Prior Business Experience, Refugees’ Entrepreneurial Intentions, and Intention Implementation: Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior

Prior Business Experience, Refugees’ Entrepreneurial Intentions, and Intention Implementation: Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Prior Business Experience, Refugees’ Entrepreneurial Intentions, and Intention Implementation: Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior Martin Mabunda Baluku, Florence Nansubuga, Eria Wambi, Paul Nyende, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7143284/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 02 Jan, 2026 Read the published version in Future Business Journal → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Although refugees are often perceived as a burden to the socioeconomic fabric in some places, entrepreneurship offers a promising avenue for refugees to participate in the economy, secure decent work, and achieve self-reliance. However, refugee entrepreneurship is largely seen as necessity-driven and thus limited personal agency in refugees’ entrepreneurial behavior, which has negative connotations for persistence and success. This paper demonstrates the role of prior entrepreneurial experience in boosting refugees’ personal entrepreneurial agency (represented by entrepreneurial intentions and implementation intention) through its effects on the antecedents specified in the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). The study uses survey data from 404 refugees in Uganda. The participants were drawn from three large refugee settlements. A serial mediation analysis was conducted using PROCESS Macro in SPSS. The results indicate significant positive effects of prior entrepreneurial experience on the TPB antecedent variables, suggesting that entrepreneurial experience is essential for a positive entrepreneurial attitude, subjective norm, and a strong perceived behavioral control among refugees. These TPB antecedent variables mediated the effects of prior entrepreneurial experience on entrepreneurial intentions and implementation intentions. Significant double mediation paths were mainly observed via entrepreneurial attitudes and intentions, as well as via perceived behavioral control and entrepreneurial intentions. The findings indicate that prior experience is a vital resource that can be a foundation for successful refugee entrepreneurship promotion. Thus, active learning approaches that boost experience acquisition can be useful in entrepreneurship training and education interventions. Arrangements such as innovation hubs, apprenticeships, and internships for refugees can be vehicles for active and experiential learning. Entrepreneurial attitudes Entrepreneurial experience Entrepreneurial intentions Implementation intentions Perceived behavioral control Refugees Subjective norm Theory of planned behavior Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 1. Introduction The successful socioeconomic integration of refugees remains a daunting task for many host countries, primarily due to institutional, cultural, and individual-level constraints. However, personal factors, including entrepreneurialism, personal initiative, and career adaptability, are essential to successfully integrating refugees (Campion, 2018 ; Obschonka et al., 2018 ; Zacher, 2018 ). Specifically, there is increasing interest in refugee entrepreneurship(Newman et al., 2023 ; Wiers and Chabaud, 2022 ) as one of the feasible pathways to the fast and effective integration of refugees, since it benefits both the refugees and the host community. Entrepreneurship is an opportunity for refugees to participate in the economic space, hence a driver for socioeconomic inclusion, decent work, self-reliance, and well-being (Meister and Mauer, 2019 ; Skran, 2020 ), as well as career advancement or transition (Abebe, 2023 ; Eggenhofer-Rehart et al., 2018 ). Refugee entrepreneurship also contributes to the overall economic development of the host community through innovations, wealth creation, and employment opportunities (Abebe, 2023 ; Zalkat et al., 2023 ). Thus, refugee entrepreneurship shifts the social position of refugees from being perceived as burdens to the host community to being significant economic contributors and transformers. Whereas the host communities might provide an enabling environment, several barriers and challenges could hinder engagement in entrepreneurial activities. Refugees often lack adequate access to capital resources (Lee and Black, 2017 ; Nijhoff, 2021 ) and face cultural and institutional challenges in the process of founding businesses (Alrawadieh et al., 2019 ; Nijhoff, 2021 ). Thus, for the formation and strengthening of entrepreneurial intentions, an entrepreneurial mindset is essential for refugees (Obschonka et al., 2018 ). Entrepreneurial intentions represent personal agency (Obschonka et al., 2018 ) that drives entrepreneurial action even under challenging circumstances. The current study examines how refugees’ prior entrepreneurial experiences and the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) constructs impact their readiness to initiate entrepreneurial activities in host settings. Entrepreneurial intentions and planning specific actions towards starting up when specific enabling factors present themselves (implementation intentions) are critical steps in the entrepreneurial process and predict entrepreneurial entry (Baluku et al., 2021 ; van Gelderen et al., 2018 ; Pham et al., 2021 ). Although refugees’ entrepreneurial activities seem to be driven by necessity, including limited employment opportunities and the need to earn income for survival (Kassab et al., 2022 ; Zamantili Nayir et al., 2023 ), there is also evidence suggesting the important roles of personal agency (Baluku et al., 2023 ; Obschonka et al., 2018 ), entrepreneurial experience (Zalkat et al., 2023 ), opportunity recognition and innovativeness (Freiling and Harima, 2018 ; Zamantili Nayir et al., 2023 ) in refugee entrepreneurship. The systematic literature review of Liñán and Fayolle ( 2015 ) highlighted that entrepreneurial education and learning, personality, and the environment contribute to fostering entrepreneurial intentions. There are also interventions focused on acquiring entrepreneurial skills, social capital, business incubation, and access to startup capital (Meister and Mauer, 2019 ; Tibaingana et al., 2022 ) as mechanisms for fostering refugee startups. Entrepreneurial intentions and their implementation have been studied from various perspectives. In their systematic review,Newman et al. ( 2023 ) highlight the different theories employed to explain entrepreneurial intentions, motivations, and entry into entrepreneurship. The “TPB” (Ajzen, 1991 ), the entrepreneurial Events Model (Shapero and Sokol, 1982 ), the social capital theory (Anderson and Miller, 2003 ), and the disadvantage theory seem to be the most applied perspective in refugee entrepreneurship studies. However, the TPB is considered one of the most robust models in predicting entrepreneurial intentions and their implementation, as well as actual business creation (van Gelderen et al., 2018 ; Iakovleva et al., 2011 ; Maheshwari et al., 2023 ), highlighting the roles of behavioral attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. However, existing research has predominantly focused on refugees in developed countries. Most research on refugee entrepreneurship focuses on Europe and the United States of America due to the long history of refugee entrepreneurship in these regions (Abebe, 2023 ). Given the role context plays in refugees’ entrepreneurial intentions and acting on those intentions (Newman et al., 2023 ), it is important also to generate empirical evidence from refugees in less-developed countries who are less represented in the extant literature, but also noting that entrepreneurship is increasingly the most feasible socio-economic integration mechanism in such contexts where high unemployment rates already characterize the labor market. The TPB model suggests that behavioral attitudes, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control (PBC) are a function of a belief system that results from a mixture of personal and situational influences (Ajzen et al., 2012 ). Prior business experience is one of those individual factors that could be essential for refugees to develop and implement entrepreneurial intentions. However, empirical findings are contradictory, suggesting that experience could be crucial among some populations but not relevant in all situations (Bignotti and le Roux, 2020 ). Most refugee entrepreneurs in less developed countries tend to establish small businesses. It is not known to what extent prior entrepreneurial experience influences entrepreneurial intentions and startups in this population of refugees. Previous research has indicated that the role experience also depends on its nature, whether it is a learning experience, experience working in a business, or experience establishing and owning a business (Bignotti and le Roux, 2020 ). The present focuses on refugees' experience of owning a business in their country of origin or home country. Owning or managing a business is a valuable mechanism for building human capital that supports recognizing and exploiting entrepreneurial opportunities (Abebe, 2023 ). However, there is a gap concerning whether the experience obtained in the home country or country of origin necessarily translates into entrepreneurial intentions and the readiness to implement the intentions. The study examines the TPB antecedents as mediators of the association between the prior business experience (the experience of having owned a business venture in the home country before migrating) and entrepreneurial intentions and implementation intentions. The study contributes to the understanding of refugee entrepreneurship in the context of less-developed countries, as driven by personal agency and opportunity rather than necessity. We consider prior business experience critical for refugees’ readiness to create business ventures in the host communities through its influence on entrepreneurial attitudes, subjective norm, and perceptions of controllability. The paper has interesting implications for practice and theory. First, the study provides a test for the robustness of the TPB model in determining and steering entrepreneurship among refugee populations hosted in resource-constrained settlements in less developed countries. In practical terms, the study highlights the need to use refugees’ entrepreneurial experience as a resource for boosting refugee entrepreneurship. Providing avenues for boosting refugees’ entrepreneurial experience through experiential learning approaches could be beneficial. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. The proceeding section analyzes the literature on the TPB and entrepreneurial intentions and implementation intentions and the role of entrepreneurial experience in forming entrepreneurial attitudes, subjective norm, and PBC. Section three presents the methods used in collecting and analyzing the data. Section four presents the results of the serial mediation analysis of the effects of prior experience on entrepreneurial intentions and implementation intentions via the TPB antecedent variables. The last section discusses the main results and provides the implications for refugee business creation. 2. Theoretical Background and Hypotheses 2.1. Entrepreneurial Intentions and Implementation Intentions from the TPB Perspective The TPB portrays engagement in a given behavior as mostly planned and best predicted by behavioral intentions (Ajzen, 1991 , 2011 ). The likelihood of performing a behavior is also higher when an individual can exercise volitional control (Ajzen, 1991 , 2002 ; Tornikoski and Maalaoui, 2019 ). The theory of planned behavior posits that the intention to perform a behavior is determined by a belief system consisting of three sets of beliefs, including attitude (represents an individual’s preference regarding the behavior), subjective norms (represents the social pressure to perform or not to perform the behavior), and PBC (represents the ability to exercise control during the performance of the behavior). Behavioral intentions represent the motivational influences on behavior because they show how much effort an individual is willing to exert toward performing a given behavior (Lortie and Castogiovanni, 2015 ; Tornikoski and Maalaoui, 2019 ). Whereas intentions mediate the effects of attitudes, subjective norm, and PBC on behavior, PBC can directly affect behavior (Ajzen, 2002 ). Entrepreneurship is a process that involves several planned and goal-oriented steps (Bogatyreva et al., 2019 ). The performance of entrepreneurial activities is largely self-determined; hence, the TPB can be instrumental in explaining how individuals develop entrepreneurial drive, the readiness to implement their entrepreneurial intentions, and the actual entrepreneurial behavior. The application of the TPB in entrepreneurship has primarily focused on understanding entrepreneurial intentions, as these intentions predict actual entry into entrepreneurship (Baluku et al., 2021 ; Bogatyreva et al., 2019 ; Van Gelderen et al., 2015 ). Entrepreneurial intentions refer to an individual’s conviction to engage in entrepreneurial activities (Liñán and Chen, 2009 ). The measures of entrepreneurial intentions often focus on the desire to establish a business, the preference for an entrepreneurial career, and the probability of starting a business in the foreseeable future (van Gelderen et al., 2008 ). Studies using the TPB model demonstrate that entrepreneurial intentions result from entrepreneurial attitudes, subjective norm, and PBC. Entrepreneurial attitudes and PBC are notably reported in previous research as the most significant contributors to the formation of entrepreneurial intentions (Kachkar and Djafri, 2022 ; Otache, 2020 ). The general entrepreneurial attitude is likely to result from the perception that engagement in entrepreneurial activities will lead to positive outcomes (Kautonen et al., 2013 ; Liñán and Chen, 2009 ; Lortie and Castogiovanni, 2015 ), hence the likelihood of becoming an entrepreneur. PBC concerns the perceptions of one’s ability and the enabling or impeding factors in the performance of the behavior (Ajzen, 2002 ; Vamvaka et al., 2020 ). Empirical findings show that PBC is a strong determinant of entrepreneurial intentions. (Kachkar and Djafri, 2022 ; Kautonen et al., 2013 ; Vamvaka et al., 2020 ). However, extant literature suggests that refugee entrepreneurs are challenged by the socio-economic, institutional, capital, and legal constraints (Alrawadieh et al., 2019 ; Harima and Freiling, 2016 ). These challenges suggest that controllability could be an illusion for refugee entrepreneurs. Subjective norms, on the other hand, represent the perception of approval or disapproval from one’s significant others, such as family, friends, colleagues, and role models (Lihua, 2022 ; Liñán and Chen, 2009 ). Perceived approval may result in stronger entrepreneurial intentions (Baluku et al., 2020 ). However, some studies show that subjective norm is less significant in developing entrepreneurial intentions (Kachkar and Djafri, 2022 ; Loan et al., 2021 ; Otache, 2020 ). For refugees with few close relationships, subjective norm may be less important in engaging in entrepreneurial activities. Refugees in less developed countries tend to live in secluded places that not only limit their social capital (Baluku et al., 2025 ), but also a structure for social approval. The present study focuses on implementation intention as the outcome variable. Entrepreneurial intentions are sometimes measured by focusing on the plans to start a business (van Gelderen et al., 2008 ). However, there is a distinction between entrepreneurial intention, which is a goal intention, and implementation intention, which represents the concrete plans for realizing the goal intention (Tornikoski and Maalaoui, 2019 ). Therefore, on one hand, entrepreneurial intentions depict the eagerness to start a (Liñán and Chen, 2009 ). On the other hand, implementation intentions refer to plans to act on one’s entrepreneurial intention when specific facilitating conditions are present; and are also known as “if-then” plans (Bieleke and Keller, 2021 ; Gollwitzer, 1999a ). Such plans are essential for initiating action and buffering against influences that may discourage efforts in pursuing a given behavioral goal (Gollwitzer and Sheeran, 2006 ). Implementation intentions concern the planned steps toward entry into entrepreneurship and are considered important in explaining the link between behavioral or goal intention and performance of the behavior (van Gelderen et al., 2018 ; Gollwitzer, 1999a ). The planned steps can be executed when certain circumstances present themselves (Gollwitzer, 1999b ). Given that entrepreneurship is a phased process involving several activities, implementation intention becomes relevant in actualizing the entrepreneurial intentions. The phasing of entrepreneurial actions into specific achievable milestones strengthens the commitment to the goal intention and, therefore, the possibility of translating entrepreneurial intentions into entrepreneurial action (Tornikoski and Maalaoui, 2019 ). Consequently, implementation intentions mediate and moderate the association between entrepreneurial intentions and behavior (Baluku et al., 2020 ; van Gelderen et al., 2018 ; Pham et al., 2021 ). For the present study, we expect entrepreneurial attitudes, subjective norm, and PBC to be associated with implementation intentions via entrepreneurial intentions. Despite empirical evidence demonstrating the relevance of the TPB to promoting entrepreneurship, the precarious situation of refugees may have implications for applying the TPB model to explain entrepreneurial intentions and business creation among refugee populations. Subjective norm is measured by focusing on the likelihood of approval from family and friends (Liñán and Chen, 2009 ). However, many refugees migrate without their close relatives or may not have constant contact with friends to provide that approval. Consequently, support from family and friends may not have a significant influence on the motivation for entrepreneurs to engage in business activities (Almohammad et al., 2021 ). Moreover, the psychological trauma and mental health challenges that many refugees experience tend to have a negative influence on entrepreneurial attitudes, intentions, and success (Almohammad et al., 2021 ; Nafari and Ruebottom, 2025 ). Relatedly, refugee entrepreneurs also tend to have weak and unstable resilience (Yeshi et al., 2022 ), indicating that their psychosocial realities may have a negative impact on controllability and, consequently, on entrepreneurial intentions and behavior. Moreover, there are further challenges that limit the application of the TPB to populations such as refugees. The theory has been criticized for ignoring contextual and socio-cultural influences or for assuming that the belief variables mediate the effects of such factors (Sniehotta et al., 2014 ). In addition, intentions do not always result in behavior, which may result from changes in attitudes or a change of mind over time (Tornikoski and Maalaoui, 2019 ), suggesting that the intention may change with changing circumstances. The gap relating to the movement from intention to behavior has been addressed by increasing focus on implementation intentions. 2.2. Prior Entrepreneurial Experience as a Predictor of the TPB Constructs and Implementation Intention The study of(van Gelderen et al., 2008 ) suggests that background factors such as experience, gender, and personality influence entrepreneurial intentions; moreover, the TPB constructs are essential in the association between these background factors and entrepreneurial intentions. Although scholars have focused on different forms of experience, such as work context experience and life experience that come with age (Miralles et al., 2016 ), at the general level, one’s prior entrepreneurial experiences shape entrepreneurial attitudes, intentions, and behavior. To highlight the usefulness of experience in the formation of entrepreneurial intentions, exposure to practical entrepreneurial education has been linked to the acquisition of both entrepreneurial knowledge and entrepreneurial experiences, which enhances the perceived desirability and feasibility of an entrepreneurial career (Gielnik et al., 2015 ; Peterman and Kennedy, 2003 ). The disruptive nature of the migration process may imply that their entrepreneurial experience in their home country is suddenly halted. It is also possible that some refugees have experienced entrepreneurial failure, which may have a negative effect on entrepreneurial attitudes and perceptions of controllability and risk (Dvorský et al., 2020 ; Sousa-Filho et al., 2023 ). Moreover, some studies have found a weak relationship between entrepreneurship experience and entrepreneurial intentions or behavior, suggesting that the effects of the experience can be better observed indirectly through factors such as perceptions and attitudes that are proximal to entrepreneurial behavior (Miralles et al., 2016 ). For the present study, we focus on antecedent factors in the TPB model as possible mediating links between prior entrepreneurial experience, entrepreneurial intentions, and implementation intentions. Prior entrepreneurial experience is a source of knowledge about the tasks and roles of entrepreneurs (Miralles et al., 2017 ). Experience enables a better understanding of the market, suppliers, and customer needs. Such knowledge facilitates the identification and exploitation of entrepreneurial opportunities (Quan, 2012 ; Shane, 2000 ). This type of knowledge, obtained from experience, may differ from that gained through entrepreneurial education or training and could have a stronger impact on entrepreneurial intentions, which may occur through the antecedent variables in the TPB model (Miralles et al., 2017 ; Zapkau et al., 2015 ). If the experience enables individuals to identify more unattractive aspects of entrepreneurship, it may negatively impact entrepreneurial attitudes, perceptions of controllability, and expectations of support from significant others (Miralles et al., 2017 ; Zapkau et al., 2015 ). On the other hand, previous experience strengthens these determinants of intention and behavior if it facilitates the identification of more positive aspects of entrepreneurship. The experience of positive entrepreneurial characteristics such as autonomy and flexible working hours that accrue from working in small businesses can positively influence entrepreneurial attitudes and intentions (Bignotti and le Roux, 2020 ; Zapkau et al., 2015 ), consequently translating into action. Concerning refugees, previous entrepreneurial experience is considered a motivational factor for refugees’ entrepreneurial intentions and startups (Newman et al., 2023 ; Zalkat et al., 2023 ). Therefore, we propose a serial mediation model of the effects of prior business experience on entrepreneurial intentions and intention implementation via entrepreneurial attitudes, subjective norm, and PBC. As summarized in the conceptual model in Fig. 1 , we investigate the following hypotheses. Hypothesis 1. Refugees’ prior business experience is positively related to their (a) entrepreneurial attitudes, (b) subjective norms, (c) PBC, (d) entrepreneurial intentions, and (e) implementation intentions. Hypothesis 2. The relationship between refugees’ prior business experience and implementation intention is mediated by (a) entrepreneurial attitudes, (b) subjective norm, (c) PBC, and (d) entrepreneurial intentions. Hypothesis 3. The relationship between refugees’ prior business experience and implementation intentions is serially mediated through (a) entrepreneurial attitudes and entrepreneurial intentions, (b) subjective norm and entrepreneurial intentions, and (c) PBC and entrepreneurial intentions. Insert Figure 1 around here 3. Methods 3.1. The Sample and Procedure To test our assumptions, we collected data from refugees living in Bidibidi and Kiryandongo settlements in Northern and Western Uganda and urban refugees living in the Kampala metropolitan area. These are some of the largest refugee settlements in Uganda. For example, with over 230,000 refugees, Bidibidi is the largest refugee settlement and hosts a variety of ethnic backgrounds (Makoha and Denov, 2024 ) and the second largest refugee settlement in the world (Bukuluki et al., 2021 ). Similarly, the Kampala metropolitan area hosts over 80,000 refugees; hence, it is home to most urban refugees in Uganda (Baluku, 2023 ). To reach a broader range of the refugee population in these settlements, and since most refugees in Africa tend to have low levels of education (Kabera, 1989 ), the survey questionnaire was translated into Juba-Arabic and Somali, the most widely spoken languages in these settlements. The back translation procedure was used to ensure the accuracy of the translated items (Brislin, 1970 ). In addition, research assistants who were refugees and fluent in these languages supported the data collection process, especially in clarifying information about the study and responding to participant inquiries. Data was collected at a time when the government of Uganda was implementing strict measures to control the COVID-19 pandemic, hence restrictions on movement and physical interactions. We, therefore, used the group questionnaire administration approach with the support of settlement commandants (managers) since gatherings of up to 20 people were allowed. The settlement commandants identified potential participants and transported them to a community center where they completed the questionnaire. Other approaches were not possible since the majority of refugees, specifically in rural settlements, have limited access to internet services. However, this approach resulted in a convenient sample of 422 refugees who are not yet engaged in entrepreneurial activities. This sample was obtained from a total of 620 refugees requested to participate (a response rate of 68.07%). However, the current study uses data from 394 participants (35% female, 65% male) who provided complete responses. The participants comprised two nationalities: South Sudan (80.5%) and Somalia (19.5%). The majority of the participants (79.9%) were from rural settlements (277 from Bidibidi and 38 from Kiryandongo), while 20.1% were urban refugees. The mean age of the participants was 28.45 years (SD = 8.62). Most participants had lived in Uganda for an average of 3.67 years (SD = 2.82). Participants generally had low levels of education, with 21.6% indicating that they had not completed primary education, while only 4.3% had attained a university education. 3.2. Measures Prior business experience: to measure participants’ prior business experience, we asked them to indicate if they had been engaged in business before arriving in Uganda. Thus, a single item, “Were you engaged in business before coming to Uganda?” (responses on a binary scale of 1 = no, and 2 = yes) was used. The responses indicated that a significant number of participants (48.5%) were involved in business activities in their home countries or countries of origin. Entrepreneurial attitudes were measured using the questionnaire developed by Liñán and Chen (2009). The questionnaire was developed to measure the different aspects of the TPB model in the domain of entrepreneurship. The questionnaire assesses entrepreneurial attitudes using five items. These were rated on a 5-point Likert scale. A sample item is “A career as an entrepreneur is attractive for me” (responses ranging from 1 = totally disagree to 5 = totally agree). The items showed an acceptable level of internal consistency (α = .73). Subjective Norm was also measured using the Liñán and Chen (2009) questionnaire. This questionnaire assesses subjective norm using three items which focus on where the close people or significant others, including family, friends, and colleagues, would approve of an individual’s decision to start a business venture. Given that refugees often migrate without their close family members, we replaced the item with whether the leaders in the refugee settlement would approve the decision to start a business. The items were assessed on a 5-point rating scale, ranging from 1 (total disapproval) to 5 (total approval). The items revealed an internal consistency of α = .69, which is slightly(Nunnally, 1978). However, the inter-item correlations ranged from .35 to .50, which are within the range considered acceptable for internal consistency in(Clark et al. , 1995). Therefore, the items for subjective norm can be considered adequate and reliable for the current study. Perceived behavioral control (PBC) was measured using the Liñán and Chen (2009) questionnaire. The aspect of PBC is six items that focus on assessing the individuals’ perceptions of their entrepreneurial capacity. A sample item is “To start a firm in the settlement or host community and keep it working would be easy for me”. The items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = totally disagree, 5 = totally agree. The items were contextualized to the settlement context. For example, the item “To start a firm and keep it working would be easy for me” was adjusted to “To start a business in the settlement or host community and keep it working would be easy for me”. The items showed acceptable internal consistency (α = .71). Entrepreneurial intentions were also measured Liñán and Chen (2009) questionnaire. This questionnaire assesses entrepreneurial intentions with six items that focus on an individual’s willingness to start an entrepreneurial activity. A sample item is “I am ready to do anything to be an entrepreneur.” The items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale (ranging from 1 = totally agree to 5 = totally agree). The items showed adequate internal consistency (α = .77). Implementation intentions were measured using the questionnaire developed by (van Gelderen et al. , 2018). The questionnaire consists of three items that were rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = totally disagree, 5 = totally agree). The items assess whether an individual is ready to translate entrepreneurial intentions into action by examining whether they have developed an action plan of steps to be implemented, when conditions allow, to facilitate the startup process. A sample item is “I have already planned precisely when to engage in my first step to starting a business.” The items showed an impressive internal consistency (α = .76). Preliminary Analyses and the Measurement Model Multicollinearity affects the findings in analyzing relationships. Multicollinearity is assumed to be a major concern when Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) values are greater than 5 and Tolerance (YOL) values are below .2 (Eid et al. , 2015). The TOL varied from .63 to .98, while the VIF varied from 1.07 to 1.59. Therefore, it can be assumed that the data did not have multicollinearity challenges. Concerning the normality tests, the Shapiro-Wilk test revealed significant coefficients for all variables, suggesting that the data were not normally distributed. The skew and kurtosis tests revealed that the data for all variables were negatively skewed. To assess the adequacy of the measurement model, we used the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) and the comparative fit index (CFI). Accordingly, RMSEA values below or equal to .08 are considered a moderate fit to the data, while values below or equal to .06 are regarded as a good fit (MacCallum et al. , 1996). For CFI, values equal to or above .90 are considered to indicate an acceptable fit, while values equal to or above .95 are regarded as a good fit (Hu and Bentler, 1999). Since the data used for this study is cross-sectional, Common Method Variance (CMV) is a likely challenge. One of the recommended approaches to control the effects of CMV is Herman’s single-factor test (Podsakoff et al. , 2003). This approach involves modeling all manifest indicators used in the structural equation models as indicators of a single factor representing method effects. CMV is considered a major concern if the one-factor model is a good fit for the data. For this study, the single-factor test yielded a poor fit (χ² = 1038.069, df = 252, CFI = .652, RMSEA = .089). In contrast, our hypothesized model, consisting of prior entrepreneurial experience, entrepreneurial attitudes, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, entrepreneurial intentions, and implementation intentions, showed a better fit (χ² = 447.996, df = 238, CFI = .907, RMSEA = .047), providing confidence that our concepts are conceptually distinct. 4. Results The results are summarized in the Results model in Figure 2. Table 1 provides descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations among the variables. To test our hypotheses, we used serial mediation analysis in PROCESS Macro in SPSS (Hayes, 2022). Model 80 of this analysis tool was used because it simultaneously generates serial and double mediation effects. Sample bootstrapping at 5000 and the confidence intervals at 95% were applied as recommended by (Hayes, 2013). Participants’ demographic characteristics were included in the regression analysis as covariates, given the significant correlations with some of the study variables (Table 1). Previous research indicates that demographic variables influence the TBP variables (Liñán and Chen, 2009). Table 2 further confirms the significant correlations. Gender was particularly associated with subjective norm and implementation intentions (with males reporting higher subjective norm and implementation intentions), and age was negatively related to entrepreneurial intentions and implementation intentions. The type of settlement was significantly associated with PBC and entrepreneurial intentions, with urban refugees indicating higher levels of PBC and entrepreneurial intentions. Similarly, educational attainment was positively correlated with entrepreneurial attitudes and entrepreneurial intentions. Hypothesis 1 predicted a positive association between refugees’ prior business experience and the variables in the TPB model, as well as their implementation intention. Consistent with this hypothesis, results in Table 2 show that prior experience had a significant positive relationship with three TPB antecedent variables; that is entrepreneurial attitudes ( β = .31, p < .01), subjective norms ( β = .27, p < .05), PBC ( β = .49, p < .001), and implementation intentions ( β = .28, p < .01). We did not find significant direct effects of prior business experience on entrepreneurial intentions. Hence, hypotheses H1(a) , H1(b) , H1(c) and H1(e) are supported, while hypothesis H(1d) is not supported. However, this is because the TPB antecedent variables fully mediated the effects of prior business experience on the intention variables. In addition, the results in Table 2 indicate that all the three antecedents of the TPB model were positively associated with entrepreneurial intentions; that is, entrepreneurial attitudes ( β = .27, p < .001), subjective norm ( β = .10, p < .05), and PBC ( β = .34, p < .001). However, only PBC ( β = .22, p < .001) and entrepreneurial intentions ( β = .25, p < .001) had significant effects on implementation intentions. These results indicate that PBC had the strongest effect on entrepreneurial intentions, while entrepreneurial intentions, in turn, had the strongest effect on implementation intentions. Hypothesis 2 proposes that the TPB variables mediate the relationship between refugees’ prior business experience and implementation intention. Hypothesis H3 suggests serial mediation effects through the TPB antecedent variables and entrepreneurial intentions. The direct effects of prior business experience were significant, indicating that the TPB constructs partially mediated the relationship between prior business experience and implementation intentions. Accordingly, the total indirect effects were significant ( β = .18, Boot 95 % CI [.09, .28]). However, only the path via PBC ( β = .11, Boot 95 % CI [.04, .19]) was the only significant single mediator path. Therefore, whereas hypothesis H2c is supported, hypotheses H2a , H2b, and H2d are not supported. Nonetheless, the double mediator path via entrepreneurial attitudes and entrepreneurial intentions ( β = .02, Boot 95 % CI [.01, .04]) and the path via PBC and entrepreneurial intentions ( β = .04, Boot 95 % CI [.02, .08]) were significant. Therefore, hypotheses H3a and H3c are also supported. Table 1. Descriptive statistics and correlations among the measures 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Gender a _ .11 * -.39 * * * .21 ** * .17 ** .19 * * * .12 * .04 -.002 .09 Age _ -.06 -.05 .15 ** .05 .04 -.01 -.04 -.14 ** Type of settlement _ -.07 -.28 * * * -.14 ** -.13 * .11 * .10 * .07 Educational attainment _ .09 .04 .20 * * * .11 * .20 * * * .15 ** Prior business experience _ .17 ** .19 * * * .20 * * * .12 * .18 * * * Subjective norm _ .15 ** .24 *** .20 *** .12 * Attitudes _ .49 *** .46 *** .22 *** Perceived behavioral control _ .52 *** .38 *** Entrepreneurial intentions _ .39 *** Implementation intention _ M 28.45 3.75 4.06 3.90 4.20 3.93 SD 8.62 .88 .73 .69 .63 .86 α .69 .73 .71 .77 .76 Note: *. p < .05; **. p < .01; ***. p < .001; N = 394 a Female = 0, Male = 1; b Rural = 0, Urban = 1; c No = 0, Yes = 1 Insert Table 1 around here Table 2. Serial mediation analysis results for the effects of prior business experience on the TPB constructs and implementation intentions Entrepreneurial Attitudes (EA) Subjective norm (SN) Perceived behavioral control (PBC) Entrepreneurial intentions (EI) Implementation intentions β SE 95% CI β SE 95% CI β SE 95% CI β SE 95% CI β SE 95% CI Gender a .03 .08 [-.11, .21] .15 ** .10 [ .08, .48] .06 .08 [-.07, .24] -.05 .06 [-.18, .06] .10 * .09 [ .01, .36] Age .01 .004 [-.01, .01] .01 .01 [-.01, .01] -.03 .004 [-.01, .01] -.04 .003 [-.01, -.003] -.15 ** .01 [-.02, -.01] Type of settlement b -.06 .10 [-.30, .09] -.04 .12 [-.33, .15] .21 *** .09 [ .18, .54] .10 * .07 [.01, .30] .09 .11 [-.03, .41] Educational attainment .18 *** .02 [ .04, .13] -.01 .03 [-.06, .05] .09 .02 [-.003, .09] .12 ** .02 [ .02, .09] .04 .03 [-.03, .08] Prior business experience c .31 ** .08 [ .07, .37] .27 * .09 [ .06, .41] .49 *** .07 [ .20, .48] .03 .06 [-.09, .13] .28 ** .08 [ .08, .40] Entrepreneurial attitudes .27 *** .04 [ .15, .31] -.04 .06 [-.17, .09] Subjective norm .10 * .03 [ .01, .13] -.001 .05 [-.09, .09] Perceived behavioral control .34 *** .05 [ .22, .40] .22 *** .07 [ .14, .42] Entrepreneurial intentions .25 *** .08 [ .19, .49] Model statistics R 2 and F statistics R 2 =.08, F (5, 388) = 6.38 *** R 2 =.06, F (8, 388) = 4.73 *** R 2 =.09, F (8, 388) = 7.18 *** R 2 =.36, F (8, 385) = 26.90 *** R 2 =.24, F (9, 384) = 13.66 *** Indirect effect paths β Boot SE Boot 95% CI Total indirect effects .18 .05 [ .09, .28] Prior business experience → EA → implementation intention -.01 .02 [-.05, .02] Prior business experience → SN → implementation intention <-.001 .01 [-.03, .03] Prior business experience → PBC → implementation intention .11 .04 [ .04, .19] Prior business experience → EI → implementation intention .01 .02 [-.04, .05] Prior business experience → EA → EI → implementation intention .02 .01 [ .01, .04] Prior business experience → SN → EI → implementation intention .01 .01 [<-.001, .02] Prior business experience → PBC → EI → implementation intention .04 .02 [ .02, .08] *. p < .05, **. p < .01, ***. p < .001, N = 394, β = Standardized regression coefficients a Female = 1, Male = 2; b Rural = 0, Urban = 1; c No = 0, Yes = 1; Insert Table 2 around here Insert Figure 2 around here 5. Discussion The study aimed to contribute to the refugee entrepreneurship discourse by integrating past business experience with the TPB in understanding factors that foster refugees’ entrepreneurial intentions and the readiness to implement those intentions. The study of Miralles et al. ( 2017 ) suggests that the influence of previous engagement in entrepreneurial activity on entrepreneurial intentions varies across populations. The present study focused on the population of refugees hosted in resource-constrained settlements in a less-developed country. This context is vital to understanding the results of this study since, beyond inherent interest in an entrepreneurial career, entrepreneurial intentions and entrepreneurial activity for such populations are primarily driven by necessity (Luseno and Kolade, 2021 ; Mehtap and Al-Saidi, 2018 ; Zighan, 2020 ). In the current study, we demonstrate that previous engagement in entrepreneurial activities is essential in the entrepreneurial process, as it influences TPB antecedents of behavioral intentions and implementation of intentions, indicating that not all refugee entrepreneurial activities are driven solely by necessity. In line with previous findings (e.g., Harris and Gibson, 2008 ; Mueller et al., 2014 ; Zapkau et al., 2015 ), our results show that, more than any other demographic variable included in the study, previous business experience positively influences refugees’ attitudes toward entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurial experience is a vital source of practical knowledge about entrepreneurship, which may result in a positive attitude towards entrepreneurship (Miralles et al., 2016 , 2017 ; Zapkau et al., 2015 ). These findings reinforce previous efforts advocating for experiential learning to improve the outcomes of entrepreneurial education (Motta and Galina, 2023 ; Nabi et al., 2018 ; Pittaway and Cope, 2007 ; Radu Lefebvre and Redien-Collot, 2013 ; Toft-Kehler et al., 2014 ). Direct entrepreneurial experiences foster entrepreneurial knowledge and an entrepreneurial lifestyle (Zapkau et al., 2015 ) to which individuals become accustomed. Therefore, even when refugees are in new and unfamiliar settings, those who have owned businesses before becoming refugees might find entrepreneurship a more attractive career path in the host community. This not only challenges the hypothesis that refugees’ entrepreneurial action is necessity-driven but is also essential to fastening one’s economic integration and self-reliance. Refugee entrepreneurs tend to be more integrated and have higher incomes than their counterparts (Betts et al., 2017 ). Relatedly, prior business experience positively predicted both subjective norm and PBC. These findings support previous research that highlights the role of experience in boosting subjective norm and perceived control in the entrepreneurial context (Miralles et al., 2016 , 2017 ; Zapkau et al., 2015 ). However, some studies reveal that prior entrepreneurial experience can also have negative effects on entrepreneurial attitudes, subjective norm, PBC, and intentions (Malebana and Mahlaole, 2023 ). With respect to PBC, whereas refugees might be in an unfamiliar entrepreneurial environment, their previous business experience might be an asset for their perceived efficacy and controllability in executing entrepreneurial activities. In line with the socio-cognitive perspective, experience in entrepreneurial activities strengthens entrepreneurial self-efficacy (Kasouf et al., 2015 ), an essential aspect of PBC. Refugees’ perceptions of their ability to exercise control when undertaking entrepreneurial activities can be stronger if their previous entrepreneurial experience translates into stronger entrepreneurial self-efficacy and practical business knowledge. The self-perception of the ability to start a business is a mechanism through which prior entrepreneurial experience and knowledge influence entrepreneurial intentions (Miralles et al., 2016 ), hence essential to boosting refugee startups. Previous experience is also essential for the subjective norm. Miralles et al. ( 2016 ) observe that prior entrepreneurial experience reflected in experiential entrepreneurial knowledge is positively associated with the perception of entrepreneurship as an accepted career path. Whereas the acceptability of entrepreneurship varies among societies (Dana, 1997 ), our results show that refugees with prior entrepreneurial experience are more likely to perceive acceptability among host community members and in the refugee community, strengthening their willingness to engage in entrepreneurial activities. In refugee settlements such as those in Uganda, where thousands of refugees from the same country of origin live in the same locality, the acceptability of entrepreneurial behavior is more likely to be positively perceived if the refugees have an entrepreneurial background. Our findings show that whereas prior business experience was not directly correlated to entrepreneurial intentions, it was substantially related to implementation intentions via entrepreneurial attitudes, subjective norm, entrepreneurial intentions, and PBC. Specifically, the mediation path via PBC was significant, as well as the double mediation path via entrepreneurial attitudes and intentions, and the path via PBC and entrepreneurial intentions. These findings are consistent with previous research indicating that entrepreneurial experience is an exogenous factor influencing entrepreneurial intentions through the three TPB attitudinal antecedent variables (Miralles et al., 2016 ; Mueller et al., 2014 ; Sommer, 2013 ; Zapkau et al., 2015 ). However, the mediation effects of subjective norm, as a single mediator and in the double mediation path, were not significant.Zapkau et al. ( 2015 ) suggest that studies examining the effects of demographic characteristics on entrepreneurial intentions and behavior should apply indirect intention-based frameworks. That is, whereas individual variables such as entrepreneurial experience influence entrepreneurial intentions and the implementation of those intentions, the influence becomes effective when previous experience leads to favorable entrepreneurial attitudes, an improved perception of entrepreneurship as an acceptable career behavior, and enhanced perceptions of the controllability of one’s entrepreneurial actions in the given entrepreneurial environment. Experience is crucial for refugees, as they often have limited social and financial resources, and therefore must rely on their own human and psychological capital to navigate the new, unfamiliar entrepreneurial environment. However, given the likelihood that prior entrepreneurial experience can in some situations also have adverse effects on dwindle entrepreneurial attitudes, subjective norm, and perceptions of controllability (Malebana et al., 2014 ), scholars need to interrogate the nature of experiences that would be beneficial and those that would be detrimental to refugees’ entrepreneurial competence and business creation. The finding that subjective norm does not have a significant relationship with implementation intentions and does not mediate the effects of prior business experience on implementation intentions is essential to understanding which aspects of the TPB are relevant or should be given attention in promoting refugee entrepreneurship. Since refugees often migrate to their host communities without their family, friends, and significant others, the need to seek approval from these categories of people becomes irrelevant and impractical. Therefore, the findings highlight that entrepreneurial attitudes and PBC are the most essential elements of the TPB in steering entrepreneurial action and startups, especially among refugees living in precarious economic conditions in less developed countries. In addition, this finding suggests that previous business experience is essential for entrepreneurial intentions and their implementation if the experience strengthens entrepreneurial attitudes and perceptions of controllability. Practical Implications Besides the above theoretical contributions, the study makes the following practical contributions. The results confirm that entrepreneurial attitudes, subjective norms, and PBC are essential antecedents for refugees' entrepreneurial intentions; and particularly, entrepreneurial attitudes and PBC are directly or indirectly relevant to the implementation of entrepreneurial intentions. Therefore, refugee entrepreneurship programs, including training and education, should focus on learning activities and approaches, such as active learning, that enhance entrepreneurial attitudes and PBC. Second, enhancing entrepreneurial attitudes, subjective norm, and PBC, consequently facilitating the formation of entrepreneurial intentions and drawing plans to implement the intentions or taking action, can be enhanced by exposing refugees to entrepreneurial experience. Therefore, refugee entrepreneurship learning and training programmes can result in increased prospects for startups if experiential learning is applied, given the role of experience in the entrepreneurial process and success (Culbertson, 2014 ; Motta and Galina, 2023 ; Toft-Kehler et al., 2014 ). Individuals with entrepreneurial experience are likely to have stronger entrepreneurial self-efficacy (Kasouf et al., 2015 ) and know how to harness resources (Chila et al., 2025 ; Kotha and George, 2012 ) to start and grow an entrepreneurial venture. Hence, deliberate efforts to foster experience learning arrangements such as innovation hubs, apprenticeships, and internships can be useful in providing experiences that strengthen the attractiveness of the entrepreneurship career, steering refugee startups. Third, policies and interventions that promote acquiring entrepreneurial experience are required. Refugee entrepreneurship policies should emphasize strategies for fostering entrepreneurial experiences among refugees, including experiential entrepreneurship education and training that expose prospective refugee entrepreneurs to the practices of business and innovations. Moreover, policies and interventions supporting startups can use entrepreneurial experience in addition to entrepreneurial competence among the selection criteria. Given that refugees with prior entrepreneurial experience are more likely to have a more favorable attitude toward entrepreneurship and have stronger intentions for startups, support for such refugees can yield more remarkable outcomes. Moreover, refugees with an entrepreneurial background or experience can be identified and supported to continue with entrepreneurship as a career path. Limitations Despite the above theoretical and practical implications, the study has several limitations. First, the settlements where the study was conducted are some of the largest refugee settlements. They predominantly host refugees from South Sudan and Somalia. Whereas refugees from these countries constitute the majority of refugees in the country, Uganda also hosts a significant number of refugees from other neighboring countries, such as the Democratic Republic of Congo (515,482), Eritrea (48,713), and Burundi (42,928), among others (United Nations Higher Commissioner for Refugees, 2023 ). These were not represented in the sample, limiting the generalizability of our findings. Entrepreneurship is associated with culture or ethnicity. Some ethnicities are more enterprising than others, and some cultures are more favorable to entrepreneurship than others (Alexandre et al., 2019 ; Dana, 1997 ; Mayuto et al., 2023 ). Therefore, studies among other refugee groups are necessary to generate generalizable results. Secondly, the study is based on data collected cross-sectionally using self-report instruments. Therefore, common method bias cannot be ruled out (Doty and Glick, 1998 ; Fuller et al., 2016 ). Moreover, the data was obtained from a convenient sample of refugees, which has limited generalizability potential compared to probability or random samples (Jager et al., 2017 ; Pruchno et al., 2008 ). However, this challenge is minimized by the relative homogeneity of the sample (Jager et al., 2017 ) since the participants were mainly from South Sudan and Somalia. Future studies could benefit from longitudinal and experimental studies. Third, the current study considered entrepreneurial experience obtained in the home country; however, some refugees may have also gained entrepreneurship-related experience in the host community. This post-migration entrepreneurial experience could also substantially affect refugees' entrepreneurial intentions and implementation intentions. Our study did not measure and control such effects. Experimental intervention studies that enable refugees to acquire experiences through, for example, practice-based training and apprenticeship can generate valuable scientific evidence on approaches that can accelerate refugee entrepreneurship. Fourth, previous entrepreneurial experience was measured by determining whether refugees had owned a business prior to becoming refugees. However, there are different forms of entrepreneurial experience. For instance, some studies have focused on prior entrepreneurial knowledge as an essential aspect of entrepreneurial experience (Miralles et al., 2016 ). Entrepreneurial experience can also be boosted through working in a business (Bignotti and le Roux, 2020 ), incubators, entrepreneurial education programs, and family businesses (Bloemen-Bekx et al., 2019 ; Carr and Sequeira, 2007 ; Motta and Galina, 2023 ; Zheng et al., 2017 ). These may have differing forms and magnitude of influence on TPB antecedent variables, entrepreneurial intentions, and behavior. Therefore, future research could benefit from considering various entrepreneurial experiences and their effect on refugees’ entrepreneurial intentions and behavior. In addition, refugee entrepreneurs may also be challenged by a lack of business experience in the host context (Abebe, 2023 ; Wauters and Lambrecht, 2008 ). Future research could investigate the differential or combined effects of prior entrepreneurial experiences in the host community and the home country or country of origin on refugees’ entrepreneurial intentions and business creation. Conclusion This study contributes to understanding refugee entrepreneurial intentions and readiness to implement those intentions by focusing on the role of prior business experience. We primarily focus on how prior business experience acquired in the country of origin relates to the TPB concepts among refugees residing in resource-constrained settlements. Similar to studies from other contexts (Miralles et al., 2016 ; Mueller et al., 2014 ; Zapkau et al., 2015 ), our findings show strong effects of prior entrepreneurial experience on TPB and entrepreneurial intention implementation among refugees. Whereas entrepreneurial attitudes and PBC were associated with entrepreneurial intentions, the effects of subjective norm were not substantial. Of the three TPB antecedent variables, PBC had the strongest direct effects on entrepreneurial intentions and implementations. PBC also had the strongest mediation effects in the association between prior business experience and implementation intentions. Moreover, significant double mediation paths were observed for the effects of prior experience on implementation intentions, both through entrepreneurial attitudes and entrepreneurial intentions, as well as through PBC and entrepreneurial intentions. The results of this study suggest that prior entrepreneurial experience is foundational to promoting refugee entrepreneurship. Refugee entrepreneurship promotion interventions may benefit from approaches that enhance entrepreneurial exposure and practical experience. Therefore, refugee entrepreneurship policies need to promote entrepreneurial experience acquisition among prospecting refugee entrepreneurs. The existing literature suggests that practical experiences can be acquired through experiential learning and training methods, such as apprenticeships, mentoring, and innovation hubs. The results also suggest that refugees with an entrepreneurial career have a higher likelihood of self-determinedly seeking socioeconomic integration via engagement in entrepreneurial activities. Hence, entrepreneurial experience can be used as a criterion for identifying refugees for support to further their entrepreneurial careers. Refugees with entrepreneurial experience tend to have higher entrepreneurial motivation (Newman et al., 2023 ); therefore, they would benefit from entrepreneurial support initiatives in the host community. Declarations Competing Interests The authors declare no conflict of interest Data Availability Data used for this paper is available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Human Ethics Declaration The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethics Approval Declaration This paper reports part of the data from a research project titled “Refugee Entrepreneurship and Skilling for Self-Reliance (RESS-R).” The project received ethical clearance from Makerere University Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee Clearance No MAKSS REC 03.20.393. Consent to Participate Declaration Participants were presented with consent forms to sign. The consent forms included the details of the study, such as the research team, the purpose of the study, the selection criteria, the risks and benefits involved, confidentiality and voluntariness statements, reimbursement, and ethical clearance. At the end of the form, participants were requested to sign under the following statement: I have read the above information or had it read to me. I have received answers to the questions I have asked. I consent to participate in this research. I am at least ……. years of age. Name of participant: .................................................................................................................. Signature or thumbprint/mark of participant: ……………………… Date: …………….… Name of Person obtaining Consent: ........................................................................................... Signature of person obtaining consent: ………………………………… Date: ………………. Consent to Publish Not applicable Funding Declaration The Government of Uganda supported the study through the Makerere University Research and Innovation Fund (Mak-RIF) - RIF1/CHUSS/003 Clinical Trial Number Not applicable Acknowledgements Declaration Not applicable Author Contribution M.M.B. conceptualized the paper and led all aspects of its development. E.W., S.N., and F.N. participated in data collection and curation. P.N., proofread the manuscript. All authors reviewed the manuscript. References Abebe, S.A. 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A multiple case study of Chinese entrepreneurial learning”, Management Decision , Emerald Group Publishing Ltd., Vol. 55 No. 7, pp. 1394–1409, doi: 10.1108/MD-06-2016-0370. Zighan, S. (2020), “Challenges faced by necessity entrepreneurship, the case of Syrian refugees in Jordan”, Journal of Enterprising Communities , Emerald Group Holdings Ltd., Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 531–547, doi: 10.1108/JEC-09-2020-0168. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 02 Jan, 2026 Read the published version in Future Business Journal → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7143284","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":499349063,"identity":"9a9d75e4-7d01-46ef-8627-dc16dc431892","order_by":0,"name":"Martin Mabunda Baluku","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA9UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYLCCBBBiZ2BmYKhgYJAgQgNjA1gLM0jLGWK1MMC0MLYRoUW3/ezzBw93MOTxN/MYG/PO2yYv2cD88ANjWy1OLWZn0g0bEs8wFEsc5jFO5t1223A2A5uxBGPbcdxaDqQxNiS2MSQ2ALUcBmphnAcUBLrwGG4t559BtMwHa5lz234eA/s3/FpuQG3ZAHZYw+3E2Qw8IFtq8Gh5xjgjsU2i2PAwW7HhnGO3k2c28xRLJJw7gMdhaQwff7bZ5Mkdb94s8abmtu2M4+0bP3woq8OpBQqQIwMYo8BoOkxICyYgaMsoGAWjYBSMHAAAxF1StSeYF3MAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Makerere University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Martin","middleName":"Mabunda","lastName":"Baluku","suffix":""},{"id":499349066,"identity":"a7d959f6-dfc6-4da2-9a3e-7c92b1963386","order_by":1,"name":"Florence Nansubuga","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Saarland University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Florence","middleName":"","lastName":"Nansubuga","suffix":""},{"id":499349067,"identity":"dceea336-211d-40c6-b919-a3428b9e5b3b","order_by":2,"name":"Eria Wambi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Saarland University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Eria","middleName":"","lastName":"Wambi","suffix":""},{"id":499349068,"identity":"618f3d1e-dce6-46a2-8167-4ddd53c3e164","order_by":3,"name":"Paul Nyende","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Makerere University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Paul","middleName":"","lastName":"Nyende","suffix":""},{"id":499349069,"identity":"8dad4f1b-4fc9-4132-82fd-0b0a7d8a07ab","order_by":4,"name":"Simon Nantamu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Makerere University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Simon","middleName":"","lastName":"Nantamu","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-07-16 21:08:06","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7143284/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7143284/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s43093-025-00701-9","type":"published","date":"2026-01-02T15:57:31+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":89233029,"identity":"3d89903e-aa29-44e9-8ddb-1270edeccf1b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-17 14:31:12","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":58678,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eConceptual model\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7143284/v1/8a0d869173af90bf0e6bbdba.jpg"},{"id":89233030,"identity":"16ad92d4-d369-4d4b-bea0-d5c398768ee6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-17 14:31:12","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":69092,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eResults model\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7143284/v1/0f6c524111cf0f53544610a8.jpg"},{"id":99545458,"identity":"3ffc82c7-8e73-4c83-8160-67c964bcde16","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-05 16:07:51","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1390391,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7143284/v1/11c42e8b-427e-40bb-b2c4-ba8cae58504f.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003ePrior Business Experience, Refugees’ Entrepreneurial Intentions, and Intention Implementation: Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe successful socioeconomic integration of refugees remains a daunting task for many host countries, primarily due to institutional, cultural, and individual-level constraints. However, personal factors, including entrepreneurialism, personal initiative, and career adaptability, are essential to successfully integrating refugees (Campion, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Obschonka et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Zacher, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR103\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Specifically, there is increasing interest in refugee entrepreneurship(Newman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Wiers and Chabaud, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR101\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) as one of the feasible pathways to the fast and effective integration of refugees, since it benefits both the refugees and the host community. Entrepreneurship is an opportunity for refugees to participate in the economic space, hence a driver for socioeconomic inclusion, decent work, self-reliance, and well-being (Meister and Mauer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Skran, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), as well as career advancement or transition (Abebe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Eggenhofer-Rehart et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Refugee entrepreneurship also contributes to the overall economic development of the host community through innovations, wealth creation, and employment opportunities (Abebe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Zalkat et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR104\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, refugee entrepreneurship shifts the social position of refugees from being perceived as burdens to the host community to being significant economic contributors and transformers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhereas the host communities might provide an enabling environment, several barriers and challenges could hinder engagement in entrepreneurial activities. Refugees often lack adequate access to capital resources (Lee and Black, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Nijhoff, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and face cultural and institutional challenges in the process of founding businesses (Alrawadieh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Nijhoff, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, for the formation and strengthening of entrepreneurial intentions, an entrepreneurial mindset is essential for refugees (Obschonka et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Entrepreneurial intentions represent personal agency (Obschonka et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) that drives entrepreneurial action even under challenging circumstances. The current study examines how refugees\u0026rsquo; prior entrepreneurial experiences and the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) constructs impact their readiness to initiate entrepreneurial activities in host settings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEntrepreneurial intentions and planning specific actions towards starting up when specific enabling factors present themselves (implementation intentions) are critical steps in the entrepreneurial process and predict entrepreneurial entry (Baluku et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; van Gelderen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Pham et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Although refugees\u0026rsquo; entrepreneurial activities seem to be driven by necessity, including limited employment opportunities and the need to earn income for survival (Kassab et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Zamantili Nayir et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR105\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), there is also evidence suggesting the important roles of personal agency (Baluku et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Obschonka et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), entrepreneurial experience (Zalkat et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR104\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), opportunity recognition and innovativeness (Freiling and Harima, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Zamantili Nayir et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR105\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) in refugee entrepreneurship. The systematic literature review of Li\u0026ntilde;\u0026aacute;n and Fayolle (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) highlighted that entrepreneurial education and learning, personality, and the environment contribute to fostering entrepreneurial intentions. There are also interventions focused on acquiring entrepreneurial skills, social capital, business incubation, and access to startup capital (Meister and Mauer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Tibaingana et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) as mechanisms for fostering refugee startups.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEntrepreneurial intentions and their implementation have been studied from various perspectives. In their systematic review,Newman et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) highlight the different theories employed to explain entrepreneurial intentions, motivations, and entry into entrepreneurship. The \u0026ldquo;TPB\u0026rdquo; (Ajzen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e), the entrepreneurial Events Model (Shapero and Sokol, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e), the social capital theory (Anderson and Miller, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e), and the disadvantage theory seem to be the most applied perspective in refugee entrepreneurship studies. However, the TPB is considered one of the most robust models in predicting entrepreneurial intentions and their implementation, as well as actual business creation (van Gelderen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Iakovleva et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Maheshwari et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), highlighting the roles of behavioral attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. However, existing research has predominantly focused on refugees in developed countries. Most research on refugee entrepreneurship focuses on Europe and the United States of America due to the long history of refugee entrepreneurship in these regions (Abebe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Given the role context plays in refugees\u0026rsquo; entrepreneurial intentions and acting on those intentions (Newman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), it is important also to generate empirical evidence from refugees in less-developed countries who are less represented in the extant literature, but also noting that entrepreneurship is increasingly the most feasible socio-economic integration mechanism in such contexts where high unemployment rates already characterize the labor market.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe TPB model suggests that behavioral attitudes, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control (PBC) are a function of a belief system that results from a mixture of personal and situational influences (Ajzen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Prior business experience is one of those individual factors that could be essential for refugees to develop and implement entrepreneurial intentions. However, empirical findings are contradictory, suggesting that experience could be crucial among some populations but not relevant in all situations (Bignotti and le Roux, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Most refugee entrepreneurs in less developed countries tend to establish small businesses. It is not known to what extent prior entrepreneurial experience influences entrepreneurial intentions and startups in this population of refugees. Previous research has indicated that the role experience also depends on its nature, whether it is a learning experience, experience working in a business, or experience establishing and owning a business (Bignotti and le Roux, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The present focuses on refugees' experience of owning a business in their country of origin or home country. Owning or managing a business is a valuable mechanism for building human capital that supports recognizing and exploiting entrepreneurial opportunities (Abebe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). However, there is a gap concerning whether the experience obtained in the home country or country of origin necessarily translates into entrepreneurial intentions and the readiness to implement the intentions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study examines the TPB antecedents as mediators of the association between the prior business experience (the experience of having owned a business venture in the home country before migrating) and entrepreneurial intentions and implementation intentions. The study contributes to the understanding of refugee entrepreneurship in the context of less-developed countries, as driven by personal agency and opportunity rather than necessity. We consider prior business experience critical for refugees\u0026rsquo; readiness to create business ventures in the host communities through its influence on entrepreneurial attitudes, subjective norm, and perceptions of controllability. The paper has interesting implications for practice and theory. First, the study provides a test for the robustness of the TPB model in determining and steering entrepreneurship among refugee populations hosted in resource-constrained settlements in less developed countries. In practical terms, the study highlights the need to use refugees\u0026rsquo; entrepreneurial experience as a resource for boosting refugee entrepreneurship. Providing avenues for boosting refugees\u0026rsquo; entrepreneurial experience through experiential learning approaches could be beneficial. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. The proceeding section analyzes the literature on the TPB and entrepreneurial intentions and implementation intentions and the role of entrepreneurial experience in forming entrepreneurial attitudes, subjective norm, and PBC. Section three presents the methods used in collecting and analyzing the data. Section four presents the results of the serial mediation analysis of the effects of prior experience on entrepreneurial intentions and implementation intentions via the TPB antecedent variables. The last section discusses the main results and provides the implications for refugee business creation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Theoretical Background and Hypotheses","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Entrepreneurial Intentions and Implementation Intentions from the TPB Perspective\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe TPB portrays engagement in a given behavior as mostly planned and best predicted by behavioral intentions (Ajzen, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). The likelihood of performing a behavior is also higher when an individual can exercise volitional control (Ajzen, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Tornikoski and Maalaoui, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The theory of planned behavior posits that the intention to perform a behavior is determined by a belief system consisting of three sets of beliefs, including attitude (represents an individual’s preference regarding the behavior), subjective norms (represents the social pressure to perform or not to perform the behavior), and PBC (represents the ability to exercise control during the performance of the behavior). Behavioral intentions represent the motivational influences on behavior because they show how much effort an individual is willing to exert toward performing a given behavior (Lortie and Castogiovanni, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Tornikoski and Maalaoui, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Whereas intentions mediate the effects of attitudes, subjective norm, and PBC on behavior, PBC can directly affect behavior (Ajzen, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEntrepreneurship is a process that involves several planned and goal-oriented steps (Bogatyreva et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The performance of entrepreneurial activities is largely self-determined; hence, the TPB can be instrumental in explaining how individuals develop entrepreneurial drive, the readiness to implement their entrepreneurial intentions, and the actual entrepreneurial behavior. The application of the TPB in entrepreneurship has primarily focused on understanding entrepreneurial intentions, as these intentions predict actual entry into entrepreneurship (Baluku et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Bogatyreva et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Van Gelderen et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Entrepreneurial intentions refer to an individual’s conviction to engage in entrepreneurial activities (Liñán and Chen, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). The measures of entrepreneurial intentions often focus on the desire to establish a business, the preference for an entrepreneurial career, and the probability of starting a business in the foreseeable future (van Gelderen et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudies using the TPB model demonstrate that entrepreneurial intentions result from entrepreneurial attitudes, subjective norm, and PBC. Entrepreneurial attitudes and PBC are notably reported in previous research as the most significant contributors to the formation of entrepreneurial intentions (Kachkar and Djafri, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Otache, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The general entrepreneurial attitude is likely to result from the perception that engagement in entrepreneurial activities will lead to positive outcomes (Kautonen et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Liñán and Chen, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Lortie and Castogiovanni, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), hence the likelihood of becoming an entrepreneur. PBC concerns the perceptions of one’s ability and the enabling or impeding factors in the performance of the behavior (Ajzen, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Vamvaka et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Empirical findings show that PBC is a strong determinant of entrepreneurial intentions. (Kachkar and Djafri, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Kautonen et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Vamvaka et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). However, extant literature suggests that refugee entrepreneurs are challenged by the socio-economic, institutional, capital, and legal constraints (Alrawadieh et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Harima and Freiling, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). These challenges suggest that controllability could be an illusion for refugee entrepreneurs. Subjective norms, on the other hand, represent the perception of approval or disapproval from one’s significant others, such as family, friends, colleagues, and role models (Lihua, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Liñán and Chen, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Perceived approval may result in stronger entrepreneurial intentions (Baluku et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). However, some studies show that subjective norm is less significant in developing entrepreneurial intentions (Kachkar and Djafri, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Loan et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Otache, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). For refugees with few close relationships, subjective norm may be less important in engaging in entrepreneurial activities. Refugees in less developed countries tend to live in secluded places that not only limit their social capital (Baluku et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), but also a structure for social approval.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe present study focuses on implementation intention as the outcome variable. Entrepreneurial intentions are sometimes measured by focusing on the plans to start a business (van Gelderen et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). However, there is a distinction between entrepreneurial intention, which is a goal intention, and implementation intention, which represents the concrete plans for realizing the goal intention (Tornikoski and Maalaoui, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, on one hand, entrepreneurial intentions depict the eagerness to start a (Liñán and Chen, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). On the other hand, implementation intentions refer to plans to act on one’s entrepreneurial intention when specific facilitating conditions are present; and are also known as “if-then” plans (Bieleke and Keller, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Gollwitzer, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999a\u003c/span\u003e). Such plans are essential for initiating action and buffering against influences that may discourage efforts in pursuing a given behavioral goal (Gollwitzer and Sheeran, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eImplementation intentions concern the planned steps toward entry into entrepreneurship and are considered important in explaining the link between behavioral or goal intention and performance of the behavior (van Gelderen et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Gollwitzer, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999a\u003c/span\u003e). The planned steps can be executed when certain circumstances present themselves (Gollwitzer, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999b\u003c/span\u003e). Given that entrepreneurship is a phased process involving several activities, implementation intention becomes relevant in actualizing the entrepreneurial intentions. The phasing of entrepreneurial actions into specific achievable milestones strengthens the commitment to the goal intention and, therefore, the possibility of translating entrepreneurial intentions into entrepreneurial action (Tornikoski and Maalaoui, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, implementation intentions mediate and moderate the association between entrepreneurial intentions and behavior (Baluku et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; van Gelderen et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Pham et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). For the present study, we expect entrepreneurial attitudes, subjective norm, and PBC to be associated with implementation intentions via entrepreneurial intentions.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDespite empirical evidence demonstrating the relevance of the TPB to promoting entrepreneurship, the precarious situation of refugees may have implications for applying the TPB model to explain entrepreneurial intentions and business creation among refugee populations. Subjective norm is measured by focusing on the likelihood of approval from family and friends (Liñán and Chen, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). However, many refugees migrate without their close relatives or may not have constant contact with friends to provide that approval. Consequently, support from family and friends may not have a significant influence on the motivation for entrepreneurs to engage in business activities (Almohammad et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, the psychological trauma and mental health challenges that many refugees experience tend to have a negative influence on entrepreneurial attitudes, intentions, and success (Almohammad et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Nafari and Ruebottom, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Relatedly, refugee entrepreneurs also tend to have weak and unstable resilience (Yeshi et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), indicating that their psychosocial realities may have a negative impact on controllability and, consequently, on entrepreneurial intentions and behavior.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMoreover, there are further challenges that limit the application of the TPB to populations such as refugees. The theory has been criticized for ignoring contextual and socio-cultural influences or for assuming that the belief variables mediate the effects of such factors (Sniehotta et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, intentions do not always result in behavior, which may result from changes in attitudes or a change of mind over time (Tornikoski and Maalaoui, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), suggesting that the intention may change with changing circumstances. The gap relating to the movement from intention to behavior has been addressed by increasing focus on implementation intentions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Prior Entrepreneurial Experience as a Predictor of the TPB Constructs and Implementation Intention\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe study of(van Gelderen et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) suggests that background factors such as experience, gender, and personality influence entrepreneurial intentions; moreover, the TPB constructs are essential in the association between these background factors and entrepreneurial intentions. Although scholars have focused on different forms of experience, such as work context experience and life experience that come with age (Miralles et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), at the general level, one’s prior entrepreneurial experiences shape entrepreneurial attitudes, intentions, and behavior. To highlight the usefulness of experience in the formation of entrepreneurial intentions, exposure to practical entrepreneurial education has been linked to the acquisition of both entrepreneurial knowledge and entrepreneurial experiences, which enhances the perceived desirability and feasibility of an entrepreneurial career (Gielnik et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Peterman and Kennedy, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). The disruptive nature of the migration process may imply that their entrepreneurial experience in their home country is suddenly halted. It is also possible that some refugees have experienced entrepreneurial failure, which may have a negative effect on entrepreneurial attitudes and perceptions of controllability and risk (Dvorský et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Sousa-Filho et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, some studies have found a weak relationship between entrepreneurship experience and entrepreneurial intentions or behavior, suggesting that the effects of the experience can be better observed indirectly through factors such as perceptions and attitudes that are proximal to entrepreneurial behavior (Miralles et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). For the present study, we focus on antecedent factors in the TPB model as possible mediating links between prior entrepreneurial experience, entrepreneurial intentions, and implementation intentions.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrior entrepreneurial experience is a source of knowledge about the tasks and roles of entrepreneurs (Miralles et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Experience enables a better understanding of the market, suppliers, and customer needs. Such knowledge facilitates the identification and exploitation of entrepreneurial opportunities (Quan, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Shane, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). This type of knowledge, obtained from experience, may differ from that gained through entrepreneurial education or training and could have a stronger impact on entrepreneurial intentions, which may occur through the antecedent variables in the TPB model (Miralles et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Zapkau et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). If the experience enables individuals to identify more unattractive aspects of entrepreneurship, it may negatively impact entrepreneurial attitudes, perceptions of controllability, and expectations of support from significant others (Miralles et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Zapkau et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). On the other hand, previous experience strengthens these determinants of intention and behavior if it facilitates the identification of more positive aspects of entrepreneurship. The experience of positive entrepreneurial characteristics such as autonomy and flexible working hours that accrue from working in small businesses can positively influence entrepreneurial attitudes and intentions (Bignotti and le Roux, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Zapkau et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), consequently translating into action. Concerning refugees, previous entrepreneurial experience is considered a motivational factor for refugees’ entrepreneurial intentions and startups (Newman et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Zalkat et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, we propose a serial mediation model of the effects of prior business experience on entrepreneurial intentions and intention implementation via entrepreneurial attitudes, subjective norm, and PBC. As summarized in the conceptual model in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, we investigate the following hypotheses.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHypothesis 1. Refugees’ prior business experience is positively related to their (a) entrepreneurial attitudes, (b) subjective norms, (c) PBC, (d) entrepreneurial intentions, and (e) implementation intentions.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHypothesis 2. The relationship between refugees’ prior business experience and implementation intention is mediated by (a) entrepreneurial attitudes, (b) subjective norm, (c) PBC, and (d) entrepreneurial intentions.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHypothesis 3. The relationship between refugees’ prior business experience and implementation intentions is serially mediated through (a) entrepreneurial attitudes and entrepreneurial intentions, (b) subjective norm and entrepreneurial intentions, and (c) PBC and entrepreneurial intentions.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eInsert Figure 1 around here\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1. The Sample and Procedure\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo test our assumptions, we collected data from refugees living in Bidibidi and Kiryandongo settlements in Northern and Western Uganda and urban refugees living in the Kampala metropolitan area. These are some of the largest refugee settlements in Uganda. For example, with over 230,000 refugees, Bidibidi is the largest refugee settlement and hosts a variety of ethnic backgrounds (Makoha and Denov, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) and the second largest refugee settlement in the world (Bukuluki et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, the Kampala metropolitan area hosts over 80,000 refugees; hence, it is home to most urban refugees in Uganda (Baluku, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). To reach a broader range of the refugee population in these settlements, and since most refugees in Africa tend to have low levels of education (Kabera, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e), the survey questionnaire was translated into Juba-Arabic and Somali, the most widely spoken languages in these settlements. The back translation procedure was used to ensure the accuracy of the translated items (Brislin, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1970\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, research assistants who were refugees and fluent in these languages supported the data collection process, especially in clarifying information about the study and responding to participant inquiries.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eData was collected at a time when the government of Uganda was implementing strict measures to control the COVID-19 pandemic, hence restrictions on movement and physical interactions. We, therefore, used the group questionnaire administration approach with the support of settlement commandants (managers) since gatherings of up to 20 people were allowed. The settlement commandants identified potential participants and transported them to a community center where they completed the questionnaire. Other approaches were not possible since the majority of refugees, specifically in rural settlements, have limited access to internet services. However, this approach resulted in a convenient sample of 422 refugees who are not yet engaged in entrepreneurial activities. This sample was obtained from a total of 620 refugees requested to participate (a response rate of 68.07%). However, the current study uses data from 394 participants (35% female, 65% male) who provided complete responses. The participants comprised two nationalities: South Sudan (80.5%) and Somalia (19.5%). The majority of the participants (79.9%) were from rural settlements (277 from Bidibidi and 38 from Kiryandongo), while 20.1% were urban refugees. The mean age of the participants was 28.45 years (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8.62). Most participants had lived in Uganda for an average of 3.67 years (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.82). Participants generally had low levels of education, with 21.6% indicating that they had not completed primary education, while only 4.3% had attained a university education.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Measures\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ePrior business experience: \u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003eto measure participants\u0026rsquo; prior business experience, we asked them to indicate if they had been engaged in business before arriving in Uganda. Thus, a single item, \u0026ldquo;Were you engaged in business before coming to Uganda?\u0026rdquo; (responses on a binary scale of 1 = no, and 2 = yes) was used. The responses indicated that a significant number of participants (48.5%) were involved in business activities in their home countries or countries of origin.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eEntrepreneurial attitudes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e were measured using the questionnaire developed by Li\u0026ntilde;\u0026aacute;n and Chen (2009). The questionnaire was developed to measure the different aspects of the TPB model in the domain of entrepreneurship. The questionnaire assesses entrepreneurial attitudes using five items. These were rated on a 5-point Likert scale. A sample item is \u0026ldquo;A career as an entrepreneur is attractive for me\u0026rdquo; (responses ranging from 1 = totally disagree to 5 = totally agree). The items showed an acceptable level of internal consistency (\u0026alpha; = .73).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eSubjective Norm\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e was also measured using the Li\u0026ntilde;\u0026aacute;n and Chen (2009) questionnaire. This questionnaire assesses subjective norm using three items which focus on where the close people or significant others, including family, friends, and colleagues, would approve of an individual\u0026rsquo;s decision to start a business venture. Given that refugees often migrate without their close family members, we replaced the item with whether the leaders in the refugee settlement would approve the decision to start a business. The items were assessed on a 5-point rating scale, ranging from 1 (total disapproval) to 5 (total approval). The items revealed an internal consistency of \u0026alpha; = .69, which is slightly(Nunnally, 1978). However, the inter-item correlations ranged from .35 to .50, which are within the range considered acceptable for internal consistency in(Clark \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 1995). Therefore, the items for subjective norm can be considered adequate and reliable for the current study.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ePerceived behavioral control (PBC)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003ewas measured using the \u0026nbsp;Li\u0026ntilde;\u0026aacute;n and Chen (2009) questionnaire. The aspect of PBC is six items that focus on assessing the individuals\u0026rsquo; perceptions of their entrepreneurial capacity. A sample item is \u0026ldquo;To start a firm in the settlement or host community and keep it working would be easy for me\u0026rdquo;. The items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = totally disagree, 5 = totally agree. The items were contextualized to the settlement context. For example, the item \u0026ldquo;To start a firm and keep it working would be easy for me\u0026rdquo; was adjusted to \u0026ldquo;To start a business in the settlement or host community and keep it working would be easy for me\u0026rdquo;. The items showed acceptable internal consistency (\u0026alpha; = .71).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eEntrepreneurial intentions\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e were also measured Li\u0026ntilde;\u0026aacute;n and Chen (2009) questionnaire. This questionnaire assesses entrepreneurial intentions with six items that focus on an individual\u0026rsquo;s willingness to start an entrepreneurial activity. A sample item is \u0026ldquo;I am ready to do anything to be an entrepreneur.\u0026rdquo; The items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale (ranging from 1 = totally agree to 5 = totally agree). The items showed adequate internal consistency (\u0026alpha; = .77).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eImplementation intentions\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e were measured using the questionnaire developed by (van Gelderen \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 2018). The questionnaire consists of three items that were rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = totally disagree, 5 = totally agree). The items assess whether an individual is ready to translate entrepreneurial intentions into action by examining whether they have developed an action plan of steps to be implemented, when conditions allow, to facilitate the startup process. A sample item is \u0026ldquo;I have already planned precisely when to engage in my first step to starting a business.\u0026rdquo; The items showed an impressive internal consistency (\u0026alpha; = .76).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePreliminary Analyses and the Measurement Model\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMulticollinearity affects the findings in analyzing relationships. Multicollinearity is assumed to be a major concern when Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) values are greater than 5 and Tolerance (YOL) values are below .2 (Eid \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 2015). \u0026nbsp;The TOL varied from .63 to .98, while the VIF varied from 1.07 to 1.59. Therefore, it can be assumed that the data did not have multicollinearity challenges. Concerning the normality tests, the Shapiro-Wilk test revealed significant coefficients for all variables, suggesting that the data were not normally distributed. The skew and kurtosis tests revealed that the data for all variables were negatively skewed.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo assess the adequacy of the measurement model, we used the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) and the comparative fit index (CFI). Accordingly, RMSEA values below or equal to .08 are considered a moderate fit to the data, while values below or equal to .06 are regarded as a good fit (MacCallum \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 1996). For CFI, values equal to or above .90 are considered to indicate an acceptable fit, while values equal to or above .95 are regarded as a good fit (Hu and Bentler, 1999).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSince the data used for this study is cross-sectional, Common Method Variance (CMV) is a likely challenge. One of the recommended approaches to control the effects of CMV is Herman\u0026rsquo;s single-factor test (Podsakoff \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 2003). This approach involves modeling all manifest indicators used in the structural equation models as indicators of a single factor representing method effects. CMV is considered a major concern if the one-factor model is a good fit for the data. For this study, the single-factor test yielded a poor fit (\u0026chi;\u0026sup2; = 1038.069, \u003cem\u003edf\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 252, CFI = .652, RMSEA = .089). In contrast, our hypothesized model, consisting of prior entrepreneurial experience, entrepreneurial attitudes, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, entrepreneurial intentions, and implementation intentions, showed a better fit (\u0026chi;\u0026sup2; = 447.996, \u003cem\u003edf\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 238, CFI = .907, RMSEA = .047), providing confidence that our concepts are conceptually distinct.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe results are summarized in the Results model in Figure 2. Table 1 provides descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations among the variables. To test our hypotheses, we used serial mediation analysis in PROCESS Macro in SPSS (Hayes, 2022). Model 80 of this analysis tool was used because it simultaneously generates serial and double mediation effects. Sample bootstrapping at 5000 and the confidence intervals at 95% were applied as recommended by (Hayes, 2013).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants\u0026rsquo; demographic characteristics were included in the regression analysis as covariates, given the significant correlations with some of the study variables (Table 1). Previous research indicates that demographic variables influence the TBP variables (Li\u0026ntilde;\u0026aacute;n and Chen, 2009). Table 2 further confirms the significant correlations. Gender was particularly associated with subjective norm and implementation intentions (with males reporting higher subjective norm and implementation intentions), and age was negatively related to entrepreneurial intentions and implementation intentions. The type of settlement was significantly associated with PBC and entrepreneurial intentions, with urban refugees indicating higher levels of PBC and entrepreneurial intentions. Similarly, educational attainment was positively correlated with entrepreneurial attitudes and entrepreneurial intentions. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHypothesis 1 predicted a positive association between refugees\u0026rsquo; prior business experience and the variables in the TPB model, as well as their implementation intention. Consistent with this hypothesis, results in Table 2 show that prior experience had a significant positive relationship with three TPB antecedent variables; that is entrepreneurial attitudes (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e = .31, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .01), subjective norms (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e = .27, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .05), PBC (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e = .49, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001), and implementation intentions (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= .28, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .01). We did not find significant direct effects of prior business experience on entrepreneurial intentions. Hence, hypotheses \u003cem\u003eH1(a)\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eH1(b)\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eH1(c)\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eH1(e)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eare supported, while hypothesis \u003cem\u003eH(1d)\u003c/em\u003e is\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003enot supported. However, this is because the TPB antecedent variables fully mediated the effects of prior business experience on the intention variables.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn addition, the results in Table 2 indicate that all the three antecedents of the TPB model were positively associated with entrepreneurial intentions; that is, entrepreneurial attitudes (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e = .27, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001), subjective norm (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e = .10, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .05), and PBC (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e = .34, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001). However, only PBC (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e = .22, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001) and entrepreneurial intentions (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= .25, p \u0026lt; .001) had significant effects on implementation intentions. These results indicate that PBC had the strongest effect on entrepreneurial intentions, while entrepreneurial intentions, in turn, had the strongest effect on implementation intentions. \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHypothesis 2 proposes that the TPB variables mediate the relationship between refugees\u0026rsquo; prior business experience and implementation intention. Hypothesis \u003cem\u003eH3\u003c/em\u003e suggests serial mediation effects through the TPB antecedent variables and entrepreneurial intentions. The direct effects of prior business experience were significant, indicating that the TPB constructs partially mediated the relationship between prior business experience and implementation intentions. Accordingly, the total indirect effects were significant (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e = .18, \u003cem\u003eBoot 95\u003c/em\u003e% \u003cem\u003eCI\u003c/em\u003e [.09, .28]). However, only the path via PBC (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e = .11, \u003cem\u003eBoot 95\u003c/em\u003e% \u003cem\u003eCI\u003c/em\u003e [.04, .19]) was the only significant single mediator path. Therefore, whereas hypothesis \u003cem\u003eH2c\u003c/em\u003e is supported, hypotheses \u003cem\u003eH2a\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eH2b, and H2d\u003c/em\u003e are not supported. Nonetheless, the double mediator path via entrepreneurial attitudes and entrepreneurial intentions (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e = .02, \u003cem\u003eBoot 95\u003c/em\u003e% \u003cem\u003eCI\u003c/em\u003e [.01, .04]) and the path via PBC and entrepreneurial intentions (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e = .04, \u003cem\u003eBoot 95\u003c/em\u003e% \u003cem\u003eCI\u003c/em\u003e [.02, .08]) were significant. Therefore, hypotheses \u003cem\u003eH3a\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eH3c\u003c/em\u003e are also supported.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1. Descriptive statistics and correlations among the measures\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"869\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 227px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; 2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; 9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 227px;\"\u003e\n \u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eGender\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;_\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; .11\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.39\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.21\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.17\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.19\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.12\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 227px;\"\u003e\n \u003col start=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAge\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;_\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.15\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.14\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 227px;\"\u003e\n \u003col start=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eType of settlement\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;_\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.28\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.14\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.13\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.11\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.10\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 227px;\"\u003e\n \u003col start=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eEducational attainment\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;_\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.20\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.11\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.20\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.15\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 227px;\"\u003e\n \u003col start=\"5\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePrior business experience\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;_\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.17\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.19\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.20\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.12\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.18\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 227px;\"\u003e\n \u003col start=\"6\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSubjective norm\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;_\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.15\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.24\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.20\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.12\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 227px;\"\u003e\n \u003col start=\"7\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAttitudes\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;_\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.49\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.46\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.22\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 227px;\"\u003e\n \u003col start=\"8\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePerceived behavioral control\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;_\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.52\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.38\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 227px;\"\u003e\n \u003col start=\"9\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eEntrepreneurial intentions\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;_\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.39\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 227px;\"\u003e\n \u003col start=\"10\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eImplementation intention\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;_\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 227px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 227px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 227px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026alpha;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNote:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*. \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .05; **. \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .01; ***. \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001; \u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e = 394\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003eFemale = 0, Male = 1; \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003eRural \u0026nbsp;= 0, Urban = 1;\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003eNo = 0, Yes = 1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eInsert Table 1 around here\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2. Serial mediation analysis results for the effects of prior business experience on the TPB constructs and implementation intentions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"1103\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEntrepreneurial Attitudes (EA)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 173px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSubjective norm\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(SN)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePerceived behavioral control (PBC)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 172px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEntrepreneurial intentions\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(EI)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 175px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eImplementation intentions\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e95% CI\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e95% CI\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e95% CI\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e95% CI\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e95% CI\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGender\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[-.11, .21]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.15\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[ .08, .48]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[-.07, .24]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[-.18, .06]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.10\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[ .01, .36]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.004\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[-.01, .01]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[-.01, .01]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.004\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[-.01, .01]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.003\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[-.01,\u0026nbsp;-.003]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.15\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[-.02, -.01]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eType of settlement\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[-.30, .09]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[-.33, .15]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.21\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[ .18, .54]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.10\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[.01, .30]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[-.03, .41]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEducational attainment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.18\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[ .04, .13]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[-.06, .05]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[-.003, .09]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.12\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[ .02, .09]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[-.03, .08]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrior business experience\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.31\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[ .07, .37]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.27\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[ .06, .41]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.49\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[ .20, .48]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[-.09, .13]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.28\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[ .08, .40]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEntrepreneurial attitudes\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.27\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[ .15, .31]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[-.17, .09]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSubjective norm\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.10\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[ .01, .13]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[-.09, .09]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePerceived behavioral control\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.34\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[ .22, .40]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.22\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[ .14, .42]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEntrepreneurial intentions\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.25\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[ .19, .49]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eModel statistics\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e and \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e statistics\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e =.08, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(5, 388) = 6.38\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 173px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e =.06, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(8, 388) = 4.73\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e =.09, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(8, 388) = 7.18\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 172px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e =.36, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(8, 385) = 26.90\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 175px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e =.24, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(9, 384) = 13.66\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIndirect effect paths\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBoot SE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBoot\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e95% CI\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal indirect effects\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 38px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[ .09, .28]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 416px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrior business experience \u0026rarr; EA \u0026rarr; implementation intention\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[-.05, .02]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 416px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrior business experience \u0026rarr; SN \u0026rarr; implementation intention\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;-.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[-.03, .03]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 416px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrior business experience \u0026rarr; PBC \u0026rarr; implementation intention\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[ .04, .19]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 416px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrior business experience \u0026rarr; EI \u0026rarr; implementation intention\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[-.04, .05]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 416px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrior business experience \u0026rarr; EA \u0026rarr; EI \u0026rarr; implementation intention\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[ .01, .04]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 416px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrior business experience \u0026rarr; SN \u0026rarr; EI \u0026rarr; implementation intention\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[\u0026lt;-.001, .02]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 416px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrior business experience \u0026rarr; PBC \u0026rarr; EI \u0026rarr; implementation intention\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[ .02, .08]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*. \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .05, **. \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .01, \u0026nbsp;***. \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001, \u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e = 394, \u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e = Standardized regression coefficients\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003eFemale = 1, Male = 2; \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003eRural \u0026nbsp;= 0, Urban = 1; \u0026nbsp;\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003eNo = 0, Yes = 1; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eInsert Table 2 around here\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eInsert Figure 2 around here\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study aimed to contribute to the refugee entrepreneurship discourse by integrating past business experience with the TPB in understanding factors that foster refugees\u0026rsquo; entrepreneurial intentions and the readiness to implement those intentions. The study of Miralles et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) suggests that the influence of previous engagement in entrepreneurial activity on entrepreneurial intentions varies across populations. The present study focused on the population of refugees hosted in resource-constrained settlements in a less-developed country. This context is vital to understanding the results of this study since, beyond inherent interest in an entrepreneurial career, entrepreneurial intentions and entrepreneurial activity for such populations are primarily driven by necessity (Luseno and Kolade, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Mehtap and Al-Saidi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Zighan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR108\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In the current study, we demonstrate that previous engagement in entrepreneurial activities is essential in the entrepreneurial process, as it influences TPB antecedents of behavioral intentions and implementation of intentions, indicating that not all refugee entrepreneurial activities are driven solely by necessity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn line with previous findings (e.g., Harris and Gibson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Mueller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Zapkau et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR106\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), our results show that, more than any other demographic variable included in the study, previous business experience positively influences refugees\u0026rsquo; attitudes toward entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurial experience is a vital source of practical knowledge about entrepreneurship, which may result in a positive attitude towards entrepreneurship (Miralles et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Zapkau et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR106\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). These findings reinforce previous efforts advocating for experiential learning to improve the outcomes of entrepreneurial education (Motta and Galina, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Nabi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Pittaway and Cope, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Radu Lefebvre and Redien-Collot, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Toft-Kehler et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Direct entrepreneurial experiences foster entrepreneurial knowledge and an entrepreneurial lifestyle (Zapkau et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR106\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) to which individuals become accustomed. Therefore, even when refugees are in new and unfamiliar settings, those who have owned businesses before becoming refugees might find entrepreneurship a more attractive career path in the host community. This not only challenges the hypothesis that refugees\u0026rsquo; entrepreneurial action is necessity-driven but is also essential to fastening one\u0026rsquo;s economic integration and self-reliance. Refugee entrepreneurs tend to be more integrated and have higher incomes than their counterparts (Betts et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRelatedly, prior business experience positively predicted both subjective norm and PBC. These findings support previous research that highlights the role of experience in boosting subjective norm and perceived control in the entrepreneurial context (Miralles et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Zapkau et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR106\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). However, some studies reveal that prior entrepreneurial experience can also have negative effects on entrepreneurial attitudes, subjective norm, PBC, and intentions (Malebana and Mahlaole, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). With respect to PBC, whereas refugees might be in an unfamiliar entrepreneurial environment, their previous business experience might be an asset for their perceived efficacy and controllability in executing entrepreneurial activities. In line with the socio-cognitive perspective, experience in entrepreneurial activities strengthens entrepreneurial self-efficacy (Kasouf et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), an essential aspect of PBC. Refugees\u0026rsquo; perceptions of their ability to exercise control when undertaking entrepreneurial activities can be stronger if their previous entrepreneurial experience translates into stronger entrepreneurial self-efficacy and practical business knowledge. The self-perception of the ability to start a business is a mechanism through which prior entrepreneurial experience and knowledge influence entrepreneurial intentions (Miralles et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), hence essential to boosting refugee startups.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrevious experience is also essential for the subjective norm. Miralles et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) observe that prior entrepreneurial experience reflected in experiential entrepreneurial knowledge is positively associated with the perception of entrepreneurship as an accepted career path. Whereas the acceptability of entrepreneurship varies among societies (Dana, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e), our results show that refugees with prior entrepreneurial experience are more likely to perceive acceptability among host community members and in the refugee community, strengthening their willingness to engage in entrepreneurial activities. In refugee settlements such as those in Uganda, where thousands of refugees from the same country of origin live in the same locality, the acceptability of entrepreneurial behavior is more likely to be positively perceived if the refugees have an entrepreneurial background.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur findings show that whereas prior business experience was not directly correlated to entrepreneurial intentions, it was substantially related to implementation intentions via entrepreneurial attitudes, subjective norm, entrepreneurial intentions, and PBC. Specifically, the mediation path via PBC was significant, as well as the double mediation path via entrepreneurial attitudes and intentions, and the path via PBC and entrepreneurial intentions. These findings are consistent with previous research indicating that entrepreneurial experience is an exogenous factor influencing entrepreneurial intentions through the three TPB attitudinal antecedent variables (Miralles et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Mueller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Sommer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Zapkau et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR106\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). However, the mediation effects of subjective norm, as a single mediator and in the double mediation path, were not significant.Zapkau et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR106\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) suggest that studies examining the effects of demographic characteristics on entrepreneurial intentions and behavior should apply indirect intention-based frameworks. That is, whereas individual variables such as entrepreneurial experience influence entrepreneurial intentions and the implementation of those intentions, the influence becomes effective when previous experience leads to favorable entrepreneurial attitudes, an improved perception of entrepreneurship as an acceptable career behavior, and enhanced perceptions of the controllability of one\u0026rsquo;s entrepreneurial actions in the given entrepreneurial environment. Experience is crucial for refugees, as they often have limited social and financial resources, and therefore must rely on their own human and psychological capital to navigate the new, unfamiliar entrepreneurial environment. However, given the likelihood that prior entrepreneurial experience can in some situations also have adverse effects on dwindle entrepreneurial attitudes, subjective norm, and perceptions of controllability (Malebana et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), scholars need to interrogate the nature of experiences that would be beneficial and those that would be detrimental to refugees\u0026rsquo; entrepreneurial competence and business creation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe finding that subjective norm does not have a significant relationship with implementation intentions and does not mediate the effects of prior business experience on implementation intentions is essential to understanding which aspects of the TPB are relevant or should be given attention in promoting refugee entrepreneurship. Since refugees often migrate to their host communities without their family, friends, and significant others, the need to seek approval from these categories of people becomes irrelevant and impractical. Therefore, the findings highlight that entrepreneurial attitudes and PBC are the most essential elements of the TPB in steering entrepreneurial action and startups, especially among refugees living in precarious economic conditions in less developed countries. In addition, this finding suggests that previous business experience is essential for entrepreneurial intentions and their implementation if the experience strengthens entrepreneurial attitudes and perceptions of controllability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePractical Implications\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBesides the above theoretical contributions, the study makes the following practical contributions. The results confirm that entrepreneurial attitudes, subjective norms, and PBC are essential antecedents for refugees' entrepreneurial intentions; and particularly, entrepreneurial attitudes and PBC are directly or indirectly relevant to the implementation of entrepreneurial intentions. Therefore, refugee entrepreneurship programs, including training and education, should focus on learning activities and approaches, such as active learning, that enhance entrepreneurial attitudes and PBC.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecond, enhancing entrepreneurial attitudes, subjective norm, and PBC, consequently facilitating the formation of entrepreneurial intentions and drawing plans to implement the intentions or taking action, can be enhanced by exposing refugees to entrepreneurial experience. Therefore, refugee entrepreneurship learning and training programmes can result in increased prospects for startups if experiential learning is applied, given the role of experience in the entrepreneurial process and success (Culbertson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Motta and Galina, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Toft-Kehler et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Individuals with entrepreneurial experience are likely to have stronger entrepreneurial self-efficacy (Kasouf et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) and know how to harness resources (Chila et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Kotha and George, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) to start and grow an entrepreneurial venture. Hence, deliberate efforts to foster experience learning arrangements such as innovation hubs, apprenticeships, and internships can be useful in providing experiences that strengthen the attractiveness of the entrepreneurship career, steering refugee startups.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThird, policies and interventions that promote acquiring entrepreneurial experience are required. Refugee entrepreneurship policies should emphasize strategies for fostering entrepreneurial experiences among refugees, including experiential entrepreneurship education and training that expose prospective refugee entrepreneurs to the practices of business and innovations. Moreover, policies and interventions supporting startups can use entrepreneurial experience in addition to entrepreneurial competence among the selection criteria. Given that refugees with prior entrepreneurial experience are more likely to have a more favorable attitude toward entrepreneurship and have stronger intentions for startups, support for such refugees can yield more remarkable outcomes. Moreover, refugees with an entrepreneurial background or experience can be identified and supported to continue with entrepreneurship as a career path.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLimitations\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite the above theoretical and practical implications, the study has several limitations. First, the settlements where the study was conducted are some of the largest refugee settlements. They predominantly host refugees from South Sudan and Somalia. Whereas refugees from these countries constitute the majority of refugees in the country, Uganda also hosts a significant number of refugees from other neighboring countries, such as the Democratic Republic of Congo (515,482), Eritrea (48,713), and Burundi (42,928), among others (United Nations Higher Commissioner for Refugees, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR98\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). These were not represented in the sample, limiting the generalizability of our findings. Entrepreneurship is associated with culture or ethnicity. Some ethnicities are more enterprising than others, and some cultures are more favorable to entrepreneurship than others (Alexandre et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Dana, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e; Mayuto et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, studies among other refugee groups are necessary to generate generalizable results.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecondly, the study is based on data collected cross-sectionally using self-report instruments. Therefore, common method bias cannot be ruled out (Doty and Glick, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e; Fuller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, the data was obtained from a convenient sample of refugees, which has limited generalizability potential compared to probability or random samples (Jager et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Pruchno et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). However, this challenge is minimized by the relative homogeneity of the sample (Jager et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) since the participants were mainly from South Sudan and Somalia. Future studies could benefit from longitudinal and experimental studies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThird, the current study considered entrepreneurial experience obtained in the home country; however, some refugees may have also gained entrepreneurship-related experience in the host community. This post-migration entrepreneurial experience could also substantially affect refugees' entrepreneurial intentions and implementation intentions. Our study did not measure and control such effects. Experimental intervention studies that enable refugees to acquire experiences through, for example, practice-based training and apprenticeship can generate valuable scientific evidence on approaches that can accelerate refugee entrepreneurship.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFourth, previous entrepreneurial experience was measured by determining whether refugees had owned a business prior to becoming refugees. However, there are different forms of entrepreneurial experience. For instance, some studies have focused on prior entrepreneurial knowledge as an essential aspect of entrepreneurial experience (Miralles et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Entrepreneurial experience can also be boosted through working in a business (Bignotti and le Roux, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), incubators, entrepreneurial education programs, and family businesses (Bloemen-Bekx et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Carr and Sequeira, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Motta and Galina, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Zheng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR107\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). These may have differing forms and magnitude of influence on TPB antecedent variables, entrepreneurial intentions, and behavior. Therefore, future research could benefit from considering various entrepreneurial experiences and their effect on refugees\u0026rsquo; entrepreneurial intentions and behavior. In addition, refugee entrepreneurs may also be challenged by a lack of business experience in the host context (Abebe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Wauters and Lambrecht, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR100\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Future research could investigate the differential or combined effects of prior entrepreneurial experiences in the host community and the home country or country of origin on refugees\u0026rsquo; entrepreneurial intentions and business creation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study contributes to understanding refugee entrepreneurial intentions and readiness to implement those intentions by focusing on the role of prior business experience. We primarily focus on how prior business experience acquired in the country of origin relates to the TPB concepts among refugees residing in resource-constrained settlements. Similar to studies from other contexts (Miralles et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Mueller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Zapkau et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR106\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), our findings show strong effects of prior entrepreneurial experience on TPB and entrepreneurial intention implementation among refugees. Whereas entrepreneurial attitudes and PBC were associated with entrepreneurial intentions, the effects of subjective norm were not substantial. Of the three TPB antecedent variables, PBC had the strongest direct effects on entrepreneurial intentions and implementations. PBC also had the strongest mediation effects in the association between prior business experience and implementation intentions. Moreover, significant double mediation paths were observed for the effects of prior experience on implementation intentions, both through entrepreneurial attitudes and entrepreneurial intentions, as well as through PBC and entrepreneurial intentions. The results of this study suggest that prior entrepreneurial experience is foundational to promoting refugee entrepreneurship. Refugee entrepreneurship promotion interventions may benefit from approaches that enhance entrepreneurial exposure and practical experience. Therefore, refugee entrepreneurship policies need to promote entrepreneurial experience acquisition among prospecting refugee entrepreneurs. The existing literature suggests that practical experiences can be acquired through experiential learning and training methods, such as apprenticeships, mentoring, and innovation hubs. The results also suggest that refugees with an entrepreneurial career have a higher likelihood of self-determinedly seeking socioeconomic integration via engagement in entrepreneurial activities. Hence, entrepreneurial experience can be used as a criterion for identifying refugees for support to further their entrepreneurial careers. Refugees with entrepreneurial experience tend to have higher entrepreneurial motivation (Newman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e); therefore, they would benefit from entrepreneurial support initiatives in the host community.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCompeting Interests\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no conflict of interest\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eData Availability\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData used for this paper is available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eHuman Ethics Declaration\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eEthics Approval Declaration\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis paper reports part of the data from a research project titled \u0026ldquo;Refugee Entrepreneurship and Skilling for Self-Reliance (RESS-R).\u0026rdquo; The project received ethical clearance from Makerere University Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee Clearance No MAKSS REC 03.20.393.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eConsent to Participate Declaration\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants were presented with\u0026nbsp;consent forms to sign. The consent forms included the details of the study, such as the research team, the purpose of the study, the selection criteria, the risks and benefits involved, confidentiality and voluntariness statements, reimbursement, and ethical clearance. At the end of the form, participants were requested to sign under the following statement:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eI have read the above information or had it read to me. I have received answers to the questions I have asked. I consent to participate in this research. I am at least \u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;. years of age.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eName of participant: \u0026nbsp;..................................................................................................................\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSignature or thumbprint/mark of participant: \u0026nbsp; \u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;Date: \u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;.\u0026hellip;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eName of Person obtaining Consent: ...........................................................................................\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSignature of person obtaining consent: \u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip; Date: \u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eConsent to Publish\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eFunding Declaration\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Government of Uganda supported the study through the Makerere University Research and Innovation Fund (Mak-RIF) - RIF1/CHUSS/003\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eClinical Trial Number\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcknowledgements Declaration\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eM.M.B. conceptualized the paper and led all aspects of its development. E.W., S.N., and F.N. participated in data collection and curation. P.N., proofread the manuscript. All authors reviewed the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbebe, S.A. (2023), \u0026ldquo;Refugee entrepreneurship: systematic and thematic analyses and a research agenda\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eSmall Business Economics\u003c/em\u003e, Springer, Vol. 60 No. 1, pp. 315\u0026ndash;350, doi: 10.1007/s11187-022-00636-3.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAjzen, I. (1991), \u0026ldquo;The theory of planned behavior\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eOrganizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes\u003c/em\u003e, Vol. 50 No. 2, pp. 179\u0026ndash;211, doi: 10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAjzen, I. 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(2016), \u0026ldquo;Extended Abstract for Competitive Workshop \u0026lsquo;Challenges of Refugee Entrepreneurship\u0026rsquo;\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eICSB World Conference Proceedings\u003c/em\u003e, available at: http://city.summon.serialssolutions.com/2.0.0/link/0/eLvHCXMwjZ1LTwMhEMeJ1osXH1Hjoybcetq6wMLCyTRNq4ke1JoYvTQ89WK32jZ-fYeVNY2veF0OSwYYfvyZYRBitJtnX3xC7qh0UnHLjFfCaSokL4KSFgAa8C6mP58_lMMrenbJL1JwYUyNScPdeMnadbvKRtX8hChOI0Awdjp9yWIdqXjfmopqrKI18AEi1jQo7-6XN3 (accessed 23 January 2024).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHarris, M.L. and Gibson, S.G. (2008), \u0026ldquo;Examining the entrepreneurial attitudes of US business students\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eEducation + Training\u003c/em\u003e, Vol. 50 No. 7, pp. 568\u0026ndash;581, doi: 10.1108/00400910810909036.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHayes, A.F. (2013), \u003cem\u003eIntroduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eNew York, NY: Guilford\u003c/em\u003e, Guilford Press, New York, NY, doi: 978-1-60918-230-4.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHayes, A.F. (2022), \u003cem\u003eIntroduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: Third Edition: A Regression-Based Approach\u003c/em\u003e, The Guilford Press.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHu, L.T. and Bentler, P.M. (1999), \u0026ldquo;Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eStructural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal\u003c/em\u003e, Taylor \u0026amp; Francis Group, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 1\u0026ndash;55, doi: 10.1080/10705519909540118.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIakovleva, T., Kolvereid, L. and Stephan, U. (2011), \u0026ldquo;Entrepreneurial intentions in developing and developed countries\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eEducation + Training\u003c/em\u003e, Vol. 53 No. 5, pp. 353\u0026ndash;370, doi: 10.1108/00400911111147686.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJager, J., Putnick, D.L. and Bornstein, M.H. (2017), \u0026ldquo;II. More Than Just Convenient: the Scientific Merits of Homogeneous Convenience Samples\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eMonographs of the Society for Research in Child Development\u003c/em\u003e, John Wiley \u0026amp; Sons, Ltd, Vol. 82 No. 2, pp. 13\u0026ndash;30, doi: 10.1111/mono.12296.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKabera, J.B. (1989), \u0026ldquo;Education of refugees and their expectations in Africa: The case of returnees with special reference to Uganda\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eAfrican Studies Review\u003c/em\u003e, Vol. 32 No. 1, pp. 31\u0026ndash;40, doi: 10.2307/524492.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKachkar, O. and Djafri, F. (2022), \u0026ldquo;Exploring the intentional behaviour of refugees in participating in micro-enterprise support programmes (MESP): is theory of planned behaviour (TPB) still relevant?\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eJournal of Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies\u003c/em\u003e, Emerald Group Holdings Ltd., Vol. 14 No. 4, pp. 549\u0026ndash;576, doi: 10.1108/JEEE-05-2020-0150.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKasouf, C.J., Morrish, S.C. and Miles, M.P. (2015), \u0026ldquo;The moderating role of explanatory style between experience and entrepreneurial self-efficacy\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eInternational Entrepreneurship and Management Journal\u003c/em\u003e, Springer Science and Business Media, LLC, Vol. 11 No. 1, pp. 1\u0026ndash;17, doi: 10.1007/s11365-013-0275-2.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKassab, A., Omar, R. and Ghura, H. (2022), \u0026ldquo;Critical aspects of entrepreneurship policy design for Syrian refugees in Turkey\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eJournal of Entrepreneurship and Public Policy\u003c/em\u003e, Emerald Publishing, Vol. 11 No. 2\u0026ndash;3, pp. 149\u0026ndash;166, doi: 10.1108/JEPP-02-2022-0037.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKautonen, T., van Gelderen, M. and Tornikoski, E.T. (2013), \u0026ldquo;Predicting entrepreneurial behaviour: A test of the theory of planned behaviour\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eApplied Economics\u003c/em\u003e, Vol. 45 No. 6, pp. 697\u0026ndash;707, doi: 10.1080/00036846.2011.610750.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKotha, R. and George, G. (2012), \u0026ldquo;Friends, family, or fools: Entrepreneur experience and its implications for equity distribution and resource mobilization\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eJournal of Business Venturing\u003c/em\u003e, Elsevier, Vol. 27 No. 5, pp. 525\u0026ndash;543, doi: 10.1016/j.jbusvent.2012.02.001.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLee, W. and Black, S.L. (2017), \u0026ldquo;Small business development: immigrants\u0026rsquo; access to loan capital\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eJournal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship\u003c/em\u003e, Routledge, Vol. 29 No. 3, pp. 193\u0026ndash;209, doi: 10.1080/08276331.2017.1297106.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLihua, D. (2022), \u0026ldquo;An Extended Model of the Theory of Planned Behavior: An Empirical Study of Entrepreneurial Intention and Entrepreneurial Behavior in College Students\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, Front Psychol, Vol. 12, doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.627818.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLi\u0026ntilde;\u0026aacute;n, F. and Chen, Y.W. (2009), \u0026ldquo;Development and cross-cultural application of a specific instrument to measure entrepreneurial intentions\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eEntrepreneurship: Theory and Practice\u003c/em\u003e, Vol. 33 No. 3, pp. 593\u0026ndash;617, doi: 10.1111/j.1540-6520.2009.00318.x.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLi\u0026ntilde;\u0026aacute;n, F. and Fayolle, A. (2015), \u0026ldquo;A systematic literature review on entrepreneurial intentions: citation, thematic analyses, and research agenda\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eInternational Entrepreneurship and Management Journal\u003c/em\u003e, Springer US, Vol. 11 No. 4, pp. 907\u0026ndash;933, doi: 10.1007/s11365-015-0356-5.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLoan, L.T., Duong Cong, D., Thang, H.N., Nga, N.T.V., Van, P.T. and Hoa, P.T. (2021), \u0026ldquo;Entrepreneurial behaviour: The effects of the fear and anxiety of covid-19 and business opportunity recognition\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eEntrepreneurial Business and Economics Review\u003c/em\u003e, Cracow University of Economics, Vol. 9 No. 3, pp. 7\u0026ndash;23, doi: 10.15678/EBER.2021.090301.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLortie, J. and Castogiovanni, G. (2015), \u0026ldquo;The theory of planned behavior in entrepreneurship research: what we know and future directions\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eInternational Entrepreneurship and Management Journal\u003c/em\u003e, Vol. 11 No. 4, pp. 935\u0026ndash;957, doi: 10.1007/s11365-015-0358-3.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLuseno, T. and Kolade, O. (2021), \u0026ldquo;Barriers and opportunities for refugee entrepreneurship in Africa: A social capital perspective\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eThe Palgrave Handbook of African Entrepreneurship\u003c/em\u003e, Springer International Publishing, pp. 407\u0026ndash;435, doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-75894-3_17.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMacCallum, R.C., Browne, M.W. and Sugawara, H.M. (1996), \u0026ldquo;Power analysis and determination of sample size for covariance structure modeling\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003ePsychological Methods\u003c/em\u003e, American Psychological Association Inc., Vol. 1 No. 2, pp. 130\u0026ndash;149, doi: 10.1037/1082-989X.1.2.130.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMaheshwari, G., Kha, K.L. and Arokiasamy, A.R.A. (2023), \u0026ldquo;Factors affecting students\u0026rsquo; entrepreneurial intentions: a systematic review (2005\u0026ndash;2022) for future directions in theory and practice\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eManagement Review Quarterly\u003c/em\u003e, Springer, Vol. 73 No. 4, pp. 1903\u0026ndash;1970, doi: 10.1007/s11301-022-00289-2.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMakoha, G. and Denov, M. (2024), \u0026ldquo;War, forced displacement, and alcohol abuse: experiences and perceptions of war-affected south Sudanese refugee youth living in Bidibidi refugee settlement in northern Uganda\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Public Health\u003c/em\u003e, Frontiers Media SA, Vol. 12, p. 1232504, doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2024.1232504.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMalebana, M.J. and Mahlaole, S.T. (2023), \u0026ldquo;Prior entrepreneurship exposure and work experience as determinants of entrepreneurial intentions among South African university of technology students\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, Frontiers Media SA, Vol. 14, p. 1176065, doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1176065.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMalebana, M.J., Studies, B., Malebana, M.J. and Africa, S. (2014), \u0026ldquo;Entrepreneurial Intentions and Entrepreneurial Motivation of South African Rural University Students\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eJournal of Economics and Behavioral Studies\u003c/em\u003e, Vol. 6 No. 9, pp. 709\u0026ndash;726, doi: 10.1111/jsbm.12090.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMayuto, R., Su, Z., Mohiuddin, M. and Fahinde, C. (2023), \u0026ldquo;Antecedents of immigrants\u0026rsquo; entrepreneurial intention formation process: an empirical study of immigrant entrepreneurs in Canada\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, Frontiers Media SA, Vol. 14, doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1153142.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMehtap, S. and Al-Saidi, A.G. (2018), \u0026ldquo;Informal refugee entrepreneurship: Narratives of economic empowerment\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eInformal Ethnic Entrepreneurship: Future Research Paradigms for Creating Innovative Business Activity\u003c/em\u003e, Springer, Cham, pp. 225\u0026ndash;242, doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-99064-4_15.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMeister, A.D. and Mauer, R. (2019), \u0026ldquo;Understanding refugee entrepreneurship incubation \u0026ndash; an embeddedness perspective\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research\u003c/em\u003e, Emerald Group Holdings Ltd., Vol. 25 No. 5, pp. 1065\u0026ndash;1092, doi: 10.1108/IJEBR-02-2018-0108.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMiralles, F., Giones, F. and Gozun, B. (2017), \u0026ldquo;Does direct experience matter? Examining the consequences of current entrepreneurial behavior on entrepreneurial intention\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eInternational Entrepreneurship and Management Journal\u003c/em\u003e, Springer New York LLC, Vol. 13 No. 3, pp. 881\u0026ndash;903, doi: 10.1007/s11365-016-0430-7.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMiralles, F., Giones, F. and Riverola, C. (2016), \u0026ldquo;Evaluating the impact of prior experience in entrepreneurial intention\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eInternational Entrepreneurship and Management Journal\u003c/em\u003e, Springer New York LLC, Vol. 12 No. 3, pp. 791\u0026ndash;813, doi: 10.1007/s11365-015-0365-4.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMotta, V.F. and Galina, S.V.R. 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(2020), \u0026ldquo;Challenges faced by necessity entrepreneurship, the case of Syrian refugees in Jordan\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eJournal of Enterprising Communities\u003c/em\u003e, Emerald Group Holdings Ltd., Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 531\u0026ndash;547, doi: 10.1108/JEC-09-2020-0168.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Entrepreneurial attitudes, Entrepreneurial experience, Entrepreneurial intentions, Implementation intentions, Perceived behavioral control, Refugees, Subjective norm, Theory of planned behavior","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7143284/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7143284/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eAlthough refugees are often perceived as a burden to the socioeconomic fabric in some places, entrepreneurship offers a promising avenue for refugees to participate in the economy, secure decent work, and achieve self-reliance. However, refugee entrepreneurship is largely seen as necessity-driven and thus limited personal agency in refugees\u0026rsquo; entrepreneurial behavior, which has negative connotations for persistence and success. This paper demonstrates the role of prior entrepreneurial experience in boosting refugees\u0026rsquo; personal entrepreneurial agency (represented by entrepreneurial intentions and implementation intention) through its effects on the antecedents specified in the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). The study uses survey data from 404 refugees in Uganda. The participants were drawn from three large refugee settlements. A serial mediation analysis was conducted using PROCESS Macro in SPSS. The results indicate significant positive effects of prior entrepreneurial experience on the TPB antecedent variables, suggesting that entrepreneurial experience is essential for a positive entrepreneurial attitude, subjective norm, and a strong perceived behavioral control among refugees. These TPB antecedent variables mediated the effects of prior entrepreneurial experience on entrepreneurial intentions and implementation intentions. Significant double mediation paths were mainly observed via entrepreneurial attitudes and intentions, as well as via perceived behavioral control and entrepreneurial intentions. The findings indicate that prior experience is a vital resource that can be a foundation for successful refugee entrepreneurship promotion. Thus, active learning approaches that boost experience acquisition can be useful in entrepreneurship training and education interventions. Arrangements such as innovation hubs, apprenticeships, and internships for refugees can be vehicles for active and experiential learning.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Prior Business Experience, Refugees’ Entrepreneurial Intentions, and Intention Implementation: Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-17 14:31:07","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7143284/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"2971b052-ab17-476f-af4c-b90d836ed7b5","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 17th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-05T16:04:29+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7143284","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s43093-025-00701-9","journal":{"identity":"future-business-journal","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Future Business Journal"},"publishedOn":"2026-01-02 15:57:31","publishedOnDateReadable":"January 2nd, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-17 14:31:07","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s43093-025-00701-9","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s43093-025-00701-9","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7143284","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7143284","identity":"rs-7143284","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}