW (2006) PC/ASA blends having enhanced interfacial and mechanical properties. J Rheol 18:1-8 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePanchal M, Minugu OP, Gujjala R, Ojha S, Mallampati Chowdary S, Mohammad A (2022) Study of environmental behavior and its effect on solid particle erosion behavior of hierarchical porous activated carbon‐epoxy composite. Polym Compos 43:2276-87.https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.26539\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKumar R, Rezapourian M, Rahmani R, Maurya HS, Kamboj N, Hussainova I (2024) Bioinspired and Multifunctional Tribological Materials for Sliding, Erosive, Machining, and Energy-Absorbing Conditions: A Review. Biomimetics 9:209.https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics9040209\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUzi A, Levy A (2018) Energy absorption by the particle and the surface during impact. Wear 404:92-110.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2018.03.007\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Solid particle erosion, Walnut shell, ASA, PC/ASA blend, Erosion resistance, Macro imaging","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5600372/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5600372/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe aim of this study is to investigate the solid particle erosion behavior of walnut shell (WS)-filled acrylic-styrene-acrylate (ASA) and polycarbonate/acrylic-styrene-acrylate (PC/ASA) thermoplastic blend composites under various erosion conditions. Erosion resistance tests were conducted using Al₂O₃ particles (600 \u0026micro;m, Mohs hardness 9) as erodent, at a velocity of 34 m/s, with impingement angles ranging from 30\u0026deg; to 90\u0026deg;. Test samples were subjected to these conditions for 24 seconds, and weight loss was measured to determine erosion rates. Key parameters such as density, hardness, and erosion coefficients were also evaluated. Composites with 10 wt.% WS filler exhibited optimal performance, reducing erosion rates by up to 36.7% compared to unfilled PC/ASA blend. Macro and SEM imaging revealed the damage mechanisms, showing less material loss and better surface durability in WS-filled composites. This study demonstrates that incorporating WS into ASA and PC/ASA matrices not only improves erosion resistance but also aligns with the goal of sustainable material development. The results suggest that these composites could be highly effective in industries where materials are exposed to wear and tear from abrasive forces, such as in construction or automotive applications.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Solid particle erosion behaviors of walnut shell-filled (acrylic-styrene-acrylate) [ASA] and (polycarbonate/acrylic-styrene-acrylate) [PC/ASA] thermoplastic blend biocomposites","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-12-30 10:22:48","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5600372/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"a12da469-f2f0-41b7-b520-19d2ac6a4a44","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 30th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-01-07T09:08:51+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-12-30 10:22:48","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5600372","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5600372","identity":"rs-5600372","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"_2-kVJe1T_tPrBINL-cwx","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}