Correlation between Historical Land Modification and Liquefaction-induced Ground Deformation during the 2024 Noto Peninsula Earthquake in Uchinada Town, Japan

Correlation between Historical Land Modification and Liquefaction-induced Ground Deformation during the 2024 Noto Peninsula Earthquake in Uchinada Town, Japan | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Case Report Correlation between Historical Land Modification and Liquefaction-induced Ground Deformation during the 2024 Noto Peninsula Earthquake in Uchinada Town, Japan Masataka Shiga, Takashi Kiyota, Takaaki Ikeda This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9516105/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background: The 2024 Noto Peninsula Earthquake (Mw 7.5) triggered liquefaction in 2,114 grid cells (250 m mesh) across four prefectures and lateral flow along the southwestern margin of the Uchinada Sand Dunes, Ishikawa Prefecture, Japan, approximately 100 km from the epicenter. Despite the moderate seismic intensity of JMA 5-lower, ground deformation occurred in residential areas built on filled ground derived from sand dune excavation during the Kahokugata Reclamation Project (1963–1975) and earlier filling works. This study investigates the spatial correlation between historical land modification and earthquake-induced ground deformation by combining multi-temporal digital surface models (DSMs) generated from historical aerial photographs via Structure from Motion–Multi-View Stereo (SfM-MVS), airborne laser survey data, and field investigations including surface wave exploration and particle size analysis. Results: DSMs were generated from aerial photographs spanning five periods (1947, 1962, 1975, 2012, and 2024), and differentiated models revealed that excavation and filling had been conducted over areas spanning several hundred meters along Prefectural Route 8, not only during the Kahokugata Reclamation Project (1963–1975) but also in the preceding (1947–1962) and following (1975–2012) intervals. Comparison of the identified excavation–filling boundaries with post-earthquake airborne laser survey data showed that ground subsidence generally initiated at or near the boundary between excavated and intact areas, and uplift occurred at the toe of the deformed slope. Field surveys confirmed lateral flow distances of 40–140 m across four districts, with the longest flow distance observed in Nishi-Araya, where excavation and backfilling had been performed. Surface wave exploration along cross-sections showed that low shear wave velocity zones (Vs ≈ 100–130 m/s) at depths of approximately 3 m corresponded spatially to historically modified areas, consistent with poorly compacted fill identified in prior geotechnical investigations. Conclusions: The multi-temporal SfM-MVS analysis revealed that excavation and filling along the southwestern margin of the Uchinada Sand Dunes occurred not only during the Kahokugata Reclamation Project (1963–1975) but also before (1947–1962) and after it (1975–2012); these pre- and post-project modifications had not been captured in existing construction records. The spatial distribution of co-seismic ground deformation closely corresponded to these historically modified areas: in four of five cross-sections, subsidence initiated at or near the boundary between excavated and intact ground and uplift occurred at the toe of the deformed slope, typically terminating at PR8 or the adjacent unmodified lanes. The SfM-MVS-based retrospective topographical analysis thus provides a practical tool for identifying zones susceptible to liquefaction-induced lateral flow, particularly where land modification records are incomplete or spread across multiple periods that are not documented as a single project. 2024 Noto Peninsula Earthquake liquefaction lateral flow SfM-MVS digital surface model topographical changes reclamation Uchinada Full Text Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviews received at journal 16 May, 2026 Reviews received at journal 09 May, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 09 May, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 09 May, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 08 May, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 07 May, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 07 May, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 27 Apr, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 27 Apr, 2026 First submitted to journal 24 Apr, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9516105","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Case Report","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":637519880,"identity":"51a256b9-7bb3-4d86-9f28-c6f14643152f","order_by":0,"name":"Masataka Shiga","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"Nagaoka University of Technology","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Masataka","middleName":"","lastName":"Shiga","suffix":""},{"id":637519882,"identity":"3f1fc887-1007-41aa-b337-77b0b0270c8c","order_by":1,"name":"Takashi Kiyota","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"The University of Tokyo","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Takashi","middleName":"","lastName":"Kiyota","suffix":""},{"id":637519883,"identity":"5c121792-502e-4eef-b1fa-2b9940319433","order_by":2,"name":"Takaaki Ikeda","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nagaoka University of Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Takaaki","middleName":"","lastName":"Ikeda","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-04-24 10:39:29","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9516105/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9516105/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":109308895,"identity":"6f620c64-c88e-4def-8f5a-83ae5877dd79","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-15 10:50:09","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":14133808,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"GE.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9516105/v1_covered_4d5377a4-a48d-441a-84b4-7c7a11e59e28.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Correlation between Historical Land Modification and Liquefaction-induced Ground Deformation during the 2024 Noto Peninsula Earthquake in Uchinada Town, Japan","fulltext":[],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":true,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":true,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"geoenvironmental-disasters","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"gedi","sideBox":"Learn more about [Geoenvironmental Disasters](http://geoenvironmental-disasters.springeropen.com)","snPcode":"40677","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/40677/3","title":"Geoenvironmental Disasters","twitterHandle":"@SpringerOpen","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"2024 Noto Peninsula Earthquake, liquefaction, lateral flow, SfM-MVS, digital surface model, topographical changes, reclamation, Uchinada","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9516105/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9516105/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eBackground: The 2024 Noto Peninsula Earthquake (Mw 7.5) triggered liquefaction in 2,114 grid cells (250 m mesh) across four prefectures and lateral flow along the southwestern margin of the Uchinada Sand Dunes, Ishikawa Prefecture, Japan, approximately 100 km from the epicenter. Despite the moderate seismic intensity of JMA 5-lower, ground deformation occurred in residential areas built on filled ground derived from sand dune excavation during the Kahokugata Reclamation Project (1963–1975) and earlier filling works. This study investigates the spatial correlation between historical land modification and earthquake-induced ground deformation by combining multi-temporal digital surface models (DSMs) generated from historical aerial photographs via Structure from Motion–Multi-View Stereo (SfM-MVS), airborne laser survey data, and field investigations including surface wave exploration and particle size analysis.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResults: DSMs were generated from aerial photographs spanning five periods (1947, 1962, 1975, 2012, and 2024), and differentiated models revealed that excavation and filling had been conducted over areas spanning several hundred meters along Prefectural Route 8, not only during the Kahokugata Reclamation Project (1963–1975) but also in the preceding (1947–1962) and following (1975–2012) intervals. Comparison of the identified excavation–filling boundaries with post-earthquake airborne laser survey data showed that ground subsidence generally initiated at or near the boundary between excavated and intact areas, and uplift occurred at the toe of the deformed slope. Field surveys confirmed lateral flow distances of 40–140 m across four districts, with the longest flow distance observed in Nishi-Araya, where excavation and backfilling had been performed. Surface wave exploration along cross-sections showed that low shear wave velocity zones (Vs ≈ 100–130 m/s) at depths of approximately 3 m corresponded spatially to historically modified areas, consistent with poorly compacted fill identified in prior geotechnical investigations.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConclusions: The multi-temporal SfM-MVS analysis revealed that excavation and filling along the southwestern margin of the Uchinada Sand Dunes occurred not only during the Kahokugata Reclamation Project (1963–1975) but also before (1947–1962) and after it (1975–2012); these pre- and post-project modifications had not been captured in existing construction records. The spatial distribution of co-seismic ground deformation closely corresponded to these historically modified areas: in four of five cross-sections, subsidence initiated at or near the boundary between excavated and intact ground and uplift occurred at the toe of the deformed slope, typically terminating at PR8 or the adjacent unmodified lanes. The SfM-MVS-based retrospective topographical analysis thus provides a practical tool for identifying zones susceptible to liquefaction-induced lateral flow, particularly where land modification records are incomplete or spread across multiple periods that are not documented as a single project.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Correlation between Historical Land Modification and Liquefaction-induced Ground Deformation during the 2024 Noto Peninsula Earthquake in Uchinada Town, Japan","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-05-15 10:49:55","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9516105/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-16T15:46:07+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-10T00:34:40+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"98127985558677034341517840235447381097","date":"2026-05-09T10:30:57+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"309828105208004605253329353890510845233","date":"2026-05-09T08:03:18+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"266998426023519520070707843022627377875","date":"2026-05-09T00:47:17+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"314118963159339427541261816348111138919","date":"2026-05-07T09:31:55+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-05-07T08:55:47+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-04-28T00:27:41+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-04-27T12:13:45+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Geoenvironmental Disasters","date":"2026-04-24T10:33:52+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"geoenvironmental-disasters","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"gedi","sideBox":"Learn more about [Geoenvironmental Disasters](http://geoenvironmental-disasters.springeropen.com)","snPcode":"40677","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/40677/3","title":"Geoenvironmental Disasters","twitterHandle":"@SpringerOpen","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b241774f-2877-4493-bae6-cb77190f4601","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 15th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-16T15:46:07+00:00","index":17,"fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-10T00:34:40+00:00","index":16,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"98127985558677034341517840235447381097","date":"2026-05-09T10:30:57+00:00","index":15,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"309828105208004605253329353890510845233","date":"2026-05-09T08:03:18+00:00","index":14,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"266998426023519520070707843022627377875","date":"2026-05-09T00:47:17+00:00","index":13,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"314118963159339427541261816348111138919","date":"2026-05-07T09:31:55+00:00","index":12,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"8","date":"2026-05-07T08:55:47+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-15T10:49:55+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-05-15 10:49:55","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9516105","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9516105","identity":"rs-9516105","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}