When Cyberbullying Undermines Friendship: A Moderated Mediation Analysis of Self-Esteem and Life Satisfaction in Korean Adolescents

When Cyberbullying Undermines Friendship: A Moderated Mediation Analysis of Self-Esteem and Life Satisfaction in Korean Adolescents | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article When Cyberbullying Undermines Friendship: A Moderated Mediation Analysis of Self-Esteem and Life Satisfaction in Korean Adolescents Chanhoon Park, Hillary Mukula, Morris Ndeezi, Emmanuel Adarkwa This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8759607/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 8 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Korean adolescents report some of the lowest levels of life satisfaction among developed countries. Cyberbullying has emerged as a critical threat to their well-being. This study examined the association between self-esteem and life satisfaction among Korean adolescents, the mediating role of peer relationship quality in this relationship, and the moderating role of cyberbullying perpetration on the mediated effect. Using a nationally representative sample of 2,311 eighth-grade students from the Korean Children and Youth Panel Survey, participants completed validated measures of self-esteem, peer relationship quality, life satisfaction, and cyberbullying perpetration. Results indicated that higher self-esteem was associated with greater life satisfaction, and this relationship was partially mediated by positive peer relationships. However, the indirect effect of self-esteem on life satisfaction through peer relationships was moderated by cyberbullying perpetration. Specifically, as adolescents’ involvement in cyberbullying increased, the positive influence of peer relationships on life satisfaction weakened and became nonsignificant at high levels of cyberbullying. These findings highlight that while self-esteem and supportive peer relationships serve as protective factors for adolescent well-being, engagement in cyberbullying behaviors erodes these benefits. The study extends the social-ecological understanding of adolescent development by illustrating how digital behaviors disrupt the positive social pathways linking self-esteem and life satisfaction. Future longitudinal research should explore the temporal mechanisms underlying these relationships and inform culturally responsive prevention programs targeting self-esteem enhancement, peer support, and cyberbullying reduction among youth in collectivist contexts. self-esteem peer relationships cyberbullying perpetration life satisfaction adolescents Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Highlights • Self-esteem and peer relationships positively predicted adolescents’ life satisfaction. • Peer relationships partially mediated the link between self-esteem and life satisfaction. • Cyberbullying perpetration weakened the positive effect of peer relationships on life satisfaction. • The mediation pathway disappeared at high levels of cyberbullying perpetration. • Findings emphasize self-esteem and friendship quality as protective factors in adolescent well-being. Introduction Over the past decade, interest in adolescent mental health has been increasing (Anderson et al., 2025 ). One area that has gained prominence is adolescent life satisfaction (Pikó, 2023 ). Life satisfaction, defined as a cognitive and global evaluation of the quality of one’s life, is considered an essential component of adolescents’ subjective well-being (Bahamón et al., 2025 ; Soares et al., 2019 ; Woode & Chen, 2024 ). Although life satisfaction is a crucial indicator of adolescents’ subjective well-being, research on this topic has primarily concentrated on adult life satisfaction (Das et al., 2020 ; Jovanović, 2019 ). Existing research has shown that life satisfaction is linked to numerous positive functional areas, including academic achievement, emotional and behavioral development, and interpersonal connections (Lin & Paat, 2024 ). However, despite the numerous positive functional domains attributed to life satisfaction, there is a growing global concern regarding adolescent life satisfaction, as trends indicate a decline in this area alongside an increase in mental health problems (Park et al., 2024 ). Among developed countries, Korean adolescents continue to report the lowest levels of life satisfaction (Park et al., 2024 ). Previous studies indicate that life satisfaction appears to decline as Koreans enter adolescence (Park et al., 2024 ). With an average score of 6.4 out of 10, Korea ranks 33rd among 38 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) members on the happiness index, significantly below the average 6.69 (Ji-won, 2025). One factor identified as significantly impacting adolescents’ life satisfaction in Korea is cyberbullying (Liu et al., 2025 ; Son & Bae, 2022 ). Cyberbullying defined as the act of persistently harassing a specific person in the cyberworld), has been strongly associated with various emotional and behavioral problems among adolescent boys and girls (Jun, 2022). Some of the significant emotional and behavioral problems identified among Korean adolescents include reduced self-esteem, reduced life satisfaction, and an increase in suicidal ideation (Jahng, 2024 Ji-won, 2025; Lee et al., 2021 ). Thus, utilizing data from the Korean Children and Youth Panel Survey (KCYPS) and prior research indicating that Korean adolescents experience lower life satisfaction compared to adolescents from other countries, the present study examines the moderating role of cyberbullying in the relationship between self-esteem, peer relationship quality, and life satisfaction. Self-Esteem and Life Satisfaction Adolescence is a complex period marked by significant physical, emotional, cognitive, and social changes (Mastorci et al., 2024 ). This important phase of human development, which follows childhood and precedes adulthood, is characterized by numerous developmental challenges, including identity formation, heightened self-consciousness, social comparison, and self-esteem development (Bonnie & Backes, 2019 ; Mastorci et al., 2024 ; Mitchell et al., 2021 ; Sánchez-Queija et al., 2024). Self-esteem, defined as the subjective evaluation of one’s worth (Szcześniak et al., 2022 ), is crucial during adolescence and has been found to influence their identity formation, academic and social success, and overall well-being (Park et al., 2024 ). Often described as existing on a continuum, self-esteem can be either positive or negative (Di Pierro et al., 2016 ). While negative self-esteem is associated with self-criticism and negative self-views, positive self-esteem is linked to high confidence, happiness, and satisfaction (Di Pierro et al., 2016 ; Li et al., 2023 ; Orth & Robins, 2022 ). Therefore, positive self-esteem in adolescents can serve as a protective factor against negative self-views, boosting adolescents’ resilience, peer relationship quality, and overall life satisfaction (Liu et al., 2022 ). According to Di Pierro et al. ( 2016 ), individuals with a positive self-image are more likely to have positive evaluations of all aspects of their lives. Previous empirical research conducted in Poland examining the relationship between self-esteem and life satisfaction found that adolescents who view themselves as being “worthy” tend to report high life satisfaction and functioning (Szczesniak et al., 2022). Furthermore, research among Spanish youth concluded that self-esteem and life satisfaction are related concepts, and they appear to affect adolescents’ physical and mental health (Supervía et al., 2023 ). Additionally, significant evidence was found supporting the link between self-esteem and life satisfaction across genders and cultures (Supervía et al., 2023 ; Szczesniak et al., 2022). Furthermore, individuals from individualistic cultures and males have been reported to place more emphasis on internal sources of life satisfaction, including self-esteem, and are more likely to report higher levels of life satisfaction (Diener & Diener, 1995 ; Ye et al., 2012 ). Given the strong links between self-esteem and life satisfaction, emerging research suggests that peer relationship quality plays a significant role in the connection between self-esteem and life satisfaction, shaping how adolescent self-esteem translates into overall life satisfaction (Szczesniak et al., 2022). Self-esteem, peer relationship quality, and life satisfaction Peer relationship quality is described as a multidimensional construct comprising both positive characteristics, such as companionship, mutual respect, and intimacy, and negative characteristics, including conflict, rejection, and bullying (Foulkes & Blakemore, 2021 ). High-peer relationship quality, sometimes referred to as positive peer relationships in the literature Cavicchiolo et al. ( 2022 ), is associated with resilience and better mental health outcomes (Foulkes & Blakemore, 2021 ). Previous researchers found that peer relationship quality was associated with better psychosocial outcomes among adolescents with adverse early childhood experiences (Wang et al., 2024 ). Similarly, Afriat et al. ( 2023 ) found that peer relationship quality contributes to mental health and physical well-being. As social beings, it is clear that positive peer relationships have a significant impact on an individual’s well-being, including self-esteem and life satisfaction (Alsarrani et al., 2022 ). Furthermore, individuals with higher self-esteem are often more socially competent and emotionally secure, which may foster stronger and more fulfilling peer connections (Orth & Robins, 2022 ). In turn, these positive social relationships can enhance life satisfaction by providing a sense of belonging and mutual support (Haim-Litevsky et al., 2023 ). Thus, peer relationship quality may mediate the link between self-esteem and life satisfaction, serving as a key social pathway through which self-perceptions influence broader life outcomes among adolescents. Peer relationship Quality, Cyberbullying, and Life Satisfaction With the rise of technology, adolescents are increasingly using the internet as a primary form of social contact. While the internet greatly helps people get together, it has given rise to negative behaviors like cyberbullying (Peebles, 2014 ). Cyberbullying often takes the form of repeated aggression on the internet and may result in depression, low self-esteem, and a general decrease in adolescents’ life satisfaction (Hinduja & Patchin, 2010 ; Smith et al., 2008 ). Cyberbullying is usually more widespread and hidden than regular bullying, thanks to its secrecy, fast news spread, and it follows victims even in their own homes (Foody et al., 2019 ; Udris, 2015 ). It is common for those who have been victimized to show increased levels of anxiety and depression (Ybarra & Mitchell, 2004 ). According to Aoyama et al. ( 2011 ), some victims go on to experience changes in emotion regulation and struggle with relationships with their peers, and similar issues may arise for perpetrators, as seen in Campbell et al.’s ( 2013 ) report. Since the core developmental tasks for teens involve identity formation and building a sense of belonging, cyberbullying has a significant impact on them. Studies have shown that social ties with peers are a protective factor from the effects of cyberbullying (Foody et al., 2019 ). Peer relations help adolescents express, connect, and build bonds that enhance the quality of life for adolescents (Leung et al., 2018 ). While literature suggests that sharing physical space offers comfort, lessens exposure to stress, and improves self-esteem Flaspohler et al. ( 2009 ), little is known about whether virtual friendship, which involves breadth more than depth, can provide the same benefits. Present Study Through the present study, we sought to test the hypothesis that cyberbullying perpetration among adolescents moderates the mediating relationship between self-esteem, peer relationship, and life satisfaction. This present study has three main hypotheses. The primary objective is to investigate the relationship between self-esteem, positive peer relationships, and life satisfaction. The second objective is to examine how peer relationship mediates the relationship between self-esteem and life satisfaction. Objective 3 investigates the moderating role of cyberbullying perpetration in the mediating relationship between self-esteem, peer relationship, and life satisfaction. Figure 1 depicts the hypothesized model. We hypothesize that higher self-esteem and positive peer relationships will be associated with life satisfaction (H1). Peer relationships will mediate the relationship between self-esteem and life satisfaction. Specifically, higher self-esteem will predict stronger peer relationships, which in turn will predict greater life satisfaction (H2). Cyberbullying perpetration will moderate this mediating process. As adolescents’ cyber-bullying perpetration increases, it will attenuate (a) the positive effect of self-esteem on peer relationship, (b) the positive effect of peer relationship on life satisfaction, and (c) the effect of self-esteem on life satisfaction (H3). Method Data This study utilized archival data from the Korean Children and Youth Panel Survey (KCYPS), which was developed through stratified multistage cluster sampling to represent a nationwide sample of South Korean children and adolescents. The survey was administered by the National Youth Policy Institute (National Youth Policy Institute 2022), with an original sample size of 2,607. The Korea Children and Youth Panel Survey (KCYPS, 2018–2025) is a longitudinal study tracking both individual and environmental developmental trajectories. Initiated in 2018, the survey annually followed a cohort of fourth-grade students for eight consecutive years. The current study analyzed data from Wave 5, focusing on these students during their eighth-grade year. Students in Korea enter school based on their birth year, so they are all born in 2008. Although age is not counted separately for school placement, everyone in Korea gets one year older together at the start of the new year, so their “Korean age” is 15. Middle school students were selected as the target population due to the heightened prevalence of online delinquent behaviors observed during this developmental stage. This period is marked by significant transitions across various domains, including biological maturation, identity exploration, and increasing autonomy, which collectively contribute to a rise in engagement with risky or deviant behaviors (Valkenburg & Peter, 2011 ). The background characteristics of the adolescent participants are summarized in Table 1 Table 1 Descriptive Statistics and Correlation for the Research Variables (N = 2607) Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. Esteem 29.03 4.31 — 2. Life satisfaction 13.38 2.66 .51** — 3. Peer relationship 39.73 5.26 .44** .29** — 4. Cyberbullying Perpetration .32 .84 −.08** −.19** − .01 — 5. Gender .5 .5 0.03 .04* −.11** .04 — 6. Weekpa 3.51 1.2 .14** .17** .12** −.08** −.11** — 7. Weekepa 4.14 1.41 .21** .20** .21** −.06** −.12** .82** — Measure Self-Esteem The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; Rosenberg 1965 ) was used to assess children’s global self-worth, capturing both positive and negative self-perceptions. The Korean version of the scale, adapted and translated by the Korea University Behavior Science Research Institute (2000), comprises 10 items rated on a 4-point scale, ranging from 1 “not at all” to 4 “very much,” with higher scores indicating stronger self-esteem. Sample items include statements such as “On the whole, I am satisfied with myself,” “I feel that I have a number of good qualities,” and “I am able to do things as well as most other people.” The total score of the scale was calculated for analysis. Internal consistency reliability coefficients of 0.81. While the RSES was initially developed for adults, prior research has demonstrated its validity and comparability for use with adolescent populations (Whiteside-Mansell & Corwyn, 2003 ), including those from diverse ethnic backgrounds (Supple et al., 2013 ). Peer Relationship Peer relationships were assessed by asking about relationships with friends in positive and negative ways. The measurement items were drawn from the 13-item Peer Relationship Quality Scale developed by Bae et al. ( 2015 ). Of these, eight items measured positive peer relationships and five items measured negative peer relationships. The variable scores were calculated by computing the average responses of eighth-grade students to each set of items. Positive peer relationships were assessed using eight items; sample items included those that assessed (1) spending time together, (2) confiding in the respondent when experiencing distress or difficulties. Negative peer relationships were assessed using five items; sample items included those that measured the frequency of (1) conflicts of opinion, (2) difficulty in reconciling after conflicts, (3) irritation or anger when peers behaved contrary to the respondent’s expectations. Negative peer relationship items were reverse-coded and then combined with the positive peer relationship items to create a total score for analysis. These items were also rated on a 4-point Likert scale, with a satisfactory internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = .84). Life Satisfaction Life satisfaction was assessed with the Korean-translated version of the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) (Diener et al., 1985 ). The instrument comprises five items that capture global, cognitive evaluations of one’s life. For example, “Overall, my life is close to my ideal” and “The conditions of my life are excellent.” Participants rated each statement on a 4-point Likert scale (1 = not at all true; 2 = somewhat untrue; 3 = somewhat true; 4 = very true). Item scores were averaged to yield a composite ranging from 1 to 4, with higher values indicating greater life satisfaction. The total score of the scale was calculated. In the present study, the scale demonstrated acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = .81). Cyberbullying perpetration Cyberbullying was measured using 15 items related to perpetration from the “Youth Cyber Safety Survey,” included in the study by Lee et al. ( 2015 ), which examined the types of cyber violence among adolescents and response strategies. Example items include: “I have spread insults or bad rumors about someone to others,” “I have stalked someone by repeatedly sending words, messages, or images even though the person did not want them,” and “I have sent or secretly shared unwanted photos, embarrassing images, or videos of someone with others.” Participants indicated frequency in the past year on a 6-point scale (1 = never, 2 = once or twice a year, 3 = once a month, 4 = two to three times a month, 5 = once a week, 6 = several times a week). For analysis, each item was dichotomized and recoded as 0 (no experience; “never”) or 1 (has experience; any endorsement above “never”), and item scores were summed to create a total perpetration score (range: 0–15). This dichotomization strategy has been used in prior research using KCYPS (Lee, 2023 ; Yoon & Yu, 2022 ). Cronbach’s α for the cyberbullying scale was .71. Data Analysis All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 29.0. There were no missing values, except for those individuals who did not participate in the survey this year. After excluding 296 people who did not participate in the survey this year, the final analytic sample consisted of 2,607 cases. We generated descriptive statistics and examined pair-wise Pearson correlations among self-esteem, peer-relationship, life satisfaction, cyberbullying perpetration, and the covariates such as gender, weekday time spent with parents, and weekend time spent with parents. To test Hypothesis 2 (mediation), we used Hayes’s PROCESS macro (Version 3.5.2) Model 4, specifying self-esteem as the independent variable, peer peer-relationship as the mediator, and life satisfaction as the outcome while controlling for the three covariates. Indirect effects were estimated using 5,000 bias-corrected bootstrap samples, and effects whose 95% confidence intervals excluded zero were considered statistically significant. Hypothesis 3 (moderated mediation) was evaluated with PROCESS Model 59. Continuous predictors were mean-centered, and the macro automatically computed the interaction terms between self-esteem and cyberbullying perpetration, as well as between peer-relationship and cyberbullying perpetration. The model simultaneously assessed whether cyberbullying perpetration moderates (a) the path from self-esteem to peer relationships, (b) the direct path from self-esteem to life satisfaction, and (c) the path from peer relationships to life satisfaction, again adjusting for gender and parental-contact covariates. Conditional indirect effects were probed at low (− 1 SD ), mean, and high (+ 1 SD ) levels of the moderator using the same bias-corrected bootstrap confidence intervals. Results Correlation Analysis To initially examine the study’s hypotheses, we conducted Pearson correlation analyses to investigate the relationship between the primary study variables: self-esteem, peer relationships, life satisfaction, and cyberbullying perpetration. The results from Table 1reveal several significant relationships. We found that Self-esteem was positively correlated with life satisfaction ( r = .511, p < .001) and peer relationships (r = 0.438, p < .001). This suggests that individuals with higher self-esteem tend to report greater life satisfaction and stronger peer connections. In contrast, self-esteem had a negative correlation with cyberbullying perpetration ( r = –.083, p < .001), suggesting that individuals with higher self-esteem were less likely to engage in cyberbullying behaviors. Life satisfaction also showed a significant positive correlation with peer relationships ( r = .292, p < .001) and a negative correlation with cyberbullying perpetration ( r = –.186, p < .001). However, peer relationships were not significantly correlated with cyberbullying perpetration (r = –.006, p = .788). Moreover, demographic covariates such as gender, time with parents during weekday (weekpa), and time with parents during weekend (weekepa) were found to influence peer relationships and life satisfaction significantly (see Table 1 ). Testing Mediation We examined whether peer relationships would mediate the relationship between self-esteem and life satisfaction. We conducted a mediation analysis using Hayes’s PROCESS macro (Model 4). The results of the mediation analysis are presented in Fig. 2 . After controlling covariates (gender, time with parents during the weekday, and time with parents during the weekend), the analyses revealed a significant positive association between self-esteem and life satisfaction (β = .49, se = .01, p < .001), and a significant positive effect of self-esteem on peer relationships (β = .41, se = .02, p < .001). Additionally, the effect of peer relationships on life satisfaction was found to be significant ( β = 0.08, se = .01, p < 0.001). Moreover, the direct positive effect of self-esteem on life satisfaction, after controlling for peer relationships, remained significant (β = .46, se = .01, p < .001). The indirect effect of self-esteem on life satisfaction through peer relationships was β = .03 (95% CI = [.02, .05]). Taken together, peer relationships partially mediated the relationship between self-esteem and life satisfaction. These results indicate that higher levels of self-esteem and stronger peer relationships are associated with greater life satisfaction. Hypothesis 3 proposed that peer relationships would mediate the effect of self-esteem on life satisfaction and that each part of this chain would vary depending on cyberbullying perpetration. In this research, standardized coefficients were omitted because the interaction terms make each predictor’s effect conditional on the moderator, so that a single standardized value would be misleading and uninterpretable (Hayes, 2022 ). The analysis (see Table 2 ) showed that people with higher self-esteem reported markedly better peer relationships ( b = .51, p < .001, 95% CI [.47, .56]). Cyberbullying perpetration also predicted stronger Peer relationships ( b = .26, p = .030, 95% CI [.03, .50]). However, the self-esteem and cyberbullying interaction on Peer relationships did not reach significance (b = .03, p = .35, 95% CI [–.03, .09]), so Hypothesis 3 (a) was not confirmed. Table 2 The Moderated Mediation Effect of Self-esteem on Life satisfaction Mediated by Peer relationship and Moderated by Cyberbullying perpetration Independent Variables b se P CI b se P CI outcome: Peer relationship Dependent-variable model outcome: Life satisfaction Gender -1.12 *** .20 < .001 [–1.50, –.74] 0.30** .09 .002 [.11, .48] Weekpa − .55 *** .14 < .001 [–.82, –.27] 0.10 .07 .145 [-.03, .23] Weekepa .79*** .12 < .001 [.55, 1.02] 0.10 .06 .103 [-.02, .21] Self-esteem .51*** .02 < .001 [.47, .56] 0.27*** .01 < .001 [.25, .30] Cyberbullying perpetration .26* .12 .030 [.03, .50] -0.52*** .06 < .001 [-.63, -40] Self-esteem × Cyberbullying perpetration .03 .03 .352 [–.03, .09] -0.03 .02 .068 [-.06, .00] Peer relationship 0.05*** .01 < .001 [.03, .07] Peer relationship × Cyberbullying perpetration − .04** .01 .001 [-.06, − .02] Constant –0.76 .35 .028 -1.44, − .05] 12.48*** .17 < .001 [12.16, 12.81] R² .22 .31 ANOVA F (6, 2304) = 110.17, p < .001 F (8, 2302) = 127.02, p < .001 Bootstrap sample size n = 5000. b is unstandardized coefficients. Unstandardized coefficients reported are based on accelerated 95% confidence intervals (CIs). CIs that do not include zero indicate significant effects. Weekpa is time with parents during the weekday, Weekepa is time with parents during the weekend. Gender: 1 = male, 0 = female *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001 Testing the Moderated Mediation Model In addition, elevated self-esteem corresponded to greater life satisfaction ( b = .27, p < .001, 95% CI [.25, .30]), and more supportive peer relationships also predicted higher life satisfaction ( b = .05, p < .001, 95% CI [0.03, 0.07]). Cyberbullying perpetration showed a sizable negative direct link with Life satisfaction (b = –.52, p < .001, 95% CI [–.63, –.40]). Crucially, the interaction term between peer relationship and cyberbullying perpetration term was significant ( b = –.04, p = .001, 95% CI [–.06, –.02]), indicating that the beneficial impact of positive peer relationship on life satisfaction weakens as cyberbullying perpetration rises, thus supporting hypothesis 3 b. By contrast, the interaction term between self-esteem and cyberbullying perpetration interaction on Life satisfaction was non-significant ( b = –.03, p = .07, 9 % CI [–0.06, 0.00]), offering no evidence for Hypothesis 3 (c). Bootstrap analyses painted a similar picture. The indirect route from Self-esteem through Peer relationship to Life satisfaction was significant at low ( b = .03, 9 % CI [0.02, 0.04]) and average ( b = .02, 9 % CI [.01, .04]) levels of Cyberbullying perpetration but became negligible at high levels ( b = .01, 9 % CI [–.01, .02]). Pairwise contrasts confirmed that the indirect effect under high Cyberbullying perpetration differed significantly from those observed under low and mean conditions. Overall, Self-esteem bolsters Life satisfaction partly by enhancing peer relationships, yet this supportive mechanism fades as involvement in Cyberbullying perpetration intensifies. The Impact of Peer relationship on Life satisfaction at Different Levels of Cyberbullying perpetration (Path B) To further examine Hypothesis 3 b concerning the interaction between peer-relationship and cyberbullying perpetration in predicting life satisfaction, a simple-slope analysis was conducted. The results, illustrated in Fig. 3 , revealed that peer‐relationship had a significant positive effect on life satisfaction only at low and medium levels of cyberbullying perpetration. When involvement in cyberbullying was low or average, stronger peer relationships were associated with higher life satisfaction ( b = .06, p < .001, 95% CI [.04, .08] and b = .05, p < .001, 95% CI [0.03, 0.07], respectively). For individuals reporting high levels of cyberbullying perpetration, the effect of peer relationships on life satisfaction was not significant (b = 0.01, p = .34, 95% CI [–0.01, 0.04]). In Fig. 3 , it shows the relationship among variables visually. For low cyberbullying, the line rises steeply. It shows that as supportive friendships increase, life satisfaction climbs markedly. For medium cyberbullying, the slope is still positive but gentler. It means positive peer relationships still help, just not as much as they do. For high cyberbullying, the line is almost flat. It manifested regardless of how positive the friendships are, life-satisfaction barely changes and remains lower overall. In addition, it was not significant between peer relationships and life satisfaction at high cyberbullying perpetration. These findings indicate that the positive influence of supportive peer relationships on life satisfaction w eakens as cyberbullying perpetration increases. Thus, adolescents who engage heavily in cyberbullying appear less able to translate positive peer interactions into elevated life satisfaction, consistent with Hypothesis 3 b. Conditional Direct and Indirect Effects of Self-Esteem on Life Satisfaction As presented in Table 3 and Fig. 4 , the findings supported our hypotheses by showing that higher levels of self-esteem were significantly associated with greater life satisfaction. This association was transmitted through peer relationship at low and medium levels of cyber-bullying perpetration. Specifically, significant indirect effects emerged when cyberbullying was low (b = .03, 95% CI [.02, .04]) and when it was at the mean ( b = .02, 95% CI [.01, .04]). Table 3 Conditional Direct and Indirect Effects of Self-esteem on Life satisfaction Levels of moderator b Boot SE 95% Boot CI Conditional direct effect M – SD .28 0.01 [0.26, 0.31] M 0.27 0.01 [0.25, 0.30] M + SD 0.25 0.02 [0.21, 0.28] Conditional indirect effect M – SD 0.03 0.01 [0.02, 0.04] M 0.02 0.001 [0.01, 0.04] M + SD 0.01 0.01 [− 0.01, 0.02] Bootstrap sample size n = 5000. b is an unstandardized coefficient. CIs that do not include zero indicate conditional significant direct or indirect effects. M and SD are used to represent the mean and standard deviation of Cyberbullying perpetration, low ( M-SD ), Medium ( M ), and high (M + SD). Although a positive, statistically significant direct effect of self-esteem on life satisfaction was observed across all levels of cyberbullying, mediation through peer relationships disappeared when cyberbullying was high ( b = .01, 95% CI [–.011, .024]). Collectively, these results provide evidence for the beneficial impact of self-esteem and supportive peer relationships on adolescents’ life satisfaction (supporting Hypothesis 1) and confirm the mediating role of peer relationships in this link (supporting Hypothesis 2 ). In detail, greater self-esteem predicted stronger peer relationships (Path a ), and, in turn, more positive peer relationships were linked to higher life satisfaction (Path b ). Our moderated-mediation test ( Hypothesis 3 ) was partially supported. Contrary to expectations for Hypothesis 3 a , cyberbullying perpetration did not significantly moderate the pathway from self-esteem to peer relationships, which means the interaction between self-esteem and cyberbullying perpetration was not significant. Consistent with Hypothesis 3 b , however, cyberbullying significantly weakened the association between peer relationships and life satisfaction. The positive influence of peer relationships was strongest when cyberbullying perpetration was low and dropped to non-significance when perpetration was high. Consequently, the indirect effect of self-esteem on life satisfaction via peer relationships was most pronounced at low cyberbullying, attenuated at average cyberbullying, and effectively null when cyberbullying was high. Taken together, these findings suggest that self-esteem enhances adolescents’ life satisfaction both directly and indirectly through supportive peer relationships, but this indirect pathway is undermined when adolescents engage in high levels of cyberbullying perpetration. Discussion In this study, we examined the complex relationship between self-esteem, life satisfaction, peer relationship quality, and cyberbullying perpetration. Utilizing data from the Korean Children and Youth Panel Survey (KCYPS), our findings extend research on life satisfaction, an area that has been historically under-researched, especially in Asian settings (Park et al., 2024 ). Our findings provide strong support for the relationship between self-esteem and life satisfaction and the mediating role of peer relationship quality. However, hypothesis 3 was only partially supported, as cyberbullying perpetration moderated the relationship between peer relationship quality and life satisfaction significantly (H3b), but did not significantly influence the pathways between self-esteem and peer relationship quality (H3a) or the direct effect of self-esteem on life satisfaction. These findings are consistent with and expand upon previous research, and offer nuanced insights into how social-ecological processes impact adolescent well-being and how cyberbullying perpetration undermines social-ecological stability. Building on previous studies (Park et al., 2024 ; Szcześniak et al., 2022 ), we found a statistically significant positive relationship between self-esteem and life satisfaction (H1). This highlights the protective effects of positive self-perceptions on adolescent mental health, with lower negative attitudes towards oneself leading to higher life satisfaction and better mental health. Adolescents with higher self-esteem reported greater life satisfaction, and this held true even when considering factors like gender and parental concern. This aligns with findings from Foody et al. ( 2019 ), who noted that inner psychological resources, such as self-esteem, can help buffer against negative effects, supporting resilience theories (Bonnie & Backes, 2019 ; Mastorci et al., 2024 ). The strong relationship suggests that self-esteem plays a crucial role in overall well-being and mitigates the impact of external stressors. The partial mediation of peer relationship quality in the relationship between self-esteem and life satisfaction (H2) further highlights the importance of social connections in adolescent development. Adolescents with higher self-esteem report stronger peer relationships, which in turn enhances life satisfaction. This finding supports Foody et al.’s ( 2019 ) emphasis on friendship quality as a critical social-ecological factor, supporting studies that identify peer relationships as a conduit for fostering belonging and emotional support (Flaspohler et al., 2009 ; Leung et al., 2018 ). The mediation effect suggests that self-esteem not only directly influences well-being but also operates indirectly through social pathways, highlighting the importance of cultivating positive peer interactions to enhance mental health outcomes. As shown in the moderated mediation analysis, the perceived poor quality of peer relationships as a response to cyberbullying perpetration marked a definitive negative impact on the positive relation between peer relationship and life satisfaction (H3b). The connections of stronger peer relationships with higher life satisfaction were given at low and medium levels of perpetrating cyberbullying. In contrast, the connection became weaker at higher levels of such perpetration. This result corresponds to the findings by Foody et al. ( 2019 ) that the worst psychological outcomes, such as lower well-being, are linked with the involvement in cyberbullying, specifically due to being a bully/victim. Such disruption caused by cyberbullying perpetration can be attributed to its distinctive nature, e.g., fast-spreading, anonymity, destruction of trust, and emotional security within peer groups (Hinduja & Patchin, 2010 ; Udris, 2015 ). This finding highlights the necessity to consider cyberbullying as a constructive context driving submergence of the protective properties of social relationships. Surprisingly, cyberbullying perpetration did not have a significant moderating effect on the correlation between self-esteem and peer relationship (H3a) or the direct correlation between self-esteem and life satisfaction. This is unlike what Foody et al. ( 2019 ) found, that cyberbullying perpetration, in general, affects social and psychological outcomes. A possible reason is that, as a stable internal characteristic, self-esteem might be less vulnerable to the modifying effect of cyberbullying perpetration than the more dynamic and socially contingent nature of peer relationships (Campbell et al., 2013 ). The non-significance of the control of the moderation of self-esteem to the relationship pathway with peers may also be an indication of the complicated nature of peer bullying outcomes, since perpetration is not generally destructive of social competence and peer acceptance. As an example, not all perpetrators lose social status due to their actions, but it has been shown in the research on conventional bullying (Wegge et al., 2016 ). Such results imply that, although cyberbullying perpetration impairs some social pathways, this approach might have less influence on personal psychological resources such as self-esteem. Based on the findings by Foody et al. ( 2019 ) regarding the results of an investigation into gender differences, the current study was able to control for gender. It failed to observe significant gender-based moderating effects in the examined pathways. This is unlike the finding of Foody et al. ( 2019 ), that females are at risk of cyber victimization and respond more intensely in their emotions, probably because of a gendered form of socialization, since it focuses on relational connectedness (Ging & O’Higgins Norman, 2016 ). This lack of gender moderation in our results can be attributed to the cultural differences between Korean and Western adolescent populations. Adolescents in Korea are functional participants in a collectivist culture that values group harmony and conformity within it, and this may reduce the gender-specific impact on cyberbullying culture in this group (Park et al., 2024 ). Future studies should investigate whether the results have cross-cultural applicability, particularly in cultures where gender norms are more influential. This research makes contributions to the social-ecological framework by incorporating individual (self-esteem), social (peer relationships), and contextual (cyberbullying perpetration) sets of variables to explain adolescent life satisfaction. The partial mediation model corresponds to the social protection approach advocated by Foody et al. ( 2019 ), which tests the idea that online aggression has damaging effects. The results are also applicable in resilience studies, as they indicate that although good relations with peers promote well-being, they can be effective only when they are free of damaging behaviors (Hinduja & Patchin, 2017). This study contributes to the need to consider cyberbullying perpetration as a moderator, as it provides a rationale for using theoretical models to explain the digital-era stressors that overlap with established patterns of the social route. The findings are of great importance to intervention and prevention strategies. Regarding self-esteem, interventions should focus on enhancing life satisfaction by implementing programs that encourage individuals to engage in self-reflection, set goals, and develop a positive self-identity (Szcześniak et al., 2022 ). It is possible that the quality of relationships can be enhanced through peer support programs, including friendships and mediation stimulation, which can enhance their mediating role in well-being (Flaspohler et al., 2009 ). Nevertheless, online aggression is mitigated by the perpetration of cyberbullying, which is the reason why specific attempts are made to minimize it. To reduce cases of cyberbullying, Foody et al. ( 2019 ) recommend that schools implement digital literacy programs to educate adolescents on the effects of cyberbullying and instill in them the importance of responsible online conduct (2019). Moreover, prosocial behavior (an intervention that focuses on the characteristics of a bystander) and anti-bullying programs, such as KiVa, may be scaled to address cyberbullying (Salmivalli & Poskiparta, 2012 ). Considering collectivist values, including creating an influence of group responsibility to prevent cyberbullying, is one of the options that must be provided regarding the cultural context of Korean adolescents. Covariate parental involvement poses a slight indication that the multi-level interventions (used in this study) proposed by Foody et al. ( 2019 ) may consider strategies that focus on the family. Policymakers should be more concerned about incorporating psychosocial aspects of relationships, such as the quality of friendship, into national standards against bullying, and programs should reflect both the problems of traditional and online aggression. Limitations and Future Directions There are a few limitations associated with this study that must be taken into consideration. To start with, the KCYPS data is of a cross-sectional design, which does not allow making any causal inferences, as it is addressed in the critique of comparable research by Foody et al. ( 2019 ). Longitudinal studies should be done to be able to comprehend the temporal issue of self-esteem, relationships with peers, cyberbullying, and life satisfaction. Second, the use of self-report measures may present such a risk as social desirability bias, especially in the case of socially sensitive behaviors such as cyberbullying perpetration. Validity might be improved using multi-informant information, e.g. peer or teacher report (Foody et al., 2019 ). Third, the study examined cyberbullying perpetration only, but not victimization, which Foody et al. ( 2019 ) reported as an important predictor of psychological outcomes. A comparative study of the two roles should be carried out in future studies to give an overview of the effects of cyberbullying. Moreover, the choice of measures to rely on is not of high reliability in the study by Foody et al. ( 2019 ), e.g., the friendship quality scale, which warns against the interpretation of results regarding the field of social relationships. Although we adopted scales that had been validated in our study, future directions ought to consider scales that have high internal consistency. Generalizability can be reduced due to the culture-specificity of the Korean sample, because, as Foody et al. ( 2019 ) observed, cyberbullying prevalence is not the same in different contexts. Cross-cultural research would be able to examine how true these pathways are in other environments. Lastly, examining the use of online versus offline friendships as proposed by Foody et al. ( 2019 ) would help to explain their differentiating purposes in minimizing the impacts of cyberbullying cases especially as the use of digital social networks continues to rise. Declarations Ethical Approval: Not Applicable Consent to Participate: Not Applicable Consent for Publication: Not Applicable Funding: Not Applicable Author Contribution AcknowledgementsNot ApplicableAuthor ContributionsChanhoon Park: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation, Writing - Original Draft, Writing - Review & Editing.Hillary Mukula: Conceptualization, formal analysis, writing- Review & Editing.Morris Ndeezi: Conceptualization, Analysis, Writing- Review and EditingEmmanuel Adarkwa: Analysis, Writing - Review & EditingAll authors critically revised the manuscript, approved the final manuscript as submitted, and agreed to be accountable for all aspects of the work. 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Korean Journal of Social Welfare Education , 60 , 141–170. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviews received at journal 29 Mar, 2026 Reviews received at journal 26 Mar, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 14 Feb, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 12 Feb, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 12 Feb, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 06 Feb, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 06 Feb, 2026 First submitted to journal 01 Feb, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8759607","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":591306081,"identity":"aa9a0ae2-53cf-4c13-9541-474035de25e6","order_by":0,"name":"Chanhoon Park","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA2klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACZh42IFlTz89w+ACQISFDrJZjCZKNxxJAWniIsAashTnB4PAZAzCXoAbzdt5jDz7uYMszOHbm86sbNRY8DOyHj27Ap0XmMF+64cwzMsWSZ85us845BnQYT1raDXxaJJh5zKR529gY+26c3WacwwbUIsFjRowWZsaG+2+eGef8I0FL4oQDZ5gf57YRpQXkl7ZjxpINx8yYc/skeNgI+oX/LDDE2mrkgFH5+HPOtzo5fvbDx/BqQQZsEmCSWOUgwPyBFNWjYBSMglEwcgAASlZFlHMCD7MAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Ohio University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Chanhoon","middleName":"","lastName":"Park","suffix":""},{"id":591306086,"identity":"b614ce12-469c-482f-aba0-adae007c4f8b","order_by":1,"name":"Hillary Mukula","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ohio University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hillary","middleName":"","lastName":"Mukula","suffix":""},{"id":591306091,"identity":"3430f70c-9f4e-41fc-b505-8ba4f5ab536e","order_by":2,"name":"Morris Ndeezi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Makerere University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Morris","middleName":"","lastName":"Ndeezi","suffix":""},{"id":591306092,"identity":"f0d340cd-2087-4f8c-bbe4-296d425f9ed5","order_by":3,"name":"Emmanuel Adarkwa","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ohio University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Emmanuel","middleName":"","lastName":"Adarkwa","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-02-02 02:23:16","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8759607/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8759607/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":102991611,"identity":"2afbc800-8291-4cb4-bddc-0fce1985d262","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-19 11:34:27","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":59521,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eProposed Model. Figure 1 illustrates a moderated mediation model of the relationship between self-esteem and life satisfaction, mediated through peer relationships and cyberbullying perpetration (Andrew Hayes’s moderation-mediation Model 59).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8759607/v1/8bc3c26e34b72fd2e2b409e2.png"},{"id":102991612,"identity":"3902cd67-e0e7-44af-9c52-aa3fe92a92b0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-19 11:34:27","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":991581,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe Standardized Coeffcients of the Mediation Model. Figure 2 depicts the mediation role of Peer relationship in the relationship between Self-esteem and Life satisfaction. Note: The mediation analysis was conducted using PROCESS (Hayes’s mediation Model 4). a, b, c, and c’ are standardized coef cients. c = total effect, which includes the direct effect of Self-esteem on Life satisfaction and the indirect effect of Self-esteem on Life satisfaction via Peer relationship; c = direct effect of Self-esteem on Life satisfaction. ***p \u0026lt; 0.001; **p \u0026lt; 0.01\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8759607/v1/361f8113571c11bd6964171f.png"},{"id":103049909,"identity":"cec68a5b-48f7-4819-90f3-9df206dc9d7a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-20 07:47:11","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":163727,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe Impact of Peer relationship on Life satisfaction at Different Levels of Cyberbullying perpetration (Path B)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8759607/v1/1cbded848698bbb30052df98.png"},{"id":103049839,"identity":"27f39df4-dfcb-44a2-99bd-828d9ee705c9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-20 07:46:45","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":966878,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCoefficients of the Moderated Mediation Model of the Relationship between Self-esteem and Life satisfaction through Peer relationships at different levels of Cyberbullying perpetration (Andrew Hayes’s moderation-mediation Model 59). \u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e*\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep \u0026lt; .05, \u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e**\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep \u0026lt; .01, \u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e***\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep \u0026lt; .001\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8759607/v1/5b5ac974ab672d03ad4194ea.png"},{"id":103051311,"identity":"e579cf6c-d5c4-40ef-9802-4823a9562c30","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-20 07:59:34","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2531517,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8759607/v1/3d30a6b8-041a-46b9-8146-640904a47e23.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"When Cyberbullying Undermines Friendship: A Moderated Mediation Analysis of Self-Esteem and Life Satisfaction in Korean Adolescents","fulltext":[{"header":"Highlights","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Self-esteem and peer relationships positively predicted adolescents\u0026rsquo; life satisfaction.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Peer relationships partially mediated the link between self-esteem and life satisfaction.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Cyberbullying perpetration weakened the positive effect of peer relationships on life satisfaction.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; The mediation pathway disappeared at high levels of cyberbullying perpetration.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Findings emphasize self-esteem and friendship quality as protective factors in adolescent well-being.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eOver the past decade, interest in adolescent mental health has been increasing (Anderson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). One area that has gained prominence is adolescent life satisfaction (Pik\u0026oacute;, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Life satisfaction, defined as a cognitive and global evaluation of the quality of one\u0026rsquo;s life, is considered an essential component of adolescents\u0026rsquo; subjective well-being (Baham\u0026oacute;n et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Soares et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Woode \u0026amp; Chen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Although life satisfaction is a crucial indicator of adolescents\u0026rsquo; subjective well-being, research on this topic has primarily concentrated on adult life satisfaction (Das et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Jovanović, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Existing research has shown that life satisfaction is linked to numerous positive functional areas, including academic achievement, emotional and behavioral development, and interpersonal connections (Lin \u0026amp; Paat, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). However, despite the numerous positive functional domains attributed to life satisfaction, there is a growing global concern regarding adolescent life satisfaction, as trends indicate a decline in this area alongside an increase in mental health problems (Park et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Among developed countries, Korean adolescents continue to report the lowest levels of life satisfaction (Park et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Previous studies indicate that life satisfaction appears to decline as Koreans enter adolescence (Park et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). With an average score of 6.4 out of 10, Korea ranks 33rd among 38 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) members on the happiness index, significantly below the average 6.69 (Ji-won, 2025). One factor identified as significantly impacting adolescents\u0026rsquo; life satisfaction in Korea is cyberbullying (Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Son \u0026amp; Bae, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Cyberbullying defined as the act of persistently harassing a specific person in the cyberworld), has been strongly associated with various emotional and behavioral problems among adolescent boys and girls (Jun, 2022). Some of the significant emotional and behavioral problems identified among Korean adolescents include reduced self-esteem, reduced life satisfaction, and an increase in suicidal ideation (Jahng, 2024 Ji-won, 2025; Lee et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, utilizing data from the Korean Children and Youth Panel Survey (KCYPS) and prior research indicating that Korean adolescents experience lower life satisfaction compared to adolescents from other countries, the present study examines the moderating role of cyberbullying in the relationship between self-esteem, peer relationship quality, and life satisfaction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSelf-Esteem and Life Satisfaction\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdolescence is a complex period marked by significant physical, emotional, cognitive, and social changes (Mastorci et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This important phase of human development, which follows childhood and precedes adulthood, is characterized by numerous developmental challenges, including identity formation, heightened self-consciousness, social comparison, and self-esteem development (Bonnie \u0026amp; Backes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Mastorci et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Mitchell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; S\u0026aacute;nchez-Queija et al., 2024). Self-esteem, defined as the subjective evaluation of one\u0026rsquo;s worth (Szcześniak et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), is crucial during adolescence and has been found to influence their identity formation, academic and social success, and overall well-being (Park et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOften described as existing on a continuum, self-esteem can be either positive or negative (Di Pierro et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). While negative self-esteem is associated with self-criticism and negative self-views, positive self-esteem is linked to high confidence, happiness, and satisfaction (Di Pierro et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Li et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Orth \u0026amp; Robins, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, positive self-esteem in adolescents can serve as a protective factor against negative self-views, boosting adolescents\u0026rsquo; resilience, peer relationship quality, and overall life satisfaction (Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). According to Di Pierro et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), individuals with a positive self-image are more likely to have positive evaluations of all aspects of their lives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrevious empirical research conducted in Poland examining the relationship between self-esteem and life satisfaction found that adolescents who view themselves as being \u0026ldquo;worthy\u0026rdquo; tend to report high life satisfaction and functioning (Szczesniak et al., 2022). Furthermore, research among Spanish youth concluded that self-esteem and life satisfaction are related concepts, and they appear to affect adolescents\u0026rsquo; physical and mental health (Superv\u0026iacute;a et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, significant evidence was found supporting the link between self-esteem and life satisfaction across genders and cultures (Superv\u0026iacute;a et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Szczesniak et al., 2022). Furthermore, individuals from individualistic cultures and males have been reported to place more emphasis on internal sources of life satisfaction, including self-esteem, and are more likely to report higher levels of life satisfaction (Diener \u0026amp; Diener, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Ye et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Given the strong links between self-esteem and life satisfaction, emerging research suggests that peer relationship quality plays a significant role in the connection between self-esteem and life satisfaction, shaping how adolescent self-esteem translates into overall life satisfaction (Szczesniak et al., 2022).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSelf-esteem, peer relationship quality, and life satisfaction\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeer relationship quality is described as a multidimensional construct comprising both positive characteristics, such as companionship, mutual respect, and intimacy, and negative characteristics, including conflict, rejection, and bullying (Foulkes \u0026amp; Blakemore, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). High-peer relationship quality, sometimes referred to as positive peer relationships in the literature Cavicchiolo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), is associated with resilience and better mental health outcomes (Foulkes \u0026amp; Blakemore, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Previous researchers found that peer relationship quality was associated with better psychosocial outcomes among adolescents with adverse early childhood experiences (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, Afriat et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) found that peer relationship quality contributes to mental health and physical well-being. As social beings, it is clear that positive peer relationships have a significant impact on an individual\u0026rsquo;s well-being, including self-esteem and life satisfaction (Alsarrani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, individuals with higher self-esteem are often more socially competent and emotionally secure, which may foster stronger and more fulfilling peer connections (Orth \u0026amp; Robins, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In turn, these positive social relationships can enhance life satisfaction by providing a sense of belonging and mutual support (Haim-Litevsky et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, peer relationship quality may mediate the link between self-esteem and life satisfaction, serving as a key social pathway through which self-perceptions influence broader life outcomes among adolescents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePeer relationship Quality, Cyberbullying, and Life Satisfaction\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWith the rise of technology, adolescents are increasingly using the internet as a primary form of social contact. While the internet greatly helps people get together, it has given rise to negative behaviors like cyberbullying (Peebles, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Cyberbullying often takes the form of repeated aggression on the internet and may result in depression, low self-esteem, and a general decrease in adolescents\u0026rsquo; life satisfaction (Hinduja \u0026amp; Patchin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Smith et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Cyberbullying is usually more widespread and hidden than regular bullying, thanks to its secrecy, fast news spread, and it follows victims even in their own homes (Foody et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Udris, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is common for those who have been victimized to show increased levels of anxiety and depression (Ybarra \u0026amp; Mitchell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). According to Aoyama et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), some victims go on to experience changes in emotion regulation and struggle with relationships with their peers, and similar issues may arise for perpetrators, as seen in Campbell et al.\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) report. Since the core developmental tasks for teens involve identity formation and building a sense of belonging, cyberbullying has a significant impact on them.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies have shown that social ties with peers are a protective factor from the effects of cyberbullying (Foody et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Peer relations help adolescents express, connect, and build bonds that enhance the quality of life for adolescents (Leung et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). While literature suggests that sharing physical space offers comfort, lessens exposure to stress, and improves self-esteem Flaspohler et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), little is known about whether virtual friendship, which involves breadth more than depth, can provide the same benefits.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePresent Study\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThrough the present study, we sought to test the hypothesis that cyberbullying perpetration among adolescents moderates the mediating relationship between self-esteem, peer relationship, and life satisfaction. This present study has three main hypotheses. The primary objective is to investigate the relationship between self-esteem, positive peer relationships, and life satisfaction. The second objective is to examine how peer relationship mediates the relationship between self-esteem and life satisfaction. Objective 3 investigates the moderating role of cyberbullying perpetration in the mediating relationship between self-esteem, peer relationship, and life satisfaction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e depicts the hypothesized model. We hypothesize that higher self-esteem and positive peer relationships will be associated with life satisfaction (H1). Peer relationships will mediate the relationship between self-esteem and life satisfaction. Specifically, higher self-esteem will predict stronger peer relationships, which in turn will predict greater life satisfaction (H2). Cyberbullying perpetration will moderate this mediating process. As adolescents\u0026rsquo; cyber-bullying perpetration increases, it will attenuate (a) the positive effect of self-esteem on peer relationship, (b) the positive effect of peer relationship on life satisfaction, and (c) the effect of self-esteem on life satisfaction (H3).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Method","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study utilized archival data from the Korean Children and Youth Panel Survey (KCYPS), which was developed through stratified multistage cluster sampling to represent a nationwide sample of South Korean children and adolescents. The survey was administered by the National Youth Policy Institute (National Youth Policy Institute 2022), with an original sample size of 2,607. The Korea Children and Youth Panel Survey (KCYPS, 2018\u0026ndash;2025) is a longitudinal study tracking both individual and environmental developmental trajectories. Initiated in 2018, the survey annually followed a cohort of fourth-grade students for eight consecutive years. The current study analyzed data from Wave 5, focusing on these students during their eighth-grade year. Students in Korea enter school based on their birth year, so they are all born in 2008. Although age is not counted separately for school placement, everyone in Korea gets one year older together at the start of the new year, so their \u0026ldquo;Korean age\u0026rdquo; is 15. Middle school students were selected as the target population due to the heightened prevalence of online delinquent behaviors observed during this developmental stage. This period is marked by significant transitions across various domains, including biological maturation, identity exploration, and increasing autonomy, which collectively contribute to a rise in engagement with risky or deviant behaviors (Valkenburg \u0026amp; Peter, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). The background characteristics of the adolescent participants are summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDescriptive Statistics and Correlation for the Research Variables (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2607)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Esteem\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Life satisfaction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.51**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Peer relationship\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.44**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.29**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. Cyberbullying Perpetration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;.08**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;.19**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5. Gender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.04*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;.11**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6. Weekpa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.14**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.17**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.12**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;.08**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;.11**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7. Weekepa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.21**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.20**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.21**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;.06**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;.12**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.82**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMeasure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSelf-Esteem\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; Rosenberg \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1965\u003c/span\u003e) was used to assess children\u0026rsquo;s global self-worth, capturing both positive and negative self-perceptions. The Korean version of the scale, adapted and translated by the Korea University Behavior Science Research Institute (2000), comprises 10 items rated on a 4-point scale, ranging from 1 \u0026ldquo;not at all\u0026rdquo; to 4 \u0026ldquo;very much,\u0026rdquo; with higher scores indicating stronger self-esteem. Sample items include statements such as \u0026ldquo;On the whole, I am satisfied with myself,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;I feel that I have a number of good qualities,\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;I am able to do things as well as most other people.\u0026rdquo; The total score of the scale was calculated for analysis. Internal consistency reliability coefficients of 0.81. While the RSES was initially developed for adults, prior research has demonstrated its validity and comparability for use with adolescent populations (Whiteside-Mansell \u0026amp; Corwyn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e), including those from diverse ethnic backgrounds (Supple et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePeer Relationship\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePeer relationships were assessed by asking about relationships with friends in positive and negative ways. The measurement items were drawn from the 13-item Peer Relationship Quality Scale developed by Bae et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Of these, eight items measured positive peer relationships and five items measured negative peer relationships. The variable scores were calculated by computing the average responses of eighth-grade students to each set of items. Positive peer relationships were assessed using eight items; sample items included those that assessed (1) spending time together, (2) confiding in the respondent when experiencing distress or difficulties. Negative peer relationships were assessed using five items; sample items included those that measured the frequency of (1) conflicts of opinion, (2) difficulty in reconciling after conflicts, (3) irritation or anger when peers behaved contrary to the respondent\u0026rsquo;s expectations. Negative peer relationship items were reverse-coded and then combined with the positive peer relationship items to create a total score for analysis. These items were also rated on a 4-point Likert scale, with a satisfactory internal consistency (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.84).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLife Satisfaction\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLife satisfaction was assessed with the Korean-translated version of the \u003cem\u003eSatisfaction with Life Scale\u003c/em\u003e (SWLS) (Diener et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e). The instrument comprises five items that capture global, cognitive evaluations of one\u0026rsquo;s life. For example, \u0026ldquo;Overall, my life is close to my ideal\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;The conditions of my life are excellent.\u0026rdquo; Participants rated each statement on a 4-point Likert scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;not at all true; 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;somewhat untrue; 3\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;somewhat true; 4\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;very true). Item scores were averaged to yield a composite ranging from 1 to 4, with higher values indicating greater life satisfaction. The total score of the scale was calculated. In the present study, the scale demonstrated acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.81).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCyberbullying perpetration\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCyberbullying was measured using 15 items related to perpetration from the \u0026ldquo;Youth Cyber Safety Survey,\u0026rdquo; included in the study by Lee et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), which examined the types of cyber violence among adolescents and response strategies. Example items include: \u0026ldquo;I have spread insults or bad rumors about someone to others,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;I have stalked someone by repeatedly sending words, messages, or images even though the person did not want them,\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;I have sent or secretly shared unwanted photos, embarrassing images, or videos of someone with others.\u0026rdquo; Participants indicated frequency in the past year on a 6-point scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;never, 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;once or twice a year, 3\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;once a month, 4\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;two to three times a month, 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;once a week, 6\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;several times a week). For analysis, each item was dichotomized and recoded as 0 (no experience; \u0026ldquo;never\u0026rdquo;) or 1 (has experience; any endorsement above \u0026ldquo;never\u0026rdquo;), and item scores were summed to create a total perpetration score (range: 0\u0026ndash;15). This dichotomization strategy has been used in prior research using KCYPS (Lee, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Yoon \u0026amp; Yu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α for the cyberbullying scale was .71.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 29.0. There were no missing values, except for those individuals who did not participate in the survey this year. After excluding 296 people who did not participate in the survey this year, the final analytic sample consisted of 2,607 cases. We generated descriptive statistics and examined pair-wise Pearson correlations among self-esteem, peer-relationship, life satisfaction, cyberbullying perpetration, and the covariates such as gender, weekday time spent with parents, and weekend time spent with parents. To test Hypothesis 2 (mediation), we used Hayes\u0026rsquo;s PROCESS macro (Version 3.5.2) Model 4, specifying self-esteem as the independent variable, peer peer-relationship as the mediator, and life satisfaction as the outcome while controlling for the three covariates. Indirect effects were estimated using 5,000 bias-corrected bootstrap samples, and effects whose 95% confidence intervals excluded zero were considered statistically significant. Hypothesis \u003cspan refid=\"FPar1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e (moderated mediation) was evaluated with PROCESS Model 59. Continuous predictors were mean-centered, and the macro automatically computed the interaction terms between self-esteem and cyberbullying perpetration, as well as between peer-relationship and cyberbullying perpetration. The model simultaneously assessed whether cyberbullying perpetration moderates (a) the path from self-esteem to peer relationships, (b) the direct path from self-esteem to life satisfaction, and (c) the path from peer relationships to life satisfaction, again adjusting for gender and parental-contact covariates. Conditional indirect effects were probed at low (\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1 \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e), mean, and high (+\u0026thinsp;1 \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e) levels of the moderator using the same bias-corrected bootstrap confidence intervals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCorrelation Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo initially examine the study\u0026rsquo;s hypotheses, we conducted Pearson correlation analyses to investigate the relationship between the primary study variables: self-esteem, peer relationships, life satisfaction, and cyberbullying perpetration. The results from Table\u0026nbsp;1reveal several significant relationships. We found that Self-esteem was positively correlated with life satisfaction (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = .511, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001) and peer relationships \u003cem\u003e(r\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.438, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001). This suggests that individuals with higher self-esteem tend to report greater life satisfaction and stronger peer connections. In contrast, self-esteem had a negative correlation with cyberbullying perpetration (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026ndash;.083, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001), suggesting that individuals with higher self-esteem were less likely to engage in cyberbullying behaviors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLife satisfaction also showed a significant positive correlation with peer relationships (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = .292, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001) and a negative correlation with cyberbullying perpetration (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026ndash;.186, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001). However, peer relationships were not significantly correlated with cyberbullying perpetration \u003cem\u003e(r\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026ndash;.006, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .788). Moreover, demographic covariates such as gender, time with parents during weekday (weekpa), and time with parents during weekend (weekepa) were found to influence peer relationships and life satisfaction significantly (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTesting Mediation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe examined whether peer relationships would mediate the relationship between self-esteem and life satisfaction. We conducted a mediation analysis using Hayes\u0026rsquo;s PROCESS macro (Model 4). The results of the mediation analysis are presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. After controlling covariates (gender, time with parents during the weekday, and time with parents during the weekend), the analyses revealed a significant positive association between self-esteem and life satisfaction (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.49, \u003cem\u003ese\u003c/em\u003e = .01, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001), and a significant positive effect of self-esteem on peer relationships (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.41, \u003cem\u003ese\u003c/em\u003e = .02, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001). Additionally, the effect of peer relationships on life satisfaction was found to be significant \u003cem\u003e(\u003c/em\u003eβ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.08, \u003cem\u003ese\u003c/em\u003e = .01, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Moreover, the direct positive effect of self-esteem on life satisfaction, after controlling for peer relationships, remained significant (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.46, \u003cem\u003ese\u003c/em\u003e = .01, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001). The indirect effect of self-esteem on life satisfaction through peer relationships was β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.03 (95% CI = [.02, .05]). Taken together, peer relationships partially mediated the relationship between self-esteem and life satisfaction. These results indicate that higher levels of self-esteem and stronger peer relationships are associated with greater life satisfaction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eHypothesis 3\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eproposed that peer relationships would mediate the effect of self-esteem on life satisfaction and that each part of this chain would vary depending on cyberbullying perpetration. In this research, standardized coefficients were omitted because the interaction terms make each predictor\u0026rsquo;s effect conditional on the moderator, so that a single standardized value would be misleading and uninterpretable (Hayes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The analysis (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) showed that people with higher self-esteem reported markedly better peer relationships (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e = .51, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001, 95% CI [.47, .56]). Cyberbullying perpetration also predicted stronger Peer relationships (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e = .26, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .030, 95% CI [.03, .50]). However, the self-esteem and cyberbullying interaction on Peer relationships did not reach significance \u003cem\u003e(b\u003c/em\u003e = .03, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .35, 95% CI [\u0026ndash;.03, .09]), so Hypothesis \u003cspan refid=\"FPar1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e(a) was not confirmed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe Moderated Mediation Effect of Self-esteem on Life satisfaction Mediated by Peer relationship and Moderated by Cyberbullying perpetration\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndependent Variables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ese\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCI\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ese\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCI\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eoutcome: Peer\u0026nbsp;relationship\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDependent-variable model outcome: Life\u0026nbsp;satisfaction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.12\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[\u0026ndash;1.50, \u0026ndash;.74]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.30**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[.11, .48]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeekpa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.55\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[\u0026ndash;.82, \u0026ndash;.27]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.145\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[-.03, .23]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeekepa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.79***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[.55, 1.02]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.103\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[-.02, .21]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-esteem\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.51***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[.47, .56]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.27***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[.25, .30]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCyberbullying perpetration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.26*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.030\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[.03, .50]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.52***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[-.63, -40]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-esteem\u0026nbsp;\u0026times;\u0026nbsp;Cyberbullying perpetration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.352\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[\u0026ndash;.03, .09]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.068\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[-.06, .00]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeer\u0026nbsp;relationship\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[.03, .07]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeer\u0026nbsp;relationship\u0026nbsp;\u0026times;\u0026nbsp;Cyberbullying perpetration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.04**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[-.06, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.02]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConstant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;0.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.028\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.44, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.05]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.48***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[12.16, 12.81]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eANOVA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(6,\u0026nbsp;2304)\u0026nbsp;=\u0026nbsp;110.17, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026lt;\u0026nbsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(8,\u0026nbsp;2302)\u0026nbsp;=\u0026nbsp;127.02, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026lt;\u0026nbsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"9\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBootstrap sample size n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5000. b is unstandardized coefficients. Unstandardized coefficients reported are based on accelerated 95% confidence intervals (CIs). CIs that do not include zero indicate significant effects.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeekpa is time with parents during the weekday, Weekepa is time with parents during the weekend.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender: 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;male, 0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;female\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e*p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, **p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01, ***p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTesting the Moderated Mediation Model\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, elevated self-esteem corresponded to greater life satisfaction (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e = .27, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001, 95% CI [.25, .30]), and more supportive peer relationships also predicted higher life satisfaction (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e = .05, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001, 95% CI [0.03, 0.07]). Cyberbullying perpetration showed a sizable negative direct link with Life satisfaction \u003cem\u003e(b\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026ndash;.52, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001, 95% CI [\u0026ndash;.63, \u0026ndash;.40]). Crucially, the interaction term between peer relationship and cyberbullying perpetration term was significant (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026ndash;.04, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .001, 95% CI [\u0026ndash;.06, \u0026ndash;.02]), indicating that the beneficial impact of positive peer relationship on life satisfaction weakens as cyberbullying perpetration rises, thus supporting hypothesis \u003cspan refid=\"FPar1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eb. By contrast, the interaction term between self-esteem and cyberbullying perpetration interaction on Life satisfaction was non-significant (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026ndash;.03, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .07, 9 % CI [\u0026ndash;0.06, 0.00]), offering no evidence for Hypothesis \u003cspan refid=\"FPar1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e(c).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBootstrap analyses painted a similar picture. The indirect route from Self-esteem through Peer relationship to Life satisfaction was significant at low (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e= .03, 9 % CI [0.02, 0.04]) and average (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e = .02, 9 % CI [.01, .04]) levels of Cyberbullying perpetration but became negligible at high levels (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e = .01, 9 % CI [\u0026ndash;.01, .02]). Pairwise contrasts confirmed that the indirect effect under high Cyberbullying perpetration differed significantly from those observed under low and mean conditions. Overall, Self-esteem bolsters Life satisfaction partly by enhancing peer relationships, yet this supportive mechanism fades as involvement in Cyberbullying perpetration intensifies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eThe Impact of Peer relationship on Life satisfaction at Different Levels of Cyberbullying perpetration (Path B)\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo further examine Hypothesis \u003cspan refid=\"FPar1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eb concerning the interaction between peer-relationship and cyberbullying perpetration in predicting life satisfaction, a simple-slope analysis was conducted. The results, illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, revealed that peer‐relationship had a significant positive effect on life satisfaction only at low and medium levels of cyberbullying perpetration. When involvement in cyberbullying was low or average, stronger peer relationships were associated with higher life satisfaction (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e = .06, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001, 95% CI [.04, .08] and \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e = .05, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001, 95% CI [0.03, 0.07], respectively). For individuals reporting high levels of cyberbullying perpetration, the effect of peer relationships on life satisfaction was not significant \u003cem\u003e(b\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.01, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .34, 95% CI [\u0026ndash;0.01, 0.04]). In Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, it shows the relationship among variables visually. For low cyberbullying, the line rises steeply. It shows that as supportive friendships increase, life satisfaction climbs markedly. For medium cyberbullying, the slope is still positive but gentler. It means positive peer relationships still help, just not as much as they do. For high cyberbullying, the line is almost flat. It manifested regardless of how positive the friendships are, life-satisfaction barely changes and remains lower overall. In addition, it was not significant between peer relationships and life satisfaction at high cyberbullying perpetration. These findings indicate that the positive influence of supportive peer relationships on life satisfaction \u003cb\u003ew\u003c/b\u003eeakens as cyberbullying perpetration increases. Thus, adolescents who engage heavily in cyberbullying appear less able to translate positive peer interactions into elevated life satisfaction, consistent with Hypothesis \u003cspan refid=\"FPar1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eb.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eConditional Direct and Indirect Effects of Self-Esteem on Life Satisfaction\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, the findings supported our hypotheses by showing that higher levels of self-esteem were significantly associated with greater life satisfaction. This association was transmitted through peer relationship at low and medium levels of cyber-bullying perpetration. Specifically, significant indirect effects emerged when cyberbullying was low \u003cem\u003e(b\u003c/em\u003e = .03, 95% CI [.02, .04]) and when it was at the mean (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e = .02, 95% CI [.01, .04]).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eConditional Direct and Indirect Effects of Self-esteem on Life satisfaction\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLevels of moderator\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoot \u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% Boot \u003cem\u003eCI\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eConditional direct effect\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM \u0026ndash; SD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0.26, 0.31]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0.25, 0.30]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0.21, 0.28]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eConditional indirect effect\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM \u0026ndash; SD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0.02, 0.04]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0.01, 0.04]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.01, 0.02]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eBootstrap sample size \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5000. b is an unstandardized coefficient. CIs that do not include zero indicate conditional significant direct or indirect effects. \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e are used to represent the mean and standard deviation of Cyberbullying perpetration, low (\u003cem\u003eM-SD\u003c/em\u003e), Medium (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e), and high (M\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;SD).\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough a positive, statistically significant direct effect of self-esteem on life satisfaction was observed across all levels of cyberbullying, mediation through peer relationships disappeared when cyberbullying was high (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e = .01, 95% CI [\u0026ndash;.011, .024]). Collectively, these results provide evidence for the beneficial impact of self-esteem and supportive peer relationships on adolescents\u0026rsquo; life satisfaction (supporting Hypothesis 1) and confirm the mediating role of peer relationships in this link (supporting Hypothesis \u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e). In detail, greater self-esteem predicted stronger peer relationships (Path \u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e), and, in turn, more positive peer relationships were linked to higher life satisfaction (Path \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur moderated-mediation test (\u003cb\u003eHypothesis\u003c/b\u003e \u003cspan refid=\"FPar1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e was partially supported. Contrary to expectations for \u003cb\u003eHypothesis\u003c/b\u003e \u003cspan refid=\"FPar1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e, cyberbullying perpetration did not significantly moderate the pathway from self-esteem to peer relationships, which means the interaction between self-esteem and cyberbullying perpetration was not significant. Consistent with \u003cb\u003eHypothesis\u003c/b\u003e \u003cspan refid=\"FPar1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e, however, cyberbullying significantly weakened the association between peer relationships and life satisfaction. The positive influence of peer relationships was strongest when cyberbullying perpetration was low and dropped to non-significance when perpetration was high. Consequently, the indirect effect of self-esteem on life satisfaction via peer relationships was most pronounced at low cyberbullying, attenuated at average cyberbullying, and effectively null when cyberbullying was high. Taken together, these findings suggest that self-esteem enhances adolescents\u0026rsquo; life satisfaction both directly and indirectly through supportive peer relationships, but this indirect pathway is undermined when adolescents engage in high levels of cyberbullying perpetration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, we examined the complex relationship between self-esteem, life satisfaction, peer relationship quality, and cyberbullying perpetration. Utilizing data from the Korean Children and Youth Panel Survey (KCYPS), our findings extend research on life satisfaction, an area that has been historically under-researched, especially in Asian settings (Park et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Our findings provide strong support for the relationship between self-esteem and life satisfaction and the mediating role of peer relationship quality. However, hypothesis \u003cspan refid=\"FPar1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e was only partially supported, as cyberbullying perpetration moderated the relationship between peer relationship quality and life satisfaction significantly (H3b), but did not significantly influence the pathways between self-esteem and peer relationship quality (H3a) or the direct effect of self-esteem on life satisfaction. These findings are consistent with and expand upon previous research, and offer nuanced insights into how social-ecological processes impact adolescent well-being and how cyberbullying perpetration undermines social-ecological stability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBuilding on previous studies (Park et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Szcześniak et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), we found a statistically significant positive relationship between self-esteem and life satisfaction (H1). This highlights the protective effects of positive self-perceptions on adolescent mental health, with lower negative attitudes towards oneself leading to higher life satisfaction and better mental health. Adolescents with higher self-esteem reported greater life satisfaction, and this held true even when considering factors like gender and parental concern. This aligns with findings from Foody et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), who noted that inner psychological resources, such as self-esteem, can help buffer against negative effects, supporting resilience theories (Bonnie \u0026amp; Backes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Mastorci et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The strong relationship suggests that self-esteem plays a crucial role in overall well-being and mitigates the impact of external stressors. The partial mediation of peer relationship quality in the relationship between self-esteem and life satisfaction (H2) further highlights the importance of social connections in adolescent development. Adolescents with higher self-esteem report stronger peer relationships, which in turn enhances life satisfaction. This finding supports Foody et al.\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) emphasis on friendship quality as a critical social-ecological factor, supporting studies that identify peer relationships as a conduit for fostering belonging and emotional support (Flaspohler et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Leung et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The mediation effect suggests that self-esteem not only directly influences well-being but also operates indirectly through social pathways, highlighting the importance of cultivating positive peer interactions to enhance mental health outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs shown in the moderated mediation analysis, the perceived poor quality of peer relationships as a response to cyberbullying perpetration marked a definitive negative impact on the positive relation between peer relationship and life satisfaction (H3b). The connections of stronger peer relationships with higher life satisfaction were given at low and medium levels of perpetrating cyberbullying. In contrast, the connection became weaker at higher levels of such perpetration. This result corresponds to the findings by Foody et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) that the worst psychological outcomes, such as lower well-being, are linked with the involvement in cyberbullying, specifically due to being a bully/victim. Such disruption caused by cyberbullying perpetration can be attributed to its distinctive nature, e.g., fast-spreading, anonymity, destruction of trust, and emotional security within peer groups (Hinduja \u0026amp; Patchin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Udris, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). This finding highlights the necessity to consider cyberbullying as a constructive context driving submergence of the protective properties of social relationships.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSurprisingly, cyberbullying perpetration did not have a significant moderating effect on the correlation between self-esteem and peer relationship (H3a) or the direct correlation between self-esteem and life satisfaction. This is unlike what Foody et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) found, that cyberbullying perpetration, in general, affects social and psychological outcomes. A possible reason is that, as a stable internal characteristic, self-esteem might be less vulnerable to the modifying effect of cyberbullying perpetration than the more dynamic and socially contingent nature of peer relationships (Campbell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). The non-significance of the control of the moderation of self-esteem to the relationship pathway with peers may also be an indication of the complicated nature of peer bullying outcomes, since perpetration is not generally destructive of social competence and peer acceptance. As an example, not all perpetrators lose social status due to their actions, but it has been shown in the research on conventional bullying (Wegge et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Such results imply that, although cyberbullying perpetration impairs some social pathways, this approach might have less influence on personal psychological resources such as self-esteem.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the findings by Foody et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) regarding the results of an investigation into gender differences, the current study was able to control for gender. It failed to observe significant gender-based moderating effects in the examined pathways. This is unlike the finding of Foody et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), that females are at risk of cyber victimization and respond more intensely in their emotions, probably because of a gendered form of socialization, since it focuses on relational connectedness (Ging \u0026amp; O\u0026rsquo;Higgins Norman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). This lack of gender moderation in our results can be attributed to the cultural differences between Korean and Western adolescent populations. Adolescents in Korea are functional participants in a collectivist culture that values group harmony and conformity within it, and this may reduce the gender-specific impact on cyberbullying culture in this group (Park et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Future studies should investigate whether the results have cross-cultural applicability, particularly in cultures where gender norms are more influential.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research makes contributions to the social-ecological framework by incorporating individual (self-esteem), social (peer relationships), and contextual (cyberbullying perpetration) sets of variables to explain adolescent life satisfaction. The partial mediation model corresponds to the social protection approach advocated by Foody et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), which tests the idea that online aggression has damaging effects. The results are also applicable in resilience studies, as they indicate that although good relations with peers promote well-being, they can be effective only when they are free of damaging behaviors (Hinduja \u0026amp; Patchin, 2017). This study contributes to the need to consider cyberbullying perpetration as a moderator, as it provides a rationale for using theoretical models to explain the digital-era stressors that overlap with established patterns of the social route.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings are of great importance to intervention and prevention strategies. Regarding self-esteem, interventions should focus on enhancing life satisfaction by implementing programs that encourage individuals to engage in self-reflection, set goals, and develop a positive self-identity (Szcześniak et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). It is possible that the quality of relationships can be enhanced through peer support programs, including friendships and mediation stimulation, which can enhance their mediating role in well-being (Flaspohler et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Nevertheless, online aggression is mitigated by the perpetration of cyberbullying, which is the reason why specific attempts are made to minimize it. To reduce cases of cyberbullying, Foody et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) recommend that schools implement digital literacy programs to educate adolescents on the effects of cyberbullying and instill in them the importance of responsible online conduct (2019). Moreover, prosocial behavior (an intervention that focuses on the characteristics of a bystander) and anti-bullying programs, such as KiVa, may be scaled to address cyberbullying (Salmivalli \u0026amp; Poskiparta, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Considering collectivist values, including creating an influence of group responsibility to prevent cyberbullying, is one of the options that must be provided regarding the cultural context of Korean adolescents. Covariate parental involvement poses a slight indication that the multi-level interventions (used in this study) proposed by Foody et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) may consider strategies that focus on the family. Policymakers should be more concerned about incorporating psychosocial aspects of relationships, such as the quality of friendship, into national standards against bullying, and programs should reflect both the problems of traditional and online aggression.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations and Future Directions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere are a few limitations associated with this study that must be taken into consideration. To start with, the KCYPS data is of a cross-sectional design, which does not allow making any causal inferences, as it is addressed in the critique of comparable research by Foody et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Longitudinal studies should be done to be able to comprehend the temporal issue of self-esteem, relationships with peers, cyberbullying, and life satisfaction. Second, the use of self-report measures may present such a risk as social desirability bias, especially in the case of socially sensitive behaviors such as cyberbullying perpetration. Validity might be improved using multi-informant information, e.g. peer or teacher report (Foody et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Third, the study examined cyberbullying perpetration only, but not victimization, which Foody et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) reported as an important predictor of psychological outcomes. A comparative study of the two roles should be carried out in future studies to give an overview of the effects of cyberbullying. Moreover, the choice of measures to rely on is not of high reliability in the study by Foody et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), e.g., the friendship quality scale, which warns against the interpretation of results regarding the field of social relationships. Although we adopted scales that had been validated in our study, future directions ought to consider scales that have high internal consistency. Generalizability can be reduced due to the culture-specificity of the Korean sample, because, as Foody et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) observed, cyberbullying prevalence is not the same in different contexts. Cross-cultural research would be able to examine how true these pathways are in other environments. Lastly, examining the use of online versus offline friendships as proposed by Foody et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) would help to explain their differentiating purposes in minimizing the impacts of cyberbullying cases especially as the use of digital social networks continues to rise.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":" \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConsent for Publication:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcknowledgementsNot ApplicableAuthor ContributionsChanhoon Park: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation, Writing - Original Draft, Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing.Hillary Mukula: Conceptualization, formal analysis, writing- Review \u0026amp; Editing.Morris Ndeezi: Conceptualization, Analysis, Writing- Review and EditingEmmanuel Adarkwa: \u0026nbsp;Analysis, Writing - Review \u0026amp; EditingAll authors critically revised the manuscript, approved the final manuscript as submitted, and agreed to be accountable for all aspects of the work.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data underlying the results presented in the study are available from https://www.nypi.re.kr/archive/board?menuId=MENU00252.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAfriat, M., De France, K., Stack, D. 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The moderating effect of fandom activity on the relationship between cyber delinquency and real-life delinquency among adolescents. \u003cem\u003eKorean Journal of Social Welfare Education\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e60\u003c/em\u003e, 141\u0026ndash;170.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-bullying-prevention","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ijbp","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Bullying Prevention](https://rd.springer.com/journal/42380)","snPcode":"42380","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/42380/3","title":"International Journal of Bullying Prevention","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"self-esteem, peer relationships, cyberbullying perpetration, life satisfaction, adolescents","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8759607/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8759607/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eKorean adolescents report some of the lowest levels of life satisfaction among developed countries. Cyberbullying has emerged as a critical threat to their well-being. This study examined the association between self-esteem and life satisfaction among Korean adolescents, the mediating role of peer relationship quality in this relationship, and the moderating role of cyberbullying perpetration on the mediated effect. Using a nationally representative sample of 2,311 eighth-grade students from the Korean Children and Youth Panel Survey, participants completed validated measures of self-esteem, peer relationship quality, life satisfaction, and cyberbullying perpetration. Results indicated that higher self-esteem was associated with greater life satisfaction, and this relationship was partially mediated by positive peer relationships. However, the indirect effect of self-esteem on life satisfaction through peer relationships was moderated by cyberbullying perpetration. Specifically, as adolescents\u0026rsquo; involvement in cyberbullying increased, the positive influence of peer relationships on life satisfaction weakened and became nonsignificant at high levels of cyberbullying. These findings highlight that while self-esteem and supportive peer relationships serve as protective factors for adolescent well-being, engagement in cyberbullying behaviors erodes these benefits. The study extends the social-ecological understanding of adolescent development by illustrating how digital behaviors disrupt the positive social pathways linking self-esteem and life satisfaction. Future longitudinal research should explore the temporal mechanisms underlying these relationships and inform culturally responsive prevention programs targeting self-esteem enhancement, peer support, and cyberbullying reduction among youth in collectivist contexts.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"When Cyberbullying Undermines Friendship: A Moderated Mediation Analysis of Self-Esteem and Life Satisfaction in Korean Adolescents","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-02-19 11:34:22","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8759607/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-29T13:06:41+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-27T03:27:19+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"71024808820033753345344014140621287987","date":"2026-02-14T10:03:09+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"50117698560131227145556379426088133178","date":"2026-02-12T16:24:52+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-02-12T09:53:05+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-02-06T11:29:32+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-02-06T11:22:21+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"International Journal of Bullying Prevention","date":"2026-02-02T02:15:39+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-bullying-prevention","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ijbp","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Bullying Prevention](https://rd.springer.com/journal/42380)","snPcode":"42380","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/42380/3","title":"International Journal of Bullying Prevention","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"99fcfbd3-a778-474d-921c-9d3698c59c9f","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 19th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-19T11:34:22+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-02-19 11:34:22","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8759607","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8759607","identity":"rs-8759607","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}