Assessing the Ecological and Socio-economic Sustainability of Frankincense Harvesting Practices in Northwest Ethiopia

Assessing the Ecological and Socio-economic Sustainability of Frankincense Harvesting Practices in Northwest Ethiopia | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Assessing the Ecological and Socio-economic Sustainability of Frankincense Harvesting Practices in Northwest Ethiopia Adamsew Marelign Melese, Euridice Leyequien Abarca, Ghislaine Bongers, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7639823/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 11 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The ecological and financial effects of tapping methods are the main emphasis of this study, which examines the sustainability of frankincense production from Boswellia papyrifera in Ethiopia's Metema District. The region's resin resources, especially those derived from Boswellia, are essential for local livelihoods because Ethiopia's dry woods span 55 million hectares. However, Boswellia populations have significantly declined as a result of unsustainable tapping practices, endangering their ecological viability. Plots measuring 400 m2 were placed in a transect line for the forest inventory. Eighty respondents were chosen using the stratified random sampling technique. The chi-squared test and the independent samples t-test were applied. The demographic structure showed a limited ability for regeneration, as the study reveals. In the Boswelliya forest, the tree densities harvested by private companies and cooperatives were, respectively, 126.57 and 146.6 stems/ha. Data show concerning patterns of over-tapping, with private sector trees frequently undergoing excessive incisions and improper tapping heights, which raises mortality rates. While 53.8% of cooperative members receive formal training, just 42.9% of private sector employees do, indicating a serious knowledge gap among harvesters about sustainable practices, according to the report. Knowledge gaps, cultural resistance, and financial limitations are some of the obstacles to implementing sustainable practices. Cooperatives are essential for training and resource provision, but the commercial sector's emphasis on short-term gains makes sustainability issues worse. In order to guarantee the long-term survival of Boswellia papyrifera, the study emphasizes the critical necessity for focused conservation initiatives and the application of sustainable harvesting practices. Boswellia papirifera Barriers Frankincense Metema Sustainability and Tapping Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 1. Introduction Millions of poor households in Africa rely on dry woods as a critical supply of resources for their economic development and way of life. The Acacia, Boswellia, and Commiphora tree species, which are major source of gums and resins, are especially abundant in these forest habitats. With an astonishing area of 55 million hectares, dry forests and woodlands make up the majority of Ethiopia's forest cover [ 1 ]. These dry forest resources have the potential to support a variety of additional economic activities in addition to offering a steady supply of revenue and subsistence goods if they are managed carefully. Ethiopia's gum and resin resources, which are mostly found in the Tigray and Amhara Region, span an estimated 2.9 million hectares [ 2 ]. Many native plants and bushes that can yield commercially valuable goods like gum arabic, frankincense, and myrrh can be found in these areas [ 3 ]. According to Mokria et al. [ 4 ], one specific species, Boswellia papyrifera, is regarded as a significant dryland tree that grows in harsh conditions and creates jobs for nearby communities. This species plays a significant role in the region's gum and resin supplies. Boswellia papyrifera is a dryland tree that produces frankincense and grows in 34 districts of the Amhara region [ 5 ]. This tree is particularly abundant in the Metema District. B. papyrifera is considered highly suitable for future restoration and reforestation initiatives in semi-arid and arid areas facing moisture shortages [ 6 ] The resin of Boswellia papyrifera is valued for its industrial, traditional medicinal, cultural, and religious uses, contributing to the production of frankincense [ 2 , 5 ]. Consequently, there is a strong demand for frankincense both locally and globally. In Amhara region and particularly in Metema District, frankincense is collected from Boswellia papyrifera within state owned forests/woodlands. Cooperatives and private enterprises are legally licensed to harvest frankincense from those state owned forests. For rural households in North West Ethiopia, frankincense made from Boswellia papyrifera is a crucial source of income [ 7 , 8 ]. In certain regions, growing frankincense is a more profitable endeavor than cultivating crops [ 9 ]. In North Ethiopia, frankincense is harvested from B. papyrifera trees by making incisions in the bark, which causes wounds that allow resin to flow out. This traditional tapping method involves using an axe to create multiple incisions along the tree's trunk. According to Tadesse et al. [ 10 ], tapping occurs eight to twelve times during the approximately eight-month dry season. Each incision measures around 2.5 cm² in area and is 1 mm deep [ 10 ]. Each time resin is collected, the wound is reopened and enlarged. The number of tapping spots on a tree varies with its size, with trees previously tapped at six to twelve locations [ 11 ]. Currently, due to high demand for frankincense, up to 27 tapping spots may be created [ 11 ]. However, research indicates that after nine tapping spots, the amount of frankincense produced per tree tends to decline [ 12 ]. Overall, the use of unsustainable tapping practices has significantly contributed to the decrease in the population of B. papyrifera in Ethiopia. Despite its ecological and economic importance [ 3 , 13 – 20 ], the population of B. papyrifera declined at alarming rate as a result of expansion of agriculture, overgrazing, fire, over-tapping and improper tapping practices, and insect infection [ 3 , 16 ]. Therefore, the frankincense production system in North West Ethiopia, particularly in the Metema District, is encountering significant challenges [ 21 ]. The primary issue is the widespread practice of unsustainable tapping of Boswellia trees. Such methods have placed Boswellia papyrifera at serious risk, leading to premature death of the trees [ 22 ]. Tapping is often carried out using tools like axes, which can injure the cambium and create wounds. Reports indicate that over-tapping shortens a tree's lifespan and adversely affects its natural regeneration and reproductive capacity [ 12 ]. Trees that are over-tapped produce fewer flowers, fruits, and seeds, while seed germination success is also diminished [ 12 , 15 ]. In the Metema District, Boswellia trees are tapped annually during the dry season, resulting in the death of many trees and a decline in seedling germination. The unsustainable tapping practices have led to a concerning increase in the mortality rate of these trees in Metema District, rendering Boswellia papyrifera an endangered species [ 23 – 25 ]. 2. Methods 2.1 Description of Study Area 2.1.1 Location Ethiopia is located in the Eastern Horn of Africa, roughly between 33 and 48 degrees east and 3.4 and 15 degrees north [ 26 ]. The investigation's study area is Metema District. Metema District is located about 900 kilometers northwest of Addis Ababa and 180 kilometers west of Gondar City (Fig. 1 ). In Metema District, an international border spanning over 60 kilometers divides Ethiopia from Sudan. It is located north of Quarra and Alefa, west of Chilga, south of the Tach Armachoho Districts, and east of the Sudanese border. It is one of the six districts that make up the West Gondar Zone. The district’s total population is 91,216 [ 27 ]. 2.1.2 Climate and Biophysical environment Based on local station data sourced from Ethiopian Meteorological institute accessed from https://www.ethiomet.gov.et/data-request/ [ 28 ], Metema's average annual temperature is 28 degrees Celsius the hottest month is May and the coldest is August. The district receives 850–1100 mm of precipitation annually on average (Fig. 2 ). The rainy months are from June until the end of September. [ 28 ] Its elevation ranges from 550 to 1608 meters above sea level. The months with the highest daily temperatures, which can reach 43°C, are March through May (Fig. 2 ). Nearly majority of the land is in the lowlands, with the exception of a few mountains. 2.1.3 Land use and Socio-economic Mixed farming (crop and livestock production) is the dominant socio-economic activity in the study area. The primary livelihoods of the local population include intensive agriculture, particularly the cultivation of cash crops such as cotton and sesame, along with livestock production, which provides additional income and food security. The natural vegetation consists mainly of Comberitum-Terminalia woodlands and grasslands, supporting diverse ecosystems. A notable resource in the area is the resin-bearing species Boswellia papyrifera, which has been commercially harvested since the 1980s. This resin production has become an important economic activity, contributing to local livelihoods and promoting sustainable use of natural resources. 2.2 Techniques of Data Collection For this study, a mixed qualitative and quantitative research approach was adopted. Sources of primary and secondary data were taken into account. To produce the research result, data gathered via primary data collection instruments such as forest inventory, semi-structured questionnaires, and interview checklists were appropriately subjected to qualitative and quantitative data analysis. 2.2.1 Vegetation Inventory A rapid vegetation assessment survey was conducted in two Boswellia stands in Tach Lemlem Terara, Metema District, to evaluate the status of the resource base and the intensity of current frankincense harvesting [ 29 , 30 ]. The survey focused on two distinct forest types: cooperative forests, where frankincense is harvested by cooperatives, and private enterprise forests, where harvesting is conducted by private entities. A total of 22 sample plots, each measuring 20 x 20 meters, were established at regular intervals along parallel transects. The first sample plot was randomly selected, while the remaining plots were systematically positioned at predetermined intervals to ensure comprehensive coverage of the surveyed areas. Specifically, 11 sample plots were allocated to each group (cooperative and private forests), distributed along two parallel transects with intervals of 500 meters and 300 meters between the sample plots [ 30 , 31 ]. Diameters of all trees with greater than 5 cm DBH and height of selected trees from all diameter classes in the sample plots were measured [ 29 ]. Based on visual observation (measurement also taken when possible), tapping intensity (number of tapping spots, tapped tree size, tree damage and number of dead Boswellia trees were recorded from each sample plot [ 29 ]. 2.2.2 Household Survey A total of 80 (40 cooperative members and 40 private company employees) respondents were participated in filling the questionnaire. To choose frankincense harvesters for the survey, stratified random sampling was employed. After classifying the respondents into the private and cooperative sectors, a random sampling technique was used to choose participants from each stratum. Sample respondents were asked to complete a semi-structured questionnaire to provide data. Both open-ended and closed-ended questions are included in the questionnaire. The questionnaire consists of knowledge of Frankincense harvesters about sustainable tapping practices, overview of current tapping practice and stakeholders of the frankincense value chain. Error! Reference source not found. Then the questionnaire was prepared in English and will be translated into Amharic (local language). 2.2.3 Interview Key informants were interviewed over the phone and in person. Purposive sampling techniques were used in the selection of the key informants. Seven vital informants were chosen for the interview. ARARI (Amhara Region Agricultural Research Institute), EFRI (Ethiopian Forestry Research Institute), and SUNARMA (Sustainable Natural resource Management Association), Metema District Agricultural and Cooperative Promotion Offices, the Lemlem Terara and Agam-wuha Cooperative Leaders, were the sources from which these key informants were chosen. 2.4 Data Analysis Missing data were appropriately filled and coded and subjected to R-studio (V. 4.4.1) for analysis. The collected data were subsequently analyzed using descriptive statistics, including mean, standard deviation, frequency, and percentage distribution. Independent samples t-test was used to test the ratio variables between tappers groups (cooperative and private) such as, density of tree, tapping spots per tree, number of tree damage and deaths and. Moreover, Chi-square test was used to test the association between type of tapper and nominal variables like knowledge of tappers, training received, providing rest for tree from tapping and so on. Thematic coding was used to analyses the qualitative data. 3. Results 3.1 Characteristics of Respondent The demographic of cooperative members appears to be primarily male, with 84.6% being men and 15.4% being women. On the other hand, the private sector is completely male, with no female representation and 100% of respondents identifying as male. When both categories are combined, the overall gender distribution reveals that 90% of respondents are men and 10% are women. According to a statistically significant t-value of 3.45 and a p-value of 0.001, the mean age of cooperative members is 44.31 ± 9.25 years, whereas that of private sector individuals is 35.0 ± 5.41 years. Furthermore, a t-value of 3.39 and a p-value of 0.002 support the greater average family size of 6.00 ± 1.83 for cooperative members compared to 4.00 ± 1.66 for private sector members. Additionally, with a very significant t-value of 5.65 and a p-value of 0.0001, cooperative members have more experience harvesting frankincense, averaging 7.08 ± 2.06 years as opposed to 3.57 ± 1.45 years for private sector persons (Table 1 ). These results reveal significant demographic and experiential differences between the two groups, indicating that cooperative members are typically older, have larger families, and have more harvesting experience. Table 1 Respondent’s characteristics Household characteristics Categories Mean Std. Deviation T-value P-value Age cooperative member 44.31 9.25 3.45 0.001 private sector 35.00 5.41 Family size cooperative member 6.00 1.83 3.39 0.002 private sector 4.00 1.66 Frankincense harvesting experience cooperative member 7.08 2.06 5.65 0.0001 private sector 3.57 1.45 3.2 Population status and Density of Boswellia papyrifera 3.2.1 Population status Due to a lack of recruitment through regeneration, the bell-shaped structure discovered in the surveyed stands in the research region for both forests (Fig. 4 ) suggests that the Boswellia population in Metema is unstable and in danger. Because of overexploitation and habitat degradation, Boswellia papyrifera, also referred to as the frankincense tree, is having a difficult time naturally regenerating. According to studies, the number of mature trees, which are necessary for the generation of seeds [ 23 ] has decreased as a result of unsustainable harvesting methods motivated by the strong demand for frankincense resin in numerous businesses. Additionally, the situation is made worse by environmental variables like deforestation and climate change, which upset the ecological balance required for the species' regeneration [ 32 ]. Research highlights that limited seed dispersal and germination rates further hinder the establishment of new saplings, leading to a concerning trend of population decline [ 12 ]. For instance, a study in Eritrea found that regeneration was only successful in areas where trees were not tapped and were protected from livestock grazing, underscoring the impact of human activities on the species' survival [ 33 ]. Conservation efforts are urgently needed to address these issues, focusing on sustainable harvesting techniques and habitat restoration to ensure the long-term viability of Boswellia papyrifera in its native ecosystems [ 34 ]. Overall, the data suggests that both cooperative and private enterprises have a similar structural composition in terms of DBH distribution, with a pronounced peak in the mid-size range. The decline in numbers for larger DBH classes raises questions about sustainability and management practices, which could be further explored to ensure the long-term viability of Boswellia papyrifera populations in the Metema District. 3.1.2 Density In the cooperatively harvested forest, the average density of B. papyrifera trees was 146.6 stems/ha. However, the B. papyrifera tree density in the next forest that is harvested by private companies is 126.57 stems/ha, indicating a statistically significant mean difference between the two forest stands (t = 2.81, p = 0.010). The mean density of forests harvested by private and cooperative firms, when all tree species in the forest stand are taken into account, is 292.4 stems/ha and 309.8 stems/ha, respectively. Thus, the percentage of B. papyrifera in the forest/woodland is 47.3% for forests harvested by commercial companies and 43.3% for forests harvested by cooperatives (Fig. 5 ). 3.3 Tapping Practice and Its effect A thorough examination of several factors pertaining to tree tapping methods in two forest stands (Frankincense Forest harvested by cooperative and commercial firms) is shown in Table 2 . The number of little tapped trees (DBH < 15 cm) per hectare is one of the important indicators that are looked at. With a standard deviation of 9.23 and a mean density of 52.61 trees/ha in the Cooperative category, the prevalence of small tapped trees is comparatively constant throughout the plots. The Private group, on the other hand, has a higher standard deviation of 14.81 and a higher mean of 68.86 trees/ha. Table 2 Parameters assessed in tapping practice investigation Parameters categories mean SD t sig number of small trees tapped (DBH < 15cm) cooperative 52.61 9.23 -3.08 0.006 private 68.86 14.81 Tapping started near the ground (< 1m) cooperative 7.29 0.92 -11.24 0.0001 private 17.81 2.96 Damage to tree/cambium cooperative 4.45 3.91 -1.157 0.0001 private 6.55 4.55 Number of dead trees cooperative 5.9 3.2 1.23 0.020 private 8.6 3.7 the improper tapping start height, which is essential for preserving the health of trees. With a mean of 7.29 ± 0.92 trees/ha, the Cooperative category indicates that the majority of plots closely follow advised tapping height guidelines. The Private group, on the other hand, has a much higher mean of 17.81 ± 2.96 trees/ha. This suggests that private plots are more likely to have improper tapping heights, which could put additional stress on the trees and compromise their long-term health. An assessment of the cambium damage to trees provides important information on the condition of the trees in both groups. The average damage rate for the Cooperative category is 4.45 trees/ha, indicating significant variation in the degree of cambium damage between plots. However, with a higher mean of 6.55 trees/ha, the Private group shows a wider range of effects on tree health and a higher occurrence of cambium damage. All things considered, our results underline the significance of good management techniques in both areas and the necessity of focused interventions to enhance tree health and maximize tapping methods. Table 3 Tapping spots counted during forest inventory Tapping spots per tree Categories χ² sig cooperative forest (% of tapped tree) private forest (% of tapped tree) < 6 spots 38.5 6.4 10.96 0.004 6–12 spots 36.0 28.6 Above 12 spots 25.1 65 Total 100.0 100.0 Furthermore, the average number of dead trees from the Boswellia forest collected by the cooperatives was 5.9 ± 3.2, whereas the private equivalents had an average of 8.6 ± 3.7. Therefore, there appears to be a significant difference between the two groups' numbers of dead trees (t = 1.23, p = 0.020). The heavy tapping procedure is one of the reasons B. papyrifera dies. Table 3 illustrates a significant variation in the number of tapping places per tree between the private and cooperative sectors (χ² = 10.96 and p = 0.004). Compared to just 6.4% in the private sector, 38.5% of trees in the cooperative sector were tapped in the category of fewer than six sites. The private sector had 28.6% and the cooperative sector had 36.0% of the 6–12 slot category. In the category of the forest harvested by cooperatives, it is noteworthy that 25.1% of tapped trees had more than 12 spots, while the private sector had a far larger percentage of excessively close tapping places (65%) (Fig. 6 ). These findings imply that there are significant differences in tapping practices between the two sectors. Table 4 Tappers response on their tapping practices Questions Categories total χ² sig cooperative private What size of Boswellia trees do you typically tap? Any trees size 69.2 100.0 80.0 5.38 0.02 large trees 30.8 0.0 20.0 Do you allow trees to rest from tapping? no 77.0 86.0 81.5 14.42 0.01 yes 63.0 14.0 18.5 Haw many tapping rounds do you perform per tapping spot? < 4 50.0 35.0 42.7 11.6 0.03 4–6 35.0 25.0 30.0 6–8 15.0 40.0 27.7 According to Table 4 most respondents (69.2%) from cooperative members report they tap both large and small trees, while all private sector respondents (100%) indicate that they tap any tree sizes. In contrast, 30.8% of cooperative members exclusively tap large trees (DBH > 20cm), whereas none from the private sector do. In total, 80% of respondents across both groups tap both large and small trees while, 20% of respondents tap large trees. Moreover, Chi-square test results indicate that the size of frankincense tree tapped is significantly influenced by tappers membership category (χ² = 5.38, p = 0.020). Moreover, a majority of respondents (77% of cooperative members and 86% of private sector tappers) do not allow trees to rest, indicating a more intensive and unsustainable tapping approach (Table 4 ). Only 23% and 14% of cooperative members and private sector tappers permit resting respectively. Chi-square test was significant (χ² = 14.4, p = 0.001). Moreover, cooperative members have a mean resting period of 1.54 years. In contrast, private sector participants allow only about 0.54 years, for resting, suggesting a focus on maximizing immediate production with less concern for tree health. For tapping rounds per spot, as presented in Table 4 , for the category of less than four tapping rounds, was 50% and 35% for cooperative and private sector tappers, indicating a statistically significant difference in tapping practices between the two sectors. In contrast, the category for four to six rounds included 35% with a chi-squared value of 25%, but no significance value was provided, making it difficult to draw conclusions about this range. Similarly, 15% and 40% of cooperative and private tappers did from six to eight rounds of tapping per tapping spot. Moreover, on average cooperative members and private were performed 5 and 7 tapping rounds per tapping spot per tapping season respectively. The increased the number of tapping round, the increased widening of tapping spot and intern increase the wound recovery time. The average height at which responders tap large Frankincense trees is shown in Fig. 7 . Twenty-three percent of cooperative members tap at a height of 0.5 meters, compared to 18.6% of private sector workers, making up a total of 25%. Thirty-eight percent of cooperative members report tapping at one meter, compared to just ten percent from the private sector, for a total of twenty percent. Interestingly, 7.7% of cooperative members tap at a distance of 1.5 meters while, 66.4% of workers in the private sector and 38.5% of cooperative members say they tap at any height. Furthermore, half of the respondents in both categories said they tap Boswellia trees at any height. Figure 9 , illustrate the tapping methods utilized by cooperative members and private sector employees in tree tapping. In the cooperative group, 61.5% of them use a locally made material called Mingaf. Mingaf is a tapping tool made from iron and wood which has a width of 2cm and a depth of1-1.25 mm (Fig. 8 ), while 23.1% and 15.4% use knife and axe respectively. Conversely, in the private sector, 57.1% use Mingaf , while 28.6% and 14.3% of them use axe and sharp knife respectively. Generally above half of respondents from the two groups use Mingaf as a tapping tool. 3.4 Perceived Knowledge of Harvesters About Sustainable Tapping Practices Figure 10 compares how individuals from cooperative members and private sector employees learned about frankincense harvesting, highlighting differences in educational backgrounds. A significant reliance on organized education is seen among cooperative members, as 38.5% learned through family tradition and 53.8% underwent official instruction. In contrast, 42.9% of private sector workers had formal training, while just 25% mentioned family tradition. Interestingly, 57.1% of respondents in the private sector claimed to be self-taught, indicating that this group places more value on independent initiative and hands-on learning. The findings of the chi-square test show that a person's membership category has a substantial impact on how they learned about frankincense harvesting (χ² = 12.77, p = 0.002). In particular, those in the private sector are more likely to be self-taught, whereas cooperative members are more likely to rely on formal training and family customs. This contrast draws attention to the disparities in the two groups' educational and cultural backgrounds. Table 5 Knowledge of respondents about sustainable tapping questions Parameters Categories Total sig cooperative member private sector Which part of the tree contains the highest amount of resin secretory canals inner bark 38.5 28.6 35.0 3.46 0.35 outer bark 7.7 0.0 5.0 wood/stem 7.7 0.0 5.0 I am not sure 46.2 71.4 55.0 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 Have you received any training or guidance on sustainable tapping techniques? No 42.3 78.6 55.0 4.83 0.28 Yes 57.7 21.4 45.0 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 Moreover, 35% identified the inner bark as the primary location for resin production canals, while only 5% identified the outer bark and wood/stem as the highest locations. 55% expressed uncertainty about the location of resin secretory canals, indicating a lack of knowledge or confidence in tree anatomy. Training on sustainable tapping techniques was significantly different between cooperative members and private sector laborers. Private sector laborers received only 21% training, while cooperative members received 42%, with 58% reporting no training. 3.5 Frankincense Production According to Metema District cooperative promotion office [ 36 ], on average each cooperative in Metema District produce 155 Kuntals of ungraded frankincense for the year 2016 Ethiopian Calendar (2022/2023 G.C). Whereas private enterprises production is an average of 180 Kuntals with an out layer of 370 Kuntals produced by certain enterprise, which illustrates more intensive production were found from private enterprises that leads unsustainable tapping practice. 3.6 Barriers for Adopting Sustainable Tapping Practices Table 6 demonstrates results of qualitative analysis on the barriers preventing adoption of sustainable tapping practices in Metema District. The barriers preventing frankincense harvesters from adopting good tapping practices are multifaceted, involving, knowledge gaps, economic constraints cultural resistance, technical challenges, market dynamics, environmental factors, and regulatory issues as repeatedly highlighted by key informants, according to key informants, the most pressing challenges stem from a lack of training and support for harvesters. He emphasized that “the main barriers are limited training for frankincense tree tapping, with totally no technical training available.” This highlights a critical gap in the education of harvesters regarding sustainable practices, which can lead to a reliance on outdated methods that harm the long-term sustainability of Frankincense. Since there is no standardized method for sustainable tapping, many harvesters are unsure of the best techniques, which makes matters more complicated in the lack of clear rules or regulations. Table 6 Barriers preventing adopting sustainable tapping practice Rank Themes Frequency sub-themes 1 Knowledge gaps 7 Insufficient Training Poor extension service Lack of tapping guideline 2 Economic Constraints 5 risk of reduced yield/income Immediate financial needs 3 Technical and Logistical Challenges 3 Limited technical training tapping skill gap 4 Cultural and Traditional Practices 2 Cultural Resistance social norms 5 Policy and Regulation Gaps 2 limited policy on Frankincense Irregular enforcement Absence of tapping guidelines 6 Environmental factors 2 Deterioration of B. papyrifera climate change impact disease and pest management 7 Market Dynamics 1 increased market demand competition between harvesters Economic constraints play a important role in the reluctance to adopt sustainable tapping methods. Moreover, there is a risk of reduced income associated with transitioning to sustainable practices. The problem is severed in private companies because the employees are paid for the amount of resin harvested. The immediate financial needs of many harvesters, especially those working for private companies, may cause them to put short-term profits ahead of long-term sustainability, which is the source of this anxiety. This problem is made worse by the frankincense market's volatility, since harvesters are frequently reluctant to make investments in methods that might initially provide less profits. Many people find it difficult to defend the move to more sustainable practices in the absence of financial incentives or assurances of market demand for items that are gathered responsibly. The difficulties experienced by frankincense harvesters are also influenced by cultural and traditional customs. Strong adherence to generation-old tapping techniques fosters cultural resistance to change. This resistance is often reinforced by social norms that favor conventional practices, making it difficult for new techniques to gain acceptance within communities. As harvesters cling to familiar methods, the potential benefits of sustainable practices remain largely unrecognized and unappreciated, further hindering progress. Another major obstacle is logistical and technical difficulties. Harvesters frequently struggle to acquire and use new tapping methods, which is made worse by a lack of access to the equipment or resources they need. Key informants claim that a lack of technical training creates a skill gap that hinders the successful adoption of sustainable practices. The entire quality and sustainability of frankincense production suffer as a result of this skill gap, which has wider ramifications for the community and cooperatives in addition to individual harvesters. They also underlined that in order to overcome these obstacles, focused technical training programs and the availability of resources, including better tapping tools, are required. The problem is further complicated by the interaction of market dynamics and environmental factors. Furthermore, frankincense tree degradation makes it harder for harvesters to adopt sustainable practices because it increases competition amongst harvesters. Additionally, climate change has an impact on the productivity and health of frankincense trees, which doubles the problem. Due to the ongoing need for large amounts of frankincense, harvesters' competitiveness frequently leads to unsustainable techniques, further taxing the delicate ecosystems that sustain frankincense production. In order to overcome these interconnected obstacles, a holistic strategy is needed, one that acknowledges the financial realities faced by harvesters while also promoting sustainable practices through supportive policy environments and training and resources. 3.7 Frankincense Value chain Stakeholders in facilitating Sustainable tapping practices Cooperatives Cooperatives are vital in Frankincense value chain, there are five cooperatives in Metema engaged in Frankincense value chain. Around 65% [ 27 , 36 ] of the resin from cooperatives is sold to Tewodros union (a union based in Metema), whereas the remaining is sold to private sector. Cooperatives play their role in facilitating sustainable tapping practices through training and peer to peer learning. Cooperatives facilitate and support good tapping practices through information distribution and supply of sustainable tapping tools like Megaf . According to cooperative leader of Tach Lemlem Terara, their cooperative distributes a total of 225 Megaf for their members in the last five years. Private Investors Licensed exporters of Frankincense in Ethiopia. They harvest Frankincense from forest/woodland through their temporary camp in Metema and they also purchase from Tewodros unions or from other smaller private companies. Most private enterprises engage in production (harvesting), aggregation, processing and domestic wholesaling while some of them export to international market. PLCs recruit tappers on the basis of contract paid per the amount of incense/resin collected [27,36. Domestic Consumption and specialized shops In Ethiopia, frankincense plays a vital role in both church services and traditional coffee ceremonies, where it is burned to enhance relaxation and well-being. Each church reportedly consumes around 150 kg of frankincense annually. Beyond its ceremonial uses, frankincense is also employed for pest control, particularly against mosquitoes, as well as in herbal medicine, hygiene products, and sanitizers. Various shops in major cities and towns offer different qualities of frankincense resin. Government Agencies National and regional government agencies like Ministry of Agriculture, Amhara Region Agriculture office, and Amhara Region Environment, Forest and Wildlife office provide supports in protecting the forest through participatory forest management. However, they are not fulfilling their responsibilities. Metema Woreda Agricultural offices Support for sustainable production of Frankincense in Metema District. Working closely with cooperatives by promoting participatory forest management. They facilitate sustainable tapping through delineating Frankincense Forest/woodland for the purpose of resting. NGOs NGOs such as ORDA (Organization for Rehabilitation and Development in Amhara) and SUNARMA (Sustainable Natural resource Management Association) contribute their part in providing certain trainings in sustainable tapping and harvesting techniques and cleaning and grading. ORDA provide training in 2016 for two cooperatives. While SUNARMA provide training of trainers. 4. Discussion 4.1 Population status and density The findings of the research point to a worrying pattern in the Metema region's Boswellia papyrifera population stability. The bell-shaped structure seen in the stands under survey indicates a lack of effective regeneration, underscoring the species' susceptibility as a result of habitat degradation and overexploitation. Mature trees are essential for producing seeds, but their numbers are declining due to unsustainable harvesting methods fueled by the growing demand for frankincense resin [ 23 ]. The difficulties this species faces are made worse by environmental stresses like as deforestation, overgrazing, man-caused forest fires, and climate change, which upset the ecological balance required for its recovery [ 32 ]. Low germination rates and restricted seed dissemination make it challenging to generate new saplings, which is essential for population sustainability [ 12 ]. For example, previous study demonstrated that regeneration was successful only in areas where trees were protected from tapping and livestock grazing, emphasizing the detrimental impact of human activities on the survival of B. papyrifera [ 33 ]. Significant differences in tree density across forests harvested by private and cooperative firms were also found; this implies that cooperative harvesting methods would be better suited to preserving higher B. papyrifera densities. In terms of the distribution of diameter at breast height (DBH), both forest types have a comparable structural composition overall, with mid-size trees showing a noticeable peak. But the drop in larger DBH classes raises questions regarding administration and sustainability. These results highlight the urgent need for conservation efforts, since B. papyrifera accounts for roughly 47.3% and 43.3% of the total tree density in private and cooperative forests, respectively. To guarantee Boswellia papyrifera's long-term survival in its natural habitats, sustainable harvesting methods and habitat restoration plans must be put into place [ 34 ]. 4.2 Tapping practice The examination of tapping methods in the Frankincense Forest shows notable distinctions between private and cooperative businesses that affect the sustainability and health of the trees. The density of tiny tapped trees in the private sector is higher (68.86 trees/ha) than in cooperatives (52.61 trees/ha), which may indicate overexploitation. Additionally, the commercial sector has a higher prevalence of improper tapping heights—an average of 17.81 trees/ha are tapped too close to the ground, whereas cooperatives have an average of 7.29 trees/ha. Together with a larger mean damage to tree cambium (6.55 trees/ha in private vs. 4.45 in cooperative), this practice suggests that trees are under more stress, which may result in long-term health problems. Furthermore, the evaluation of tapping sites per tree reveals significant disparities, with 65% of trees in the private sector having more than 12 tapping spots and 38.5% of trees in the cooperative sector having fewer than six. The necessity for better management techniques is further supported by the statistically significant trend of excessive tapping in the private sector. To improve tree health and guarantee the long-term sustainability of Frankincense resources, targeted actions are necessary, such as educating private businesses on sustainable tapping methods. According to the study, the existing method of tapping Boswellia papyrifera trees for frankincense does not follow sustainable tapping methods. One of the key findings is that membership category has a major impact on the choice of tree size for tapping; cooperative members are more likely to tap both large trees than private sector workers, who often tap trees of any size. However, market demands and the need to optimize returns may be the driving forces for the private sector's uniform approach to tapping trees of all sizes, which reflects a more commercially-oriented strategy. While both groups were unable to achieve the statutory three-year resting period, cooperative members are permitted to rest for longer lengths of time, averaging 1.54 years, as opposed to just 0.54 years for private sector employees. Given that their collective management systems place a strong emphasis on resource sustainability, this disparity implies that cooperative members are more concerned with the health and sustainability of the trees. On the other hand, workers in the private sector seem to put immediate output first, which could eventually cause Boswellia trees to deteriorate, according to earlier research on the effects of intense tapping methods [ 12 ]. Although the two groups' tapping implements were mostly the same, with most using locally produced "Mingaf," the fact that both groups relied on traditional techniques points to the persistence of indigenous knowledge systems in frankincense extraction. The results of earlier research, which emphasize the importance of local knowledge in maintaining harvesting techniques for non-timber forest products, are corroborated by this discovery [ 17 ]. The study's overall practices emphasize how important cooperative management is to encouraging sustainable tapping methods. According to the suggested sustainable tapping techniques, tappers in Metema are using a lot of intensive and non-sustainable tapping methods. The primary factors to be taken into consideration when tapping B. papyrifera include resting from tapping, the size of the tree to be tapped, and the number of tapping locations, according to several academics [ 11 , 21 – 23 , 35 ]. Asfaw et al. [ 35 ] and Chernet et al. [ 22 ] state that trees need to rest for at least two to three years, yet 45 percent of tappers in Metema were unable to give their trees this time. The majority of respondents admitted to regularly taping both big and small trees. In DBH, however, a tree must be at least 20 cm in size in order to be tapped [ 22 ]. While, according to previous studies [ 11 ], the maximum number of tapping spot is nine per individual tree, but this is not applicable among Frankincense tappers of Metema District, 40% of tapped trees were found to be exposed to over 12 tapping spots. 4.3 Knowledge of Harvesters About Sustainable Tapping Practices The data on frankincense harvesters' awareness of sustainable tapping methods shows notable differences between private sector workers and cooperative members. Compared to workers in the private sector, cooperative members exhibit a greater reliance on formal training. The cooperative's focus on sustainable practices, which is consistent with recent research showing that structured training can improve sustainable harvesting methods, may be connected to this reliance on formal education [ 12 ]. On the other hand, the large proportion of self-taught private sector workers points to a culture of individual initiative, which could result in different perspectives on and implementations of sustainable practices. This is troubling since self-directed learning might not offer the thorough understanding required for efficient and sustainable harvesting. The outcome emphasizes the necessity of customized training plans that take these variations into account. Concerningly little is known about the anatomy of trees that produce frankincense, according to the data [ 11 ]. There is a glaring knowledge gap that can impede sustainable practices, since 55% of respondents were unclear about the location of resin secretory canals. This ambiguity highlights the need for focused teaching programs to improve understanding of tree anatomy and resin production. 4.4 Barriers for Adoption of Sustainable Tapping Practices The adoption of sustainable tapping practices in the frankincense production faces many challenges, including a lack of training, economic constraints, cultural resistance, and technical issues. The lack of technical training and clear guidelines for sustainable tapping leaves harvesters reliant on outdated methods, jeopardizing the long-term sustainability of frankincense production. Economic constraints like high resin harvesting costs and fluctuating market prices discourage widespread adoption. Cultural resistance and technical challenges further complicate the situation. Traditional tapping methods, deeply ingrained in communities, and lack of improved tools also hinder sustainable practices. To address these barriers, a comprehensive approach involving targeted training, resource provision, financial incentives, and supportive policies is needed. 4.5 Stakeholders in the Value Chain facilitating tappers’ good tapping practices Cooperatives are crucial for supporting sustainable practices in the frankincense industry, but their influence on pricing and profit margins is limited. The majority of resin is sold to private investors and the Tewodros Union, who command higher prices. This pricing hierarchy highlights the challenges faced by cooperatives and tappers in capturing a fair share of profits. Stakeholders like government agencies and NGOs are essential for promoting sustainable practices, but their effectiveness can be inconsistent, leading to gaps in support. Insufficient follow-up from government entities hinders the implementation of sustainable practices, affecting tappers' livelihoods and the sustainability of the frankincense industry. Conclusion The study comes to the following conclusion. The forest stands' bell-shaped structure attested to the absence of regeneration. The analysis verified that little is known about frankincense tappers. The structure of resin secretary canals is not well understood by frankincense tappers. According to sustainable tapping methods, which are defined by a short resting period, numerous tapping places per tree, and the size and height of the tree to be tapped, the current Frankincense tapping practice in Metema District does not follow these guidelines. Additionally, significant variations in tapping behaviors between cooperative members and private sector workers were observed. The average rest period for cooperative members is 1.54 years, whereas private sector workers only get 0.54 years. A sizable percentage of private sector workers report no defined limit on the number of tapping spots, despite 38.5% of cooperative members limiting the number to fewer than nine. On the other hand, the private sector taps trees of various sizes. Megaf is a locally-made tapping instrument that is appropriate for both groups. The study discovered a notable discrepancy in yearly yields, with private businesses generating far more than cooperatives, indicating more intense tapping practices. These stakeholders offer tapping instruments, training, and assistance with the management of forest resources. Numerous issues, including a lack of expertise, financial limitations, technical difficulties, cultural opposition, gaps in policies and regulations, market dynamics, and environmental factors, are impeding frankincense harvesters from implementing proper and sustainable tapping techniques. Stakeholders can collaborate to advance ethical harvesting practices by strengthening training initiatives, granting access to sustainable equipment, and defining precise rules for tapping techniques. In the end, the effective application of sustainable techniques will guarantee the ongoing financial gains from the production of frankincense in addition to safeguarding the Boswellia populations. In order to create a robust and sustainable frankincense economy in Ethiopia, it is necessary that the urgent economic requirements of local communities be balanced with the necessity of ecological preservation. Declarations Ethical Statement This investigation was carried out in compliance with research ethics requirements. No physical experiments or tissue samples from humans or animals are used in this study. Therefore, no further institutional review board approvals or licenses were needed to carry out this study. All information was gathered using non-invasive techniques, such as surveys and interviews, guaranteeing that study participants' rights and welfare were upheld. We are dedicated to upholding moral principles and openness in our Every participant provided written informed permission. They received assurances that their involvement was entirely voluntary and that they might stop at any moment. Furthermore, the University of Gondar Research Ethics Committee waived the need for ethical clearance approval for this study. Consent to publish The informed consent to publish was obtained from all the study participants. Consent to participate Informed consent to participate was obtained from all study participants. Conflict of interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. Funding Declarations This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Author Contribution AM Melese, EL Abarca and G.Bongers have made substantial contributions in conception design, acquisition of data, interpretation of results and leading the overall activities of the research. G. Gashu and B. Derebe have contributed in designing, data analysis, interpretation and manuscript writing and and reviewing the manuscript. B. Negirew substantially participated in manuscript writing. All authors have given the final approval of the version to be published. Acknowledgement The authors acknowledge with gratitude University of Gondar for technical and material supports. We would like to acknowledge West Gondar Zone office for their consistent support and assistance. Data Availability Data is accessed up on the request of the corresponding author. References Lemenih M, Bongers F. Dry forests of Ethiopia and their silviculture. Silviculture in the Tropics. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg; 2011. pp. 261–72. Fitwi G. 2000. The status of gum Arabic and resins in Ethiopia. Report of the Meeting of the Network for Natural Gum and Resins in Africa (NGARA) 29th-31st May, Nairobi, Kenya, pp. 14–22. Lemenih M, Wiersum KF, Woldeamanuel T, Bongers F. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7639823","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":526947963,"identity":"aef19f44-e00a-4ad0-b3d9-c23f057c4561","order_by":0,"name":"Adamsew Marelign 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21:06:02","extension":"html","order_by":23,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":146459,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7639823/v1/fd104cf1ec0c0a7a7b947601.html"},{"id":93268510,"identity":"37196b2d-3a9b-4521-9271-c55055b630ad","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-10 21:14:01","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":54090,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLocation map of study area\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7639823/v1/c17f0be2e7a9f413a351cb35.jpg"},{"id":93268234,"identity":"1618b851-d60d-4922-8f92-6d3f08f62b4f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-10 21:06:01","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":67656,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMonthly average temperature of Metema District (1980-2022) [28]\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7639823/v1/1ae94c3285f811d7c4e4231a.jpg"},{"id":93268512,"identity":"62496558-a48e-4a4b-af3b-26a863262cc3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-10 21:14:01","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":66148,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMonthly total precipitation of Metema District (1980-2022) [28]\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7639823/v1/10851bcc24f5d8b8a5263227.jpg"},{"id":93268237,"identity":"d17d06c8-652f-45f9-a063-5626976d5539","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-10 21:06:01","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":160985,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003epopulation structure of Boswellia papyrifera in Lemlem Terara\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7639823/v1/4b526b700db66aaebdf94c48.jpg"},{"id":93268514,"identity":"9d75e4d2-2cf6-4086-9339-6e230ee3fbd5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-10 21:14:02","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":44714,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eHistogram of tree density in different forest stands in Lemlem Terara\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7639823/v1/36136f6f17045c24487c49ff.jpg"},{"id":93268242,"identity":"7b264f7d-a3fc-4669-8e32-5f89f73ea2c5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-10 21:06:01","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":337833,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eToo close tapping spots (left) and very deep incision that damage the tree cambium (right)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7639823/v1/2bc6396df5fe411cb648f5ad.jpg"},{"id":93268256,"identity":"e4f6d449-5f47-4a3f-84e4-104b82d66a2e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-10 21:06:02","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":125597,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eHeight of Tapping from the ground\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7639823/v1/2e31427ec8cbf4903e16c594.jpg"},{"id":93268257,"identity":"315ddbc1-625a-43f9-a18a-ec5139e084c7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-10 21:06:02","extension":"jpg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":73805,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTapping tool (Mingaf)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture8.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7639823/v1/fb962f0c82c7a7993fce9a3d.jpg"},{"id":93268511,"identity":"a2e942c9-1579-4197-992a-e94292adc8c6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-10 21:14:01","extension":"jpg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":28043,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTapping tools used in Frankincense tapping\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture9.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7639823/v1/8f053b316d8cbb3a2fab3bf2.jpg"},{"id":93268264,"identity":"5c47f161-3cd7-4340-8b43-5f936e6ecff9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-10 21:06:02","extension":"jpg","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":157739,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eHow to learn about tapping\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture10.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7639823/v1/b68bde7f736f288e9f7e38c9.jpg"},{"id":93268249,"identity":"08703513-c727-4971-ba8b-7bf9237742d4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-10 21:06:02","extension":"jpg","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":71426,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe Frankincense Value Chain Map in Metema District\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture11.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7639823/v1/62bfb45010d7d6c7941c1f57.jpg"},{"id":93268591,"identity":"652f9d85-b072-47d3-a32e-3bc2b711aad6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-10 21:22:02","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2524532,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7639823/v1/c225c82e-9694-4e1d-9727-f25e4dcf779c.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Assessing the Ecological and Socio-economic Sustainability of Frankincense Harvesting Practices in Northwest Ethiopia","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eMillions of poor households in Africa rely on dry woods as a critical supply of resources for their economic development and way of life. The Acacia, Boswellia, and Commiphora tree species, which are major source of gums and resins, are especially abundant in these forest habitats. With an astonishing area of 55\u0026nbsp;million hectares, dry forests and woodlands make up the majority of Ethiopia's forest cover [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. These dry forest resources have the potential to support a variety of additional economic activities in addition to offering a steady supply of revenue and subsistence goods if they are managed carefully.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEthiopia's gum and resin resources, which are mostly found in the Tigray and Amhara Region, span an estimated 2.9\u0026nbsp;million hectares [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Many native plants and bushes that can yield commercially valuable goods like gum arabic, frankincense, and myrrh can be found in these areas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. According to Mokria et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e], one specific species, Boswellia papyrifera, is regarded as a significant dryland tree that grows in harsh conditions and creates jobs for nearby communities. This species plays a significant role in the region's gum and resin supplies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoswellia papyrifera is a dryland tree that produces frankincense and grows in 34 districts of the Amhara region [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. This tree is particularly abundant in the Metema District. B. papyrifera is considered highly suitable for future restoration and reforestation initiatives in semi-arid and arid areas facing moisture shortages [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e] The resin of Boswellia papyrifera is valued for its industrial, traditional medicinal, cultural, and religious uses, contributing to the production of frankincense [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Consequently, there is a strong demand for frankincense both locally and globally.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Amhara region and particularly in Metema District, frankincense is collected from Boswellia papyrifera within state owned forests/woodlands. Cooperatives and private enterprises are legally licensed to harvest frankincense from those state owned forests. For rural households in North West Ethiopia, frankincense made from Boswellia papyrifera is a crucial source of income [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. In certain regions, growing frankincense is a more profitable endeavor than cultivating crops [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e].\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn North Ethiopia, frankincense is harvested from B. papyrifera trees by making incisions in the bark, which causes wounds that allow resin to flow out. This traditional tapping method involves using an axe to create multiple incisions along the tree's trunk. According to Tadesse et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e], tapping occurs eight to twelve times during the approximately eight-month dry season. Each incision measures around 2.5 cm\u0026sup2; in area and is 1 mm deep [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Each time resin is collected, the wound is reopened and enlarged. The number of tapping spots on a tree varies with its size, with trees previously tapped at six to twelve locations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Currently, due to high demand for frankincense, up to 27 tapping spots may be created [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. However, research indicates that after nine tapping spots, the amount of frankincense produced per tree tends to decline [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Overall, the use of unsustainable tapping practices has significantly contributed to the decrease in the population of B. papyrifera in Ethiopia.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite its ecological and economic importance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR14 CR15 CR16 CR17 CR18 CR19\" citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e], the population of B. papyrifera declined at alarming rate as a result of expansion of agriculture, overgrazing, fire, over-tapping and improper tapping practices, and insect infection [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, the frankincense production system in North West Ethiopia, particularly in the Metema District, is encountering significant challenges [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. The primary issue is the widespread practice of unsustainable tapping of Boswellia trees. Such methods have placed Boswellia papyrifera at serious risk, leading to premature death of the trees [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Tapping is often carried out using tools like axes, which can injure the cambium and create wounds. Reports indicate that over-tapping shortens a tree's lifespan and adversely affects its natural regeneration and reproductive capacity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Trees that are over-tapped produce fewer flowers, fruits, and seeds, while seed germination success is also diminished [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. In the Metema District, Boswellia trees are tapped annually during the dry season, resulting in the death of many trees and a decline in seedling germination. The unsustainable tapping practices have led to a concerning increase in the mortality rate of these trees in Metema District, rendering Boswellia papyrifera an endangered species [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR24\" citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Description of Study Area\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1.1 Location\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eEthiopia is located in the Eastern Horn of Africa, roughly between 33 and 48 degrees east and 3.4 and 15 degrees north [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. The investigation's study area is Metema District. Metema District is located about 900 kilometers northwest of Addis Ababa and 180 kilometers west of Gondar City (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). In Metema District, an international border spanning over 60 kilometers divides Ethiopia from Sudan. It is located north of Quarra and Alefa, west of Chilga, south of the Tach Armachoho Districts, and east of the Sudanese border. It is one of the six districts that make up the West Gondar Zone. The district\u0026rsquo;s total population is 91,216 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1.2 Climate and Biophysical environment\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBased on local station data sourced from Ethiopian Meteorological institute accessed from \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.ethiomet.gov.et/data-request/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.ethiomet.gov.et/data-request/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e], Metema's average annual temperature is 28 degrees Celsius the hottest month is May and the coldest is August. The district receives 850\u0026ndash;1100 mm of precipitation annually on average (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The rainy months are from June until the end of September. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e] Its elevation ranges from 550 to 1608 meters above sea level. The months with the highest daily temperatures, which can reach 43\u0026deg;C, are March through May (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Nearly majority of the land is in the lowlands, with the exception of a few mountains.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1.3 Land use and Socio-economic\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eMixed farming (crop and livestock production) is the dominant socio-economic activity in the study area. The primary livelihoods of the local population include intensive agriculture, particularly the cultivation of cash crops such as cotton and sesame, along with livestock production, which provides additional income and food security. The natural vegetation consists mainly of Comberitum-Terminalia woodlands and grasslands, supporting diverse ecosystems. A notable resource in the area is the resin-bearing species Boswellia papyrifera, which has been commercially harvested since the 1980s. This resin production has become an important economic activity, contributing to local livelihoods and promoting sustainable use of natural resources.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Techniques of Data Collection\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor this study, a mixed qualitative and quantitative research approach was adopted. Sources of primary and secondary data were taken into account. To produce the research result, data gathered via primary data collection instruments such as forest inventory, semi-structured questionnaires, and interview checklists were appropriately subjected to qualitative and quantitative data analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2.1 Vegetation Inventory\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA rapid vegetation assessment survey was conducted in two Boswellia stands in Tach Lemlem Terara, Metema District, to evaluate the status of the resource base and the intensity of current frankincense harvesting [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. The survey focused on two distinct forest types: cooperative forests, where frankincense is harvested by cooperatives, and private enterprise forests, where harvesting is conducted by private entities. A total of 22 sample plots, each measuring 20 x 20 meters, were established at regular intervals along parallel transects. The first sample plot was randomly selected, while the remaining plots were systematically positioned at predetermined intervals to ensure comprehensive coverage of the surveyed areas. Specifically, 11 sample plots were allocated to each group (cooperative and private forests), distributed along two parallel transects with intervals of 500 meters and 300 meters between the sample plots [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiameters of all trees with greater than 5 cm DBH and height of selected trees from all diameter classes in the sample plots were measured [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. Based on visual observation (measurement also taken when possible), tapping intensity (number of tapping spots, tapped tree size, tree damage and number of dead Boswellia trees were recorded from each sample plot [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2.2 Household Survey\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA total of 80 (40 cooperative members and 40 private company employees) respondents were participated in filling the questionnaire. To choose frankincense harvesters for the survey, stratified random sampling was employed. After classifying the respondents into the private and cooperative sectors, a random sampling technique was used to choose participants from each stratum. Sample respondents were asked to complete a semi-structured questionnaire to provide data. Both open-ended and closed-ended questions are included in the questionnaire. The questionnaire consists of knowledge of Frankincense harvesters about sustainable tapping practices, overview of current tapping practice and stakeholders of the frankincense value chain. \u003cb\u003eError! Reference source not found.\u003c/b\u003e Then the questionnaire was prepared in English and will be translated into Amharic (local language).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2.3 Interview\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eKey informants were interviewed over the phone and in person. Purposive sampling techniques were used in the selection of the key informants. Seven vital informants were chosen for the interview. ARARI (Amhara Region Agricultural Research Institute), EFRI (Ethiopian Forestry Research Institute), and SUNARMA (Sustainable Natural resource Management Association), Metema District Agricultural and Cooperative Promotion Offices, the Lemlem Terara and Agam-wuha Cooperative Leaders, were the sources from which these key informants were chosen.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4 Data Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eMissing data were appropriately filled and coded and subjected to R-studio (V. 4.4.1) for analysis. The collected data were subsequently analyzed using descriptive statistics, including mean, standard deviation, frequency, and percentage distribution. Independent samples t-test was used to test the ratio variables between tappers groups (cooperative and private) such as, density of tree, tapping spots per tree, number of tree damage and deaths and. Moreover, Chi-square test was used to test the association between type of tapper and nominal variables like knowledge of tappers, training received, providing rest for tree from tapping and so on. Thematic coding was used to analyses the qualitative data.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Characteristics of Respondent\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe demographic of cooperative members appears to be primarily male, with 84.6% being men and 15.4% being women. On the other hand, the private sector is completely male, with no female representation and 100% of respondents identifying as male. When both categories are combined, the overall gender distribution reveals that 90% of respondents are men and 10% are women. According to a statistically significant t-value of 3.45 and a p-value of 0.001, the mean age of cooperative members is 44.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.25 years, whereas that of private sector individuals is 35.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.41 years. Furthermore, a t-value of 3.39 and a p-value of 0.002 support the greater average family size of 6.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.83 for cooperative members compared to 4.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.66 for private sector members. Additionally, with a very significant t-value of 5.65 and a p-value of 0.0001, cooperative members have more experience harvesting frankincense, averaging 7.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.06 years as opposed to 3.57\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.45 years for private sector persons (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). These results reveal significant demographic and experiential differences between the two groups, indicating that cooperative members are typically older, have larger families, and have more harvesting experience.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRespondent\u0026rsquo;s characteristics\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHousehold characteristics\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCategories\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStd. Deviation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ecooperative member\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44.31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eprivate sector\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFamily size\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ecooperative member\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eprivate sector\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrankincense harvesting experience\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ecooperative member\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eprivate sector\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Population status and Density of Boswellia papyrifera\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2.1 Population status\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDue to a lack of recruitment through regeneration, the bell-shaped structure discovered in the surveyed stands in the research region for both forests (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) suggests that the Boswellia population in Metema is unstable and in danger. Because of overexploitation and habitat degradation, Boswellia papyrifera, also referred to as the frankincense tree, is having a difficult time naturally regenerating. According to studies, the number of mature trees, which are necessary for the generation of seeds [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e] has decreased as a result of unsustainable harvesting methods motivated by the strong demand for frankincense resin in numerous businesses. Additionally, the situation is made worse by environmental variables like deforestation and climate change, which upset the ecological balance required for the species' regeneration [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. Research highlights that limited seed dispersal and germination rates further hinder the establishment of new saplings, leading to a concerning trend of population decline [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. For instance, a study in Eritrea found that regeneration was only successful in areas where trees were not tapped and were protected from livestock grazing, underscoring the impact of human activities on the species' survival [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Conservation efforts are urgently needed to address these issues, focusing on sustainable harvesting techniques and habitat restoration to ensure the long-term viability of Boswellia papyrifera in its native ecosystems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall, the data suggests that both cooperative and private enterprises have a similar structural composition in terms of DBH distribution, with a pronounced peak in the mid-size range. The decline in numbers for larger DBH classes raises questions about sustainability and management practices, which could be further explored to ensure the long-term viability of Boswellia papyrifera populations in the Metema District.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1.2 Density\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the cooperatively harvested forest, the average density of B. papyrifera trees was 146.6 stems/ha. However, the B. papyrifera tree density in the next forest that is harvested by private companies is 126.57 stems/ha, indicating a statistically significant mean difference between the two forest stands (t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.81, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.010). The mean density of forests harvested by private and cooperative firms, when all tree species in the forest stand are taken into account, is 292.4 stems/ha and 309.8 stems/ha, respectively. Thus, the percentage of B. papyrifera in the forest/woodland is 47.3% for forests harvested by commercial companies and 43.3% for forests harvested by cooperatives (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3 Tapping Practice and Its effect\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA thorough examination of several factors pertaining to tree tapping methods in two forest stands (Frankincense Forest harvested by cooperative and commercial firms) is shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. The number of little tapped trees (DBH\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;15 cm) per hectare is one of the important indicators that are looked at. With a standard deviation of 9.23 and a mean density of 52.61 trees/ha in the Cooperative category, the prevalence of small tapped trees is comparatively constant throughout the plots. The Private group, on the other hand, has a higher standard deviation of 14.81 and a higher mean of 68.86 trees/ha.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParameters assessed in tapping practice investigation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParameters\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ecategories\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003emean\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003esig\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003enumber of small trees tapped (DBH\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;15cm)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ecooperative\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52.61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-3.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.006\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eprivate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e68.86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.81\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTapping started near the ground (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1m)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ecooperative\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-11.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eprivate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.81\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDamage to tree/cambium\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ecooperative\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1.157\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eprivate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumber of dead trees\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ecooperative\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.020\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eprivate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ethe improper tapping start height, which is essential for preserving the health of trees. With a mean of 7.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.92 trees/ha, the Cooperative category indicates that the majority of plots closely follow advised tapping height guidelines. The Private group, on the other hand, has a much higher mean of 17.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.96 trees/ha. This suggests that private plots are more likely to have improper tapping heights, which could put additional stress on the trees and compromise their long-term health.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn assessment of the cambium damage to trees provides important information on the condition of the trees in both groups. The average damage rate for the Cooperative category is 4.45 trees/ha, indicating significant variation in the degree of cambium damage between plots. However, with a higher mean of 6.55 trees/ha, the Private group shows a wider range of effects on tree health and a higher occurrence of cambium damage. All things considered, our results underline the significance of good management techniques in both areas and the necessity of focused interventions to enhance tree health and maximize tapping methods.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTapping spots counted during forest inventory\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTapping spots per tree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCategories\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eχ\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003esig\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ecooperative forest\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(% of tapped tree)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eprivate forest\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(% of tapped tree)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;6 spots\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u0026ndash;12 spots\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAbove 12 spots\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the average number of dead trees from the Boswellia forest collected by the cooperatives was 5.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.2, whereas the private equivalents had an average of 8.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.7. Therefore, there appears to be a significant difference between the two groups' numbers of dead trees (t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.23, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.020). The heavy tapping procedure is one of the reasons B. papyrifera dies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e illustrates a significant variation in the number of tapping places per tree between the private and cooperative sectors (χ\u0026sup2; = 10.96 and p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.004). Compared to just 6.4% in the private sector, 38.5% of trees in the cooperative sector were tapped in the category of fewer than six sites. The private sector had 28.6% and the cooperative sector had 36.0% of the 6\u0026ndash;12 slot category. In the category of the forest harvested by cooperatives, it is noteworthy that 25.1% of tapped trees had more than 12 spots, while the private sector had a far larger percentage of excessively close tapping places (65%) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). These findings imply that there are significant differences in tapping practices between the two sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTappers response on their tapping practices\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQuestions\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCategories\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003etotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eχ\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003esig\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ecooperative\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eprivate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhat size of Boswellia trees do you typically tap?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAny trees size\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e69.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e80.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003elarge trees\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDo you allow trees to rest from tapping?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eno\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e77.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e86.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e81.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eyes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHaw many tapping rounds do you perform per tapping spot?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u0026ndash;6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u0026ndash;8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e most respondents (69.2%) from cooperative members report they tap both large and small trees, while all private sector respondents (100%) indicate that they tap any tree sizes. In contrast, 30.8% of cooperative members exclusively tap large trees (DBH\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;20cm), whereas none from the private sector do. In total, 80% of respondents across both groups tap both large and small trees while, 20% of respondents tap large trees. Moreover, Chi-square test results indicate that the size of frankincense tree tapped is significantly influenced by tappers membership category (χ\u0026sup2; = 5.38, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.020). Moreover, a majority of respondents (77% of cooperative members and 86% of private sector tappers) do not allow trees to rest, indicating a more intensive and unsustainable tapping approach (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Only 23% and 14% of cooperative members and private sector tappers permit resting respectively. Chi-square test was significant (χ\u0026sup2; = 14.4, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001). Moreover, cooperative members have a mean resting period of 1.54 years. In contrast, private sector participants allow only about 0.54 years, for resting, suggesting a focus on maximizing immediate production with less concern for tree health.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor tapping rounds per spot, as presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, for the category of less than four tapping rounds, was 50% and 35% for cooperative and private sector tappers, indicating a statistically significant difference in tapping practices between the two sectors. In contrast, the category for four to six rounds included 35% with a chi-squared value of 25%, but no significance value was provided, making it difficult to draw conclusions about this range. Similarly, 15% and 40% of cooperative and private tappers did from six to eight rounds of tapping per tapping spot. Moreover, on average cooperative members and private were performed 5 and 7 tapping rounds per tapping spot per tapping season respectively. The increased the number of tapping round, the increased widening of tapping spot and intern increase the wound recovery time.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe average height at which responders tap large Frankincense trees is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e. Twenty-three percent of cooperative members tap at a height of 0.5 meters, compared to 18.6% of private sector workers, making up a total of 25%. Thirty-eight percent of cooperative members report tapping at one meter, compared to just ten percent from the private sector, for a total of twenty percent. Interestingly, 7.7% of cooperative members tap at a distance of 1.5 meters while, 66.4% of workers in the private sector and 38.5% of cooperative members say they tap at any height. Furthermore, half of the respondents in both categories said they tap Boswellia trees at any height.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, illustrate the tapping methods utilized by cooperative members and private sector employees in tree tapping. In the cooperative group, 61.5% of them use a locally made material called \u003cem\u003eMingaf. Mingaf\u003c/em\u003e is a tapping tool made from iron and wood which has a width of 2cm and a depth of1-1.25 mm (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e), while 23.1% and 15.4% use knife and axe respectively. Conversely, in the private sector, 57.1% use \u003cem\u003eMingaf\u003c/em\u003e, while 28.6% and 14.3% of them use axe and sharp knife respectively. Generally above half of respondents from the two groups use \u003cem\u003eMingaf\u003c/em\u003e as a tapping tool.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4 Perceived Knowledge of Harvesters About Sustainable Tapping Practices\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e compares how individuals from cooperative members and private sector employees learned about frankincense harvesting, highlighting differences in educational backgrounds. A significant reliance on organized education is seen among cooperative members, as 38.5% learned through family tradition and 53.8% underwent official instruction. In contrast, 42.9% of private sector workers had formal training, while just 25% mentioned family tradition. Interestingly, 57.1% of respondents in the private sector claimed to be self-taught, indicating that this group places more value on independent initiative and hands-on learning. The findings of the chi-square test show that a person's membership category has a substantial impact on how they learned about frankincense harvesting (χ\u0026sup2; = 12.77, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.002). In particular, those in the private sector are more likely to be self-taught, whereas cooperative members are more likely to rely on formal training and family customs. This contrast draws attention to the disparities in the two groups' educational and cultural backgrounds.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKnowledge of respondents about sustainable tapping\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003equestions\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParameters\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCategories\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003esig\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ecooperative member\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eprivate\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003esector\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhich part of the tree contains the highest amount of resin secretory canals\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003einner bark\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eouter bark\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ewood/stem\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eI am not sure\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e71.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHave you received any training or guidance on sustainable tapping techniques?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e78.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoreover, 35% identified the inner bark as the primary location for resin production canals, while only 5% identified the outer bark and wood/stem as the highest locations. 55% expressed uncertainty about the location of resin secretory canals, indicating a lack of knowledge or confidence in tree anatomy. Training on sustainable tapping techniques was significantly different between cooperative members and private sector laborers. Private sector laborers received only 21% training, while cooperative members received 42%, with 58% reporting no training.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.5 Frankincense Production\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to Metema District cooperative promotion office [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e], on average each cooperative in Metema District produce 155 Kuntals of ungraded frankincense for the year 2016 Ethiopian Calendar (2022/2023 G.C). Whereas private enterprises production is an average of 180 Kuntals with an out layer of 370 Kuntals produced by certain enterprise, which illustrates more intensive production were found from private enterprises that leads unsustainable tapping practice.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.6 Barriers for Adopting Sustainable Tapping Practices\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e demonstrates results of qualitative analysis on the barriers preventing adoption of sustainable tapping practices in Metema District. The barriers preventing frankincense harvesters from adopting good tapping practices are multifaceted, involving, knowledge gaps, economic constraints cultural resistance, technical challenges, market dynamics, environmental factors, and regulatory issues as repeatedly highlighted by key informants, according to key informants, the most pressing challenges stem from a lack of training and support for harvesters. He emphasized that \u0026ldquo;the main barriers are limited training for frankincense tree tapping, with totally no technical training available.\u0026rdquo; This highlights a critical gap in the education of harvesters regarding sustainable practices, which can lead to a reliance on outdated methods that harm the long-term sustainability of Frankincense. Since there is no standardized method for sustainable tapping, many harvesters are unsure of the best techniques, which makes matters more complicated in the lack of clear rules or regulations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBarriers preventing adopting sustainable tapping practice\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRank\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThemes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003esub-themes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKnowledge gaps\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInsufficient Training\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePoor extension service\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLack of tapping guideline\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEconomic Constraints\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003erisk of reduced yield/income\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eImmediate financial needs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTechnical and Logistical Challenges\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLimited technical training\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003etapping skill gap\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCultural and Traditional Practices\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCultural Resistance\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003esocial norms\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolicy and Regulation Gaps\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003elimited policy on Frankincense\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIrregular enforcement\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAbsence of tapping guidelines\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnvironmental factors\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDeterioration of B. \u003cem\u003epapyrifera\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eclimate change impact\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003edisease and pest management\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMarket Dynamics\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eincreased market demand\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ecompetition between harvesters\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEconomic constraints play a important role in the reluctance to adopt sustainable tapping methods. Moreover, there is a risk of reduced income associated with transitioning to sustainable practices. The problem is severed in private companies because the employees are paid for the amount of resin harvested. The immediate financial needs of many harvesters, especially those working for private companies, may cause them to put short-term profits ahead of long-term sustainability, which is the source of this anxiety. This problem is made worse by the frankincense market's volatility, since harvesters are frequently reluctant to make investments in methods that might initially provide less profits. Many people find it difficult to defend the move to more sustainable practices in the absence of financial incentives or assurances of market demand for items that are gathered responsibly.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe difficulties experienced by frankincense harvesters are also influenced by cultural and traditional customs. Strong adherence to generation-old tapping techniques fosters cultural resistance to change. This resistance is often reinforced by social norms that favor conventional practices, making it difficult for new techniques to gain acceptance within communities. As harvesters cling to familiar methods, the potential benefits of sustainable practices remain largely unrecognized and unappreciated, further hindering progress.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnother major obstacle is logistical and technical difficulties. Harvesters frequently struggle to acquire and use new tapping methods, which is made worse by a lack of access to the equipment or resources they need. Key informants claim that a lack of technical training creates a skill gap that hinders the successful adoption of sustainable practices. The entire quality and sustainability of frankincense production suffer as a result of this skill gap, which has wider ramifications for the community and cooperatives in addition to individual harvesters. They also underlined that in order to overcome these obstacles, focused technical training programs and the availability of resources, including better tapping tools, are required.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe problem is further complicated by the interaction of market dynamics and environmental factors. Furthermore, frankincense tree degradation makes it harder for harvesters to adopt sustainable practices because it increases competition amongst harvesters. Additionally, climate change has an impact on the productivity and health of frankincense trees, which doubles the problem. Due to the ongoing need for large amounts of frankincense, harvesters' competitiveness frequently leads to unsustainable techniques, further taxing the delicate ecosystems that sustain frankincense production. In order to overcome these interconnected obstacles, a holistic strategy is needed, one that acknowledges the financial realities faced by harvesters while also promoting sustainable practices through supportive policy environments and training and resources.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.7 Frankincense Value chain Stakeholders in facilitating Sustainable tapping practices\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCooperatives\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eCooperatives are vital in Frankincense value chain, there are five cooperatives in Metema engaged in Frankincense value chain. Around 65% [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e] of the resin from cooperatives is sold to Tewodros union (a union based in Metema), whereas the remaining is sold to private sector. Cooperatives play their role in facilitating sustainable tapping practices through training and peer to peer learning. Cooperatives facilitate and support good tapping practices through information distribution and supply of sustainable tapping tools like \u003cem\u003eMegaf\u003c/em\u003e. According to cooperative leader of Tach Lemlem Terara, their cooperative distributes a total of \u003cem\u003e225 Megaf\u003c/em\u003e for their members in the last five years.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePrivate Investors\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eLicensed exporters of Frankincense in Ethiopia. They harvest Frankincense from forest/woodland through their temporary camp in Metema and they also purchase from Tewodros unions or from other smaller private companies. Most private enterprises engage in production (harvesting), aggregation, processing and domestic wholesaling while some of them export to international market. PLCs recruit tappers on the basis of contract paid per the amount of incense/resin collected [27,36.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDomestic Consumption and specialized shops\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Ethiopia, frankincense plays a vital role in both church services and traditional coffee ceremonies, where it is burned to enhance relaxation and well-being. Each church reportedly consumes around 150 kg of frankincense annually. Beyond its ceremonial uses, frankincense is also employed for pest control, particularly against mosquitoes, as well as in herbal medicine, hygiene products, and sanitizers. Various shops in major cities and towns offer different qualities of frankincense resin.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGovernment Agencies\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eNational and regional government agencies like Ministry of Agriculture, Amhara Region Agriculture office, and Amhara Region Environment, Forest and Wildlife office provide supports in protecting the forest through participatory forest management. However, they are not fulfilling their responsibilities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMetema Woreda Agricultural offices\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eSupport for sustainable production of Frankincense in Metema District. Working closely with cooperatives by promoting participatory forest management. They facilitate sustainable tapping through delineating Frankincense Forest/woodland for the purpose of resting.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNGOs\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eNGOs such as ORDA (Organization for Rehabilitation and Development in Amhara) and SUNARMA (Sustainable Natural resource Management Association) contribute their part in providing certain trainings in sustainable tapping and harvesting techniques and cleaning and grading. ORDA provide training in 2016 for two cooperatives. While SUNARMA provide training of trainers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.1 Population status and density\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings of the research point to a worrying pattern in the Metema region's Boswellia papyrifera population stability. The bell-shaped structure seen in the stands under survey indicates a lack of effective regeneration, underscoring the species' susceptibility as a result of habitat degradation and overexploitation. Mature trees are essential for producing seeds, but their numbers are declining due to unsustainable harvesting methods fueled by the growing demand for frankincense resin [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. The difficulties this species faces are made worse by environmental stresses like as deforestation, overgrazing, man-caused forest fires, and climate change, which upset the ecological balance required for its recovery [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. Low germination rates and restricted seed dissemination make it challenging to generate new saplings, which is essential for population sustainability [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. For example, previous study demonstrated that regeneration was successful only in areas where trees were protected from tapping and livestock grazing, emphasizing the detrimental impact of human activities on the survival of B. papyrifera [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSignificant differences in tree density across forests harvested by private and cooperative firms were also found; this implies that cooperative harvesting methods would be better suited to preserving higher B. papyrifera densities. In terms of the distribution of diameter at breast height (DBH), both forest types have a comparable structural composition overall, with mid-size trees showing a noticeable peak. But the drop in larger DBH classes raises questions regarding administration and sustainability. These results highlight the urgent need for conservation efforts, since B. papyrifera accounts for roughly 47.3% and 43.3% of the total tree density in private and cooperative forests, respectively. To guarantee Boswellia papyrifera's long-term survival in its natural habitats, sustainable harvesting methods and habitat restoration plans must be put into place [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.2 Tapping practice\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe examination of tapping methods in the Frankincense Forest shows notable distinctions between private and cooperative businesses that affect the sustainability and health of the trees. The density of tiny tapped trees in the private sector is higher (68.86 trees/ha) than in cooperatives (52.61 trees/ha), which may indicate overexploitation. Additionally, the commercial sector has a higher prevalence of improper tapping heights\u0026mdash;an average of 17.81 trees/ha are tapped too close to the ground, whereas cooperatives have an average of 7.29 trees/ha. Together with a larger mean damage to tree cambium (6.55 trees/ha in private vs. 4.45 in cooperative), this practice suggests that trees are under more stress, which may result in long-term health problems.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the evaluation of tapping sites per tree reveals significant disparities, with 65% of trees in the private sector having more than 12 tapping spots and 38.5% of trees in the cooperative sector having fewer than six. The necessity for better management techniques is further supported by the statistically significant trend of excessive tapping in the private sector. To improve tree health and guarantee the long-term sustainability of Frankincense resources, targeted actions are necessary, such as educating private businesses on sustainable tapping methods.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to the study, the existing method of tapping Boswellia papyrifera trees for frankincense does not follow sustainable tapping methods. One of the key findings is that membership category has a major impact on the choice of tree size for tapping; cooperative members are more likely to tap both large trees than private sector workers, who often tap trees of any size. However, market demands and the need to optimize returns may be the driving forces for the private sector's uniform approach to tapping trees of all sizes, which reflects a more commercially-oriented strategy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile both groups were unable to achieve the statutory three-year resting period, cooperative members are permitted to rest for longer lengths of time, averaging 1.54 years, as opposed to just 0.54 years for private sector employees. Given that their collective management systems place a strong emphasis on resource sustainability, this disparity implies that cooperative members are more concerned with the health and sustainability of the trees. On the other hand, workers in the private sector seem to put immediate output first, which could eventually cause Boswellia trees to deteriorate, according to earlier research on the effects of intense tapping methods [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Although the two groups' tapping implements were mostly the same, with most using locally produced \"Mingaf,\" the fact that both groups relied on traditional techniques points to the persistence of indigenous knowledge systems in frankincense extraction. The results of earlier research, which emphasize the importance of local knowledge in maintaining harvesting techniques for non-timber forest products, are corroborated by this discovery [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. The study's overall practices emphasize how important cooperative management is to encouraging sustainable tapping methods.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to the suggested sustainable tapping techniques, tappers in Metema are using a lot of intensive and non-sustainable tapping methods. The primary factors to be taken into consideration when tapping B. papyrifera include resting from tapping, the size of the tree to be tapped, and the number of tapping locations, according to several academics [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR22\" citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. Asfaw et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e] and Chernet et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e] state that trees need to rest for at least two to three years, yet 45 percent of tappers in Metema were unable to give their trees this time. The majority of respondents admitted to regularly taping both big and small trees. In DBH, however, a tree must be at least 20 cm in size in order to be tapped [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. While, according to previous studies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e], the maximum number of tapping spot is nine per individual tree, but this is not applicable among Frankincense tappers of Metema District, 40% of tapped trees were found to be exposed to over 12 tapping spots.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.3 Knowledge of Harvesters About Sustainable Tapping Practices\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data on frankincense harvesters' awareness of sustainable tapping methods shows notable differences between private sector workers and cooperative members. Compared to workers in the private sector, cooperative members exhibit a greater reliance on formal training. The cooperative's focus on sustainable practices, which is consistent with recent research showing that structured training can improve sustainable harvesting methods, may be connected to this reliance on formal education [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. On the other hand, the large proportion of self-taught private sector workers points to a culture of individual initiative, which could result in different perspectives on and implementations of sustainable practices. This is troubling since self-directed learning might not offer the thorough understanding required for efficient and sustainable harvesting. The outcome emphasizes the necessity of customized training plans that take these variations into account. Concerningly little is known about the anatomy of trees that produce frankincense, according to the data [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. There is a glaring knowledge gap that can impede sustainable practices, since 55% of respondents were unclear about the location of resin secretory canals. This ambiguity highlights the need for focused teaching programs to improve understanding of tree anatomy and resin production.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.4 \u003cb\u003eBarriers for Adoption of Sustainable Tapping Practices\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe adoption of sustainable tapping practices in the frankincense production faces many challenges, including a lack of training, economic constraints, cultural resistance, and technical issues. The lack of technical training and clear guidelines for sustainable tapping leaves harvesters reliant on outdated methods, jeopardizing the long-term sustainability of frankincense production. Economic constraints like high resin harvesting costs and fluctuating market prices discourage widespread adoption. Cultural resistance and technical challenges further complicate the situation. Traditional tapping methods, deeply ingrained in communities, and lack of improved tools also hinder sustainable practices. To address these barriers, a comprehensive approach involving targeted training, resource provision, financial incentives, and supportive policies is needed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec27\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.5 Stakeholders in the Value Chain facilitating tappers\u0026rsquo; good tapping practices\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eCooperatives are crucial for supporting sustainable practices in the frankincense industry, but their influence on pricing and profit margins is limited. The majority of resin is sold to private investors and the Tewodros Union, who command higher prices. This pricing hierarchy highlights the challenges faced by cooperatives and tappers in capturing a fair share of profits. Stakeholders like government agencies and NGOs are essential for promoting sustainable practices, but their effectiveness can be inconsistent, leading to gaps in support. Insufficient follow-up from government entities hinders the implementation of sustainable practices, affecting tappers' livelihoods and the sustainability of the frankincense industry.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study comes to the following conclusion. The forest stands' bell-shaped structure attested to the absence of regeneration. The analysis verified that little is known about frankincense tappers. The structure of resin secretary canals is not well understood by frankincense tappers. According to sustainable tapping methods, which are defined by a short resting period, numerous tapping places per tree, and the size and height of the tree to be tapped, the current Frankincense tapping practice in Metema District does not follow these guidelines. Additionally, significant variations in tapping behaviors between cooperative members and private sector workers were observed. The average rest period for cooperative members is 1.54 years, whereas private sector workers only get 0.54 years. A sizable percentage of private sector workers report no defined limit on the number of tapping spots, despite 38.5% of cooperative members limiting the number to fewer than nine. On the other hand, the private sector taps trees of various sizes. \u003cem\u003eMegaf\u003c/em\u003e is a locally-made tapping instrument that is appropriate for both groups. The study discovered a notable discrepancy in yearly yields, with private businesses generating far more than cooperatives, indicating more intense tapping practices. These stakeholders offer tapping instruments, training, and assistance with the management of forest resources. Numerous issues, including a lack of expertise, financial limitations, technical difficulties, cultural opposition, gaps in policies and regulations, market dynamics, and environmental factors, are impeding frankincense harvesters from implementing proper and sustainable tapping techniques. Stakeholders can collaborate to advance ethical harvesting practices by strengthening training initiatives, granting access to sustainable equipment, and defining precise rules for tapping techniques. In the end, the effective application of sustainable techniques will guarantee the ongoing financial gains from the production of frankincense in addition to safeguarding the Boswellia populations. In order to create a robust and sustainable frankincense economy in Ethiopia, it is necessary that the urgent economic requirements of local communities be balanced with the necessity of ecological preservation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEthical Statement\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis investigation was carried out in compliance with research ethics requirements. No physical experiments or tissue samples from humans or animals are used in this study. Therefore, no further institutional review board approvals or licenses were needed to carry out this study. All information was gathered using non-invasive techniques, such as surveys and interviews, guaranteeing that study participants' rights and welfare were upheld. We are dedicated to upholding moral principles and openness in our Every participant provided written informed permission. They received assurances that their involvement was entirely voluntary and that they might stop at any moment. Furthermore, the University of Gondar Research Ethics Committee waived the need for ethical clearance approval for this study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConsent to publish\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e The informed consent to publish was obtained from all the study participants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003e Informed consent to participate was obtained from all study participants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDeclarations\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAM Melese, EL Abarca and G.Bongers have made substantial contributions in conception design, acquisition of data, interpretation of results and leading the overall activities of the research. G. Gashu and B. Derebe have contributed in designing, data analysis, interpretation and manuscript writing and and reviewing the manuscript. B. Negirew substantially participated in manuscript writing. All authors have given the final approval of the version to be published.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors acknowledge with gratitude University of Gondar for technical and material supports. We would like to acknowledge West Gondar Zone office for their consistent support and assistance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData is accessed up on the request of the corresponding author.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLemenih M, Bongers F. Dry forests of Ethiopia and their silviculture. Silviculture in the Tropics. 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J Appl Ecol. 2006;43:1188\u0026ndash;95.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHido A, Alemayehu A. The social and economic significance of natural gum and resin in the Woodlands of South Omo Zone, Southern Ethiopia. Int J Forestry Res. 2022;2022(1):8742823.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTadesse W, Dejene T, Zeleke G, Desalegn G. Underutilized natural gum and resin resources in Ethiopia for future directions and commercial utilization. World J Agri Res. 2020;8:32\u0026ndash;8.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYussuf BA, Lelamo LL, Abdi MM. Gum and Resin Production and Marketing: Implications for Pastoral Livelihood in Adadle District, Somali Region, Ethiopia. Int J Forestry Res. 2023;2023(1):8887494.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAyalew S. Distribution, importance and constraints in gum and resin bearing species in Ethiopia. J Selva Andina Biosphere. 2024;12(1):34\u0026ndash;41.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYahya N, Abdelkadir A, Teshome B, Abebe M, Kassa H. Gum and resin bearing dryland forests of the Somali region, Southeastern Ethiopia: Diversity, structure and spatial distribution. Int J Agricultural Res Innov Technol (IJARIT). 2023;13(2):6\u0026ndash;13.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNegussie A, Gebrehiwot K, Yohannes M, Norgrove L, Aynekulu E. 2021. Continuous resin tapping for frankincense harvest increases susceptibility of Boswellia papyrifera (Del.) Hochst trees to longhorn beetle damage. Heliyon, 7(2).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCherenet E, Abiyu A, Getnet A, Sisay K, Dejene T. Tapping height and season affect frankincense yield and wound recovery of Boswellia papyrifera trees. 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For Ecol Manag. 2017;389:127\u0026ndash;35. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/j.foreco.2016.12.03\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.foreco.2016.12.03\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMDCPO (Metema District Cooperative promotion office). 2023. Annual report of Metema District Agricultural office. Metema Ethiopia.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-environment","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Environment](https://www.springer.com/44274/)","snPcode":"44274","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44274/3","title":"Discover Environment","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Boswellia papirifera, Barriers, Frankincense, Metema, Sustainability and Tapping","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7639823/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7639823/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe ecological and financial effects of tapping methods are the main emphasis of this study, which examines the sustainability of frankincense production from Boswellia papyrifera in Ethiopia's Metema District. The region's resin resources, especially those derived from Boswellia, are essential for local livelihoods because Ethiopia's dry woods span 55\u0026nbsp;million hectares. However, Boswellia populations have significantly declined as a result of unsustainable tapping practices, endangering their ecological viability. Plots measuring 400 m2 were placed in a transect line for the forest inventory. Eighty respondents were chosen using the stratified random sampling technique. The chi-squared test and the independent samples t-test were applied. The demographic structure showed a limited ability for regeneration, as the study reveals. In the Boswelliya forest, the tree densities harvested by private companies and cooperatives were, respectively, 126.57 and 146.6 stems/ha. Data show concerning patterns of over-tapping, with private sector trees frequently undergoing excessive incisions and improper tapping heights, which raises mortality rates. While 53.8% of cooperative members receive formal training, just 42.9% of private sector employees do, indicating a serious knowledge gap among harvesters about sustainable practices, according to the report. Knowledge gaps, cultural resistance, and financial limitations are some of the obstacles to implementing sustainable practices. Cooperatives are essential for training and resource provision, but the commercial sector's emphasis on short-term gains makes sustainability issues worse. In order to guarantee the long-term survival of Boswellia papyrifera, the study emphasizes the critical necessity for focused conservation initiatives and the application of sustainable harvesting practices.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Assessing the Ecological and Socio-economic Sustainability of Frankincense Harvesting Practices in Northwest Ethiopia","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-10 21:05:56","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7639823/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-10-16T08:01:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-11T10:31:00+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-06T08:29:45+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"50696799283209586675669278966000077002","date":"2025-09-30T07:23:46+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"50930404030490523213079606669024732897","date":"2025-09-29T08:49:06+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"127603395101609046546929612788914666505","date":"2025-09-29T08:36:37+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-09-29T07:47:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-09-29T07:43:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-09-22T06:35:27+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-09-20T20:00:47+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Environment","date":"2025-09-20T19:57:26+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-environment","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Environment](https://www.springer.com/44274/)","snPcode":"44274","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44274/3","title":"Discover Environment","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c1763201-4733-4c88-8bfa-cd1fcd895334","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 10th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-15T04:08:43+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-10 21:05:56","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7639823","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7639823","identity":"rs-7639823","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}