A Comprehensive Review of Per- and PolyFluoroAlkyl Substances (PFAS): Atmospheric Behavior, Analytical Methods, and Future Management Strategies

Per- and PolyFluoroAlkyl Substances (PFAS) are highly chemically stable synthetic compounds. They are widely used in industrial and commercial sectors due to their ability to repel water and oil, thermal stability, and surfactant properties. However, this stability results in environmental persistence and bioaccumulation, posing signif-icant health risks as PFAS eventually find their way into environmental media. Key PFAS compounds, including PerFluoroOctanoic Acid (PFOA), PerFluoroOctane Sul-fonic acid (PFOS), and PerFluoroHexane Sulfonic acid (PFHxS), have been linked to hepatotoxicity, immunotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and endocrine disruption. In response to the health threats these substances pose, global regulatory measures, such as the Stockholm Convention restrictions and national drinking water standards, have been implemented to reduce PFAS exposure. Despite these efforts, a lack of universally ac-cepted definitions or comprehensive inventories of PFAS compounds hampers the ef-fective management of these substances. As definitions differ across regulatory bodies, research and policy integration have become complicated. PFAS are broadly catego-rized as either PerFluoroAlkyl Acids (PFAAs), precursors, or other fluorinated sub-stances, however, PFAS encompasses over 5,000 distinct compounds, many of which are poorly characterized. PFAS contamination arises from direct industrial emissions and indirect environmental formation, these substances have been detected in water, soil, and air samples from all over the globe, including from remote regions like Ant-arctica. Analytical methods, such as primarily liquid and gas chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry, have advanced PFAS detection. However, standard-ized monitoring protocols remain inadequate. Future management requires unified definitions, expanded monitoring efforts, and standardized methodologies to address the persistent environmental and health impacts of PFAS. This review underscores the need for improved regulatory frameworks and further research.